significantly challenge the Sophists, and Plato 4.
What is the difference between internal and
addressed his criticisms by depicting Socrates’
debates with them in his works.
Socrates could debate with Sophists and do
quite well. Socrates was skilled in the art of
reasoning. In his exchanges with the Sophists
Socrates developed his ability to think using a
dialectical process. This methodology would
be not only an important part of his legacy to
Plato but to Western thought as well. There
were other influences on both Socrates and
Plato.
Protagoras:
Man is the measure of all things
There is relative truth only
Everyone has his won truth
Gorgias
1. nothing exists
2. If something does exist we can not know it
3. even if we can know it we can not communicate
it
Callicles: Might is right and accident and not fate nor
the gods or destiny makes might
Thrasymachus: Might makes right
3. What are the traits of a wise person?
A wise person has knowledge but his wisdom
ensures that he applies that knowledge.
His understanding is such that he knows that
learning is an ongoing and interactive process.
A wise man endeavours to learn from others,
even if he has to make himself look foolish in
his attempts.
A wise person has an acceptance of the truth
that is multi-faceted and accepts other
people’s versions of the truth. He realizes that
perception creates different truths and will
explore all reasoning to get to the real truth.
Plato, a philosopher and great follower of Socrates
maintained that:
“The wisest man of all, as confirmed by a religious
oracle, was one who professed to have no wisdom at
all” – Socrates
external questions?
According to Rudolf Carnap, we should
distinguish between internal and external questions.
Let us say that, “With respect to various expressions, a
linguistic framework is a set of rules for using for
those expressions. “
Thus, an internal question is a question about
whether x exists given a linguistic framework of rules
governing the use of 'x'. An external question is a
question as to whether it would be useful to adopt the
use of 'x' with those rules.
Internal questions, according to Carnap, are
questions that are asked from within a linguistic
framework. For instance, “Are there cats?”, “How can I
use the term ‘cat’?”, and “What is a cat?” are all
examples of internal questions. They are questions
that can be answered either by following the given
rules of the language (analytically) or by going out and
investigating the world (empirically). The question,
“Are there cats?” is an example of an analytic internal
question, because the rules of the language alone can
answer it. The question “Are there cats that weigh four
tons?” is an example of an empirical internal question,
because (given that there is a linguistic framework for
what “cat” is and what “four tons” is), one will need to
go out into the world and investigate whether there is
something that matches what it means to be a “cat”
and what it means to be “four tons.”
External questions, according to Carnap, are
questions that are asked from outside a linguistic
framework. For instance, “Are there really cats?” and
“Should we have a cat linguistic framework?” are both
examples of external questions. They are questions
that go beyond the rules of the linguistic framework
either theoretically (questioning the truthfulness of
the framework) or pragmatically (questioning the
usefulness of the framework). An example of a
theoretical external question would be something like,
“Is it true to say that there are cats?”, and an example
of a pragmatic external question would be something
like, “Is a cat linguistic framework useful?”. Carnap
argues that theoretical external questions are non-
sensical and meaningless because what exists
depends on the given linguistic framework and
whatever can be followed from the rules of that
linguistic framework. Pragmatic questions, on the
other hand, are considered meaningful and significant
external questions because the philosopher or
scientist can use them to reveal the usefulness of a
linguistic framework.
By distinguishing between internal and
external questions, Carnap is able to refer to abstract
entities without making any commitment about the
existence or non-existence of them. He argues that as
long as abstract entities are being used within the
rules of the language, then it is not contradictory for
the empiricist to use them.
5. What are the traits of philosophy when studied
as a kind of activity?
Philosophy as a process functions as an
activity which responds to society's demand for
wisdom, which is bringing together all that we know
in order to obtain what we value. Viewed in this way
Philosophy is part of the activity of human growth and
thus an integral, essential part of the process of
education. Philosophy and education have as a
common goal the development of the total intellect of
a person, the realization of the human potential.
What type of thought is Philosophy?
Philosophy is thought which is critical and
comprehensive:
analytic and synthetic
practical and theoretical
logical and empirical
Philosophy is thought which is CRITICAL, i.e.
i) it attempts to criticize assumptions, meanings, word
usages, beliefs, and theories.
ii) it attempts to develop clear definitions and
formulations of propositions and to retain maximum
precision in expression.
iii) it holds the LOGICAL criteria of consistency and
coherency to be valuable consistency
1 without contradiction
2 each term has univocal meaning
3 meanings of terms don't vary between passages
coherency - that the terms and phrases have meaning
in relation to one another within a single framework
of thought. Terms are not totally reducible to others
and not meaningful without reference to others.
iv) it holds the EMPIRICAL criteria of adequacy and
applicability
Adequacy - that all that is given in experience is
accounted for within an analysis or explanation.
Applicability - that there does not exist anything in the
explanation that has no referent to some element in
experience.
v) it is COMPREHENSIVE in attempting to address
social and human problems reflective inquiry must
come to bear on a wide range of affairs with a critical
eye that is unwavering.
As on issue leads into another, as reality as
experienced is one, so too is thought about such actual
human affairs revelatory of the interconnection of
issues and the underlying unity. Such thought
attempts to show how the principles of explanation
and basic categories of any conceptual schema are
applicable throughout the breadth and depth of
human experience. Such Philosophic thought at its
most abstract levels reveals the basic insights into
every area of life.
vi) Philosophic thought is SYNTHETIC insofar as it
attempts to relate and coordinate all the knowledge
the sciences provide with the values revealed in the
production of the humanities. Such philosophic
thought attempts to develop a concordance of ideas,
values and distinctions in order to answer
fundamental questions and to present the most
critically formulated conceptual framework and
world-view with which all subsequent thought would
work and help to evaluate and reformulate.
vii) Philosophy is PRACTICAL, insofar as the method
of inquiry can be put to use solving practical questions
but even more so it is practical when the practice one
seeks to activate is solution of problems that have
resulted from the inadequacies of the practical-
common sense approach to life. It is at such times
that the most truly practical thing to have is a theory.
Theories help to analyze, explain, and assist in
planning. At such times it becomes practical to
question assumptions, beliefs, current
presuppositions, common sense, ideas and the efficacy
of current practices and it is only from the perspective
of philosophic thought that such an inquiry can take
place.
viii) Philosophic thought is SPECULATIVE in pursuing
questions that do not bear directly on practical
matters at first sight. It is speculative in considering
problems which only highly abstract thought
presents. It is speculative in developing truly
presbyopic perspectives and concerns. It is
speculative in considering ultimate metaphysical
issues, pursuing the most critical formulation of
principles held to govern thought and action, and
furthering mathematical and logical inquiry in its
attempt to further the progress of human thought and
the improvement of the human condition.
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