BEHAVIOR OF COMPACTED SOIL-FLY ASH-CARBIDE LIME MIXTURES

By Nilo Cesar Consoli,1 Pedro Domingos Marques Prietto,2 Joao

˜ Antônio Harb Carraro,3
4
and Karla Salvagni Heineck

ABSTRACT: Unconfined compression tests, Brazilian tensile tests, and saturated drained triaxial compression
tests with local strain measurement were carried out to evaluate the stress-strain behavior of a sandy soil
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improved through the addition of carbide lime and fly ash. The effects of initial and pozzolanic reactions were
investigated. The addition of carbide lime to the soil-fly ash mixture caused short-term changes due to initial
reactions, inducing increases in the friction angle, in the cohesive intercept, and in the average modulus. Such
improvement might be of fundamental importance to allow site workability and speeding construction purposes.
In addition, under the effect of initial reactions, the maximum triaxial stiffness occurred for specimens molded
on the dry side of the optimum moisture content, while the maximum strength occurred at the optimum moisture
content. After 28 days, pozzolanic reactions magnified brittleness and further increased triaxial peak strength
and stiffness; the maximum triaxial strength and stiffness occurred on the dry side of the optimum moisture
content.

INTRODUCTION is of paramount importance when looking for improvements

in the short-term. From a practical viewpoint, the immediate
The improved characteristics of compacted soils resulting
changes in strength and stiffness of the soil-fly ash mixture
from residue utilization may be very important to some geo-
due to lime addition might allow site workability and permit
technical engineering applications such as landfill capping, ca-
many construction processes to be started at an earlier stage,
nal lining, pavement structures, and engineered fills. Also, the
avoiding lost working days to industry. On the other hand, the
development of alternatives for reusing industrial by-products
long-term changes will be responsible for largely improving
mostly brings environmental and economical benefits. Mate-
strength and stiffness, on which design parameters will ulti-
rials such as fly ash and carbide lime, by-products of coal
mately rely.
combustion in thermal power plants and of manufacture of
To provide information on the overall stress-strain-strength
acetylene gas, respectively, are profusely produced in southern
behavior of a sandstone residual soil mixed with fly ash and
Brazil. However, they have been scarcely used for engineering
carbide lime, a series of laboratory tests was carried out to
purposes with an overwhelming quantity being placed in stor-
define its response under static loading. The difference in the
age or disposal sites.
mechanical behavior caused by the substitution of soil by fly
Studies concerning fly ash and lime utilization for soil sta-
ash and how the material behavior is affected when carbide
bilization have been conducted in the last years by many in-
lime is also supplemented to the mixture were analyzed. This
vestigators [e.g., Mitchell and Katti (1981), Little et al. (1986),
paper also presents the results of an experimental study to
Kamon and Nontananandh (1991), Maher et al. (1993), Smith
investigate, through saturated drained triaxial tests, the
(1993), Nontananandh and Kamon (1996), Jalali et al. (1997),
changes in the engineering behavior of the soil-fly ash-carbide
Carraro (1997), Consoli et al. (1997), Thomé et al. (1998), and
lime mixture immediately after blending and compaction,
Thomé (1999)]. The physical-chemical mechanisms of both
when mainly carbonation, cation and base exchange, and floc-
short- and long-term reactions involved in lime stabilization
culation-agglomeration occur. In addition, work is performed
of soils or soil-fly ash mixtures have been extensively de-
to investigate such behavior after 28 days of curing, when
scribed in the literature [e.g., Herrin and Mitchell (1961), Ma-
time-dependent chemical reactions between lime and clay/fly
teos (1961), Minnick (1967), Ingles and Metcalf (1972),
ash particles, namely, pozzolanic reactions, have occurred. At
Transportation Research Board (TRB) (1987), Brown (1996)].
the same time, the influence of the compaction parameters—
Previous studies have also been concentrated on the effect of
moisture content and dry unit weight—on the mixture behav-
compaction energy, moisture content and density, curing time
ior was evaluated by testing specimens molded at the optimum
and temperature, lime and fly ash percentage, among others,
moisture content, on the dry side and on the wet side of the
on the unconfined compressive strength and tensile strength of
optimum moisture content, using standard Proctor compaction
the stabilized soil. Nevertheless, the influence of compaction
energy. The focus herein was on the immediate and long-term
moisture content and density at a given compaction effort and
effects of the carbide lime addition on the stress-strain re-
the influence of the initial reactions require further study. This
sponse of the stabilized soil.
1
Assoc. Prof., Dept. of Civ. Engrg., Fed. Univ. of Rio Grande do Sul,
Av. Osvaldo Aranha, 99, 3. andar, 90035-190, Porto Alegre, Rio Grande EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM
do Sul, Brazil. E-mail: consoli@vortex.ufrgs.br
2
Assoc. Prof., School of Engrg. and Arch., Catholic Univ. of Pelotas, Materials
Rua Félix da Cunha, 412, 96010-000, Pelotas, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil.
3
Res. Asst., Dept. of Civ. Engrg., Fed. Univ. of Rio Grande do Sul, The soil samples used in the present study, derived from
Av. Osvaldo Aranha, 99, 3. andar, 90035-190, Porto Alegre, Rio Grande
do Sul, Brazil.
weathered sandstone, were obtained from the region of Porto
4
Res. Asst., Dept. of Civ. Engrg., Fed. Univ. of Rio Grande do Sul, Alegre, in southern Brazil. The soil is classified as nonplastic
Av. Osvaldo Aranha, 99, 3. andar, 90035-190, Porto Alegre, Rio Grande silty sand (SM) according to the Unified Soil Classification
do Sul, Brazil. System. The specific gravity of solids is 2.70. The grain-size
Note. Discussion open until February 1, 2002. To extend the closing distribution is 27.8% medium sand (0.2 mm < ␾ < 0.6 mm),
date one month, a written request must be filed with the ASCE Manager 33.4% fine sand (0.06 mm < ␾ < 0.2 mm), 31.3% silt (0.002
of Journals. The manuscript for this paper was submitted for review and
possible publication on January 18, 2000; revised May 15, 2001. This
mm < ␾ < 0.06 mm), and 7.5% clay (␾ < 0.002 mm). The
paper is part of the Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Atterberg limits of the portion passing No. 40 sieve are as
Engineering, Vol. 127, No. 9, September, 2001. 䉷ASCE, ISSN 1090- follows: liquid limit of 22% and plastic limit of 15%. X-ray
0241/01/0009-0774–0782/$8.00 ⫹ $.50 per page. Paper No. 22224. diffraction showed that the fine portion is predominantly ka-
774 / JOURNAL OF GEOTECHNICAL AND GEOENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING / SEPTEMBER 2001

J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng., 2001, 127(9): 774-782

 olinite. The soil pH is 4.7 (acidic), and the cation exchange
capacity is 2.4 meq/100 g of material.
The fly ash selected [type F according to ASTM C 618
(ASTM 1998)]—a residue of burning coal obtained in a ther-
mal power station—is classified as nonhazardous material.
The specific gravity of solids is 2.03, which is typical for fly
ashes found all around the world [e.g., Helmuth (1987) and
Sridharan et al. (1988)]. The grain-size data indicate 5.3% me-
dium sand, 18.6% fine sand, 74.3% silt, and 1.8% clay. The
material is nonplastic. The chemical analysis showed that the
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investigation. The chemical analysis showed that the carbide
lime is 96.6% CaO, 0.7% CaCO3, and 0.2% MgO.
Preparation and Testing of Specimens
All the specimens tested were prepared by mixing the rel-
evant quantities of dry soil, fly ash, carbide lime, and water,
according to the mixture proportions and molding parameters
summarized in Table 1.
The minimum carbide lime content adopted was based on

fly ash is 67.1% SiO2, 21.3% Al2O3, 7.2% Fe2O3, 1.4% K2O,
0.8% CaO, and 0.1% SO3. Fly ash pH is 6.0 (slightly acidic),
cation exchange capacity is 3.0 meq/100 g of material, carbon
content is <0.05%, and loss on ignition at 1,000⬚C is 0.5%.
The grain-size curves for the soil and the fly ash are shown
in Fig. 1.
The carbide lime, a by-product of the manufacture of acet-
ylene gas, obtained from one source, was used throughout this
plasticity changes, following the ‘‘lime fixation point’’ prin-
ciple originally proposed by Hilt and Davidson (1960) for
clayey soils. As can be observed in Fig. 2, carbide lime con-
tents >4% did not cause major changes to the plastic limit.
This threshold value, which is supposed to chemically satisfy
the soil-fly ash demand for lime, has often been suggested as
the starting content to adopt for construction expediency pur-
poses [e.g., Rogers et al. (1997)]. Consequently, 4% was the
minimum carbide lime content selected, in addition to 7%
and 10%, which were expected to largely improve the me-

FIG. 1. Grain-Size Distribution FIG. 2. Lime Fixation Point Determination

TABLE 1. Mixture Proportions, Compaction and Curing Conditions, and Test Summary
Mixture Proportions Triaxial Compression Tests
Peak Peak Secant Young’s Unconfined Brazilian
Fly Dry unit Moisture Curing cohesion friction modulus for compressive tensile
Soil Lime ash weight content Compaction period intercept angle εa = 0.1% strength strength
(%) (%) (%) (kN/m3) (%) conditiona (days) (kN/m2) (degrees) (MN/m2) (kN/m2) (kN/m2)
100 0 0 17.4 15.8 OM — 10 35 14–53 — —
75 0 25 16.6 15.3 OM — 7 36 16–27 — —
96 4 0 17.2 16.3 OM 28 42 38 69–88 — —
180 — — — 2,036 210
71 4 25 16.0 17.0 OM 0 24 41 32–80 — —
7 — — — 410 17
28 122 46 304–391 1,000 57
90 — — — 1,793 200
180 — — — 6,975 1,051
15.6 14.8 DS 0 18 40 38–113 — —
28 129 49 453–591 1,123 —
15.6 18.5 WS 0 16 38 19–37 — —
28 57 45 65–108 822 —
68 7 25 15.7 17.7 OM 7 — — — 536 21
28 — — — 1,247 74
90 — — — 1,817 189
180 — — — 8,567 1,158
65 10 25 15.5 18.1 OM 7 — — — 634 25
28 — — — 1,243 91
90 — — — 1,924 191
180 — — — 9,373 1,059
a
OM: optimum moisture; DS: dry side; WS: wet side.

JOURNAL OF GEOTECHNICAL AND GEOENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING / SEPTEMBER 2001 / 775

J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng., 2001, 127(9): 774-782

 chanical properties of the soil-fly ash mixture. The amount of
fly ash used in this work (25%), which falls into the interval
suggested by National Cooperative Highway Research Pro-
gram (NCHRP) (1976), was selected according to the regional
practice and taking into account compaction difficulties found
using higher amounts of fly ash.
In general, specimens were molded at the optimum moisture
content and maximum dry unit weight, according to the values
obtained from the standard Proctor compaction tests shown in
Fig. 3 and summarized in Table 1. Specific analysis of the
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use of electrical instrumentation in measuring strains must be
emphasized. The relevance of such techniques to the assess-
ment of more realistic values of soil deformation moduli, in
particular, for cemented materials, has been widely recognized
(Jardine et al. 1985; Cuccovillo and Coop 1997; Consoli et al.
1998). Full drainage during shear was ensured by using a suf-
ficiently low axial strain rate (0.017%/min) and monitored by
measuring out the excess pore pressure on the specimen.
Membrane and area corrections followed recommendations
made by La Rochelle et al. (1988).

influence of the compaction parameters on the behavior of the

soil-fly ash-carbide lime mixture was also performed. In RESULTS AND ANALYSIS
this case, specimens were also molded on the dry side and on
the wet side of the optimum moisture content, according to The mechanical behavior of the soil-fly ash-carbide lime
the parameters shown in Table 1. It is interesting to notice that mixtures was examined through the use of unconfined com-
the addition of fly ash to the soil caused a slight decrease in pression tests, Brazilian tensile tests, and saturated drained tri-
the optimum moisture content and a significant reduction in axial tests, in which the effects of the initial compaction water
the maximum dry unit weight, when compared with the un- content and density, the curing time, and the percentage of fly
treated soil. The addition of carbide lime to the soil and to the ash and lime were investigated. The results are summarized in
soil-fly ash mixture caused a further reduction in the dry unit Table 1.
weight and an increase in the optimum moisture content.
These effects were more significant for the mixtures containing Unconfined Compression and Brazilian Tensile Tests
fly ash. The effects of curing time and carbide lime content on both
All the specimens (50 mm diameter by 100 mm high) were unconfined compressive strength and tensile strength of the
compacted in three layers into a cylindrical mold to the dry soil-fly ash-carbide lime mixtures are shown in Figs. 4 and 5,
unit weight and at the optimum moisture content specified, respectively. The results obtained for the soil-carbide lime
using the method proposed by Ladd (1978). Following, the mixture are also plotted as a reference value for the curing
molds were wrapped in moisture proof bags and stored in a time of 180 days. Figs. 4 and 5 show that curing time is one
humid room to cure before testing. The curing periods adopted
were 7, 14, 28, and 180 days for the unconfined compression
tests and the Brazilian tensile tests and 0 and 28 days for the
drained triaxial compression tests.
The triaxial tests were carried out under full saturation, for
the effective confining pressures of 20, 60, and 100 kN/m2,
which are consistent with realistic assumptions made in some
important engineering applications, such as pavement struc-
tures and shallow foundations built on improved soil layers.
Back pressures of up to 500 kN/m2 ensured B values of at
least 0.9 for all the specimens. Axial and radial strains were
monitored inside the triaxial cell by Hall effect instruments,
which enable accurate calculation of specimen moduli to be
made (Clayton and Khatrush 1986; Clayton et al. 1989). The

FIG. 4. Effect of Curing Time on Unconfined Compressive Strength

FIG. 3. Compaction Curves for All Mixtures FIG. 5. Effect of Curing Time on Tensile Strength

776 / JOURNAL OF GEOTECHNICAL AND GEOENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING / SEPTEMBER 2001

J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng., 2001, 127(9): 774-782

 of the major variables affecting the behavior of the stabilized
soil. It is important to observe that the increase in both com-
pressive and tensile strength seemed to be delayed in the initial
stage of curing. They initially increased at a lower rate, ap-
proximately linearly up to 90 days, and at a much greater rate
after that up to 180 days. Similar behavior was reported by
Jalali et al. (1997) for a 20% fly ash-80% lime mixture. Ac-
cording to the researchers, significant strength gain only occurs
after a relatively long period, which is the induction time nec-
essary for the chemical pozzolanic reactions between lime and
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fly ash with the formation of a new cementitious phase. Also,
they showed that the delay period is strongly dependent on
the temperature of curing. For temperatures varying from 20
to 65⬚C, Jalali et al. (1997) reported induction periods from
75 days to 4.8 h. Yet, it is interesting to notice that the increase
in strength shown in Figs. 4 and 5 was practically independent
of the carbide lime content up to 90 days, indicating that the
amount of lime exceeding the minimum content adopted had
no practical effect during the induction period. Beyond that,
however, an increase in strength with increasing lime content
was observed for the curing period of 180 days, as clearly
shown in Fig. 4 for the unconfined compressive strength. In
Fig. 5, the same trend can be observed for the tensile strength
of the specimens containing 4 and 7% of carbide lime. The
10% content specimens unexpectedly diverge from the general
pattern and probably were affected by some sort of experi-
mental error.
The relative mobilization of both tensile and compressive
strengths can be easily assessed by plotting the ratio of Bra-
zilian tensile strength to unconfined compressive strength
against curing time, as shown in Fig. 6. The average ratio
increased from 4% at 7 days to about 15% at 180 days. It is
suggested from the behavior observed in Fig. 6 that the tensile
strength is a function only of the amount of cementitious com-
pounds formed, which increases with curing time. On the other
hand, the unconfined compressive strength is a function of
both granular packing and amount of cementitious compounds,
the latter increasing with curing time and the former being
constant and preponderant in the initial stages. If the tensile
strength is expected to play a main role in a stabilization de-
sign, such as in pavement structures, and assuming that the
ratio of tensile to unconfined compressive strength is indepen-
dent of the lime content, the plots shown in Figs. 4 and 6 give
very helpful information concerning the lime content to adopt.
The importance of fly ash is clearly demonstrated by com-
paring the unconfined compressive strength values obtained at
180 days of curing for both the soil-carbide lime and the soil-
fly ash-carbide lime mixture, which were 2 and 7 MN/m2,
FIG. 6. Effect of Curing Time on Ratio of Tensile Strength/Unconfined
Compressive Strength
JOURNAL OF GEOTECHNICAL AND GEOENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING / SEPTEMBER 2001 / 777
J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng., 2001, 127(9): 774-782
respectively. It should be emphasized at this point that the silty
sand utilized, a nonplastic soil with a plasticity index of 7, is
usually considered as inappropriate for lime stabilization [e.g.,
Ingles and Metcalf (1972) and Brown (1996)], since the poz-
zolanic reactions, responsible for largely improving lime sta-
bilized soils, is basically dependent on the amount and phys-
ical-chemical activity of the clay minerals present in the soil
mass. The purpose of partially replacing the soil by fly ash is
therefore to ensure that there will be enough pozzolanic ma-
terial in the mixture to eventually combine with the lime in
both short- and long-term chemical reactions.
Triaxial Tests of Mixtures under Optimum
Compaction Conditions
Fig. 7 compares typical deviatoric stress-axial strain-volu-
metric strain response for all compacted mixtures, for the con-
fining pressure of 20 kN/m2 and refers to specimens cured for
28 days, when containing carbide lime, and molded at the
optimum moisture content and maximum dry unit weight.
It is readily observed in Fig. 7 that the overall soil behavior
was significantly influenced by the industrial by-products ad-
dition. Peak strength, stiffness, and brittleness were changed
as a consequence of either the separate or the joined effects
of carbide lime and fly ash contents. When comparing curves
0-0 and 0-25, denoting, respectively, the compacted soil and
the soil plus 25% of fly ash, it can be seen that the partial
replacement of soil by fly ash did not affect the stress-strain
behavior to a large extent. Peak strength and initial stiffness
remained quite similar, while axial strain at failure was slightly
changed. Although the soil and the fly ash grain-size curves
are different, the replacement of soil by 25% of fly ash did
not cause a fundamental change in the characteristics of the
new material. The effect of adding only carbide lime to the
soil was more pronounced. Comparing curves 0-0 and 4-0, the
latter corresponding to the soil plus 4% of carbide lime, a
significant increase in peak strength, stiffness, and brittleness
FIG. 7. Stress-Strain-Volumetric Response for All Mixtures Com-
pacted at Optimum Moisture Content and Cured for 28 Days (Confining
Pressure of 20 kN/m2)
 was observed. The coupled effect of carbide lime and fly ash
contents are pointed out when curve 4-25, corresponding to
the soil plus 25% of fly ash and 4% of carbide lime, is com-
pared with all the others. The shear strength and the stiffness
significantly increased compared to either the untreated soil
(0-0) or the soil plus fly ash (0-25), and are particularly greater
than those produced only by the carbide lime addition (4-0).
Finally, the soil-fly ash-carbide lime mixture showed an ex-
tremely brittle behavior, accompanied by a significant reduc-
tion in the failure axial strain.
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FIG. 8. Peak Strength Envelopes for All Mixtures Compacted at Op-
timum Moisture Content and Cured for 28 Days
FIG. 9. Secant Deformation Modulus versus Axial Strain for All
Mixtures Compacted at Optimum Moisture Content and Cured for 28
Days (Confining Pressure of 20 kN/m2)
TABLE 2. Typical Deformation and Strength Properties of Lime and Lime-Fly Ash Stabilized Soils
Typical range or
Property correlation
Unconfined compressive strength qu (kN/m2) at 1,400–9,000
28 days, immersed
Peak cohesive intercept (kN/m2) 64 ⫹ 0.292 ⭈ qu (kN/m2)
Peak friction angle 25⬚–35⬚
49⬚–53⬚
Deformation modulus in compression (MN/m2) 70 ⫹ 0.124 ⭈ qu (kN/m2)
at 100 kN/m2 confining pressure
778 / JOURNAL OF GEOTECHNICAL AND GEOENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING / SEPTEMBER 2001
J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng., 2001, 127(9): 774-782
Peak strength envelopes and the corresponding parameters
are shown in Fig. 8 and Table 1, respectively. The strength
parameters obtained for the untreated soil (0-0) and for the
soil plus fly ash (0-25) are virtually equal, with a peak friction
angle of around 35⬚–36⬚ and a peak cohesion intercept near
to 7 kN/m2. The addition of 4% of carbide lime to the soil (4-
0) increased the peak friction angle to 38⬚ and the peak co-
hesion intercept to 42 kN/m2, which is a very significant im-
provement for a soil with a plasticity index as low as 7.
However, adding the same 4% of carbide lime to the soil plus
fly ash (4-25) largely increased the peak friction angle to 46⬚
and the cohesion to 122 kN/m2, clearly demonstrating the im-
portance of fly ash to enhance the amount of pozzolanic re-
actions. The increase in the cohesion intercept obviously re-
flects the increase in cementation, while the change in the
friction angle is probably linked to alterations in soil texture,
essentially caused by the flocculation-agglomeration mecha-
nism of lime stabilization.
Typical curves of secant deformation modulus versus axial
strains are presented in Fig. 9, on a logarithmic scale, for the
mixtures molded at the optimum moisture content and the con-
fining pressure of 20 kN/m2. Values of secant deformation
modulus are presented in Table 1 for 0.1% axial strain and
confining stresses ranging from 20 to 100 kN/m2. The moduli
of the compacted soil (0-0) and of the compacted soil plus fly
ash (0-25) are very similar, with an average value of about 25
MN/m2. As expected, the addition of carbide lime to the soil
(4-0) and to the soil plus fly ash (4-25) increased the moduli
to around 75 and 350 MN/m2, respectively.
The behavior described so far mainly reflects the changes
in the stress-strain response with the degree of cementation
and is qualitatively in agreement with triaxial test results re-
ported in the literature for naturally cemented and chemically
stabilized soils [e.g., Thompson (1966, 1969), Clough et al.
(1981), Little et al. (1986), Leroueil and Vaughan (1990),
Coop and Atkinson (1993), Gens and Nova (1993), Cuccovillo
and Coop (1997, 1999), and Consoli et al. (1998)]. Table 2
summarizes typical strength and deformation parameters re-
ported in the literature, though triaxial test results for lime and
lime-fly ash stabilized soils are rather limited. The comparison
with the values presented in Table 1 shows that the unconfined
compressive strength and the cohesive intercept obtained for
the soil-fly ash-carbide lime mixtures fall somewhat below the
typical range. However, caution should be taken when com-
paring friction angles and cohesive intercepts, since strength
envelopes are not actually linear and the values will depend
on the considered confining stress range. Also, a comparison
of deformation moduli is quite restricted since their values are
strongly influenced by shear strain level. Nevertheless, the
shear strength and the stiffness observed for the soil treated
with carbide lime and fly ash are expected to be substantially
higher for curing times >28 days, as can be inferred from the
unconfined compressive strength and tensile strength shown in
Figs. 4–6.
The volumetric change curves in Fig. 7 show a similar be-
havior for all the investigated mixtures. The initial compres-
sive response is followed by an expansion that reaches the
Material Reference
Lime-fly ash stabilized soils NCHRP (1976)
Lime stabilized soils Thompson (1966)
Lime stabilized fine-grained soils Brown (1996)
Lime-fly ash stabilized gravels Brown (1996)
Lime stabilized soils Thompson (1966)
 maximum rate near the peak strength. Subsequently, the dila-
tion rate decreases as the soil presumably approaches an ulti-
mate or critical state. This is a typical volumetric response for
an uncemented frictional soil sheared denser than its critical
void ratio. For the cemented soil, these observations can be
interpreted considering the relative contributions to the stress-
strain response of the cohesive and frictional components. At
first, cemented soil behavior is mostly controlled by cemen-
tation, as indicated by its high initial stiffness. Then, as the
bonds are gradually broken, localized structure collapses and
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compression are likely to occur. Friction is then progressively

mobilized, and the volumetric response becomes dilatant as
the soil goes toward failure. In Fig. 7, it seems that the amount
of initial compression and the dilation rate are affected by
carbide lime and fly ash contents. Apparently, as the material
becomes more cemented and resistant, both the amount of in-
itial compression and the dilation rate increase. It should be
figured out, however, that the initial densities reported in Table
1 are not the same for all the mixtures investigated, since a
constant standard Proctor compactive effort was used to mold
the specimens. For this reason, the differences among the vol-
umetric responses depicted in Fig. 7 might result partially from
inherent variations in density rather than changes in carbide
lime and fly ash contents.

Triaxial Tests of Compacted Soil-Fly Ash-Carbide

Lime Mixtures under Variable Curing Time and
Compaction Conditions
Consoli and Carraro (1998) investigated the unconfined FIG. 10. Stress-Strain-Volumetric Response for All Compaction Con-
compressive behavior of the same compacted soil-fly ash-car- ditions, Cured for 28 Days (Confining Pressure of 20 kN/m2)
bide lime mixture (4-25) used in this work. They observed
that the maximum 28-day unconfined compressive strength did
not occur at the optimum moisture content (maximum dry unit
weight) but at moisture contents around 2% to the dry side of
the optimum moisture content. Similar findings for a lime-fly
ash stabilized sandy soil are reported by Mateos and Davidson
(1963). Although the specimens tested by Consoli and Carraro
(1998) had been soaked in water for 24 hours before testing,
full saturation was not guaranteed, and the results were pos-
sibly influenced by suction. To further investigate such behav-
ior, saturated drained triaxial compression tests were carried
out on soil-fly ash-carbide lime specimens (without curing and
cured for 28 days). These specimens were compacted using
standard Proctor compaction energy, respectively, at the opti-
mum moisture content, on the dry side and on the wet side of
the optimum moisture content.
The deviatoric stress-axial strain-volumetric strain curves
obtained for the confining pressure of 20 kN/m2 and for all
compaction and curing conditions are shown in Figs. 10 and
11. Similar patterns were also observed for the confining pres-
sures of 60 and 100 kN/m2.
For both curing conditions, higher stiffness occurred for the
specimen molded on the dry side, while lower stiffness oc-
curred for the specimen molded on the wet side, showing that
the structure imparted by compaction is fundamental even after
the development of cementation. Regarding triaxial shear
strength and considering the immediate effects of lime addi-
tion, the uncured specimen molded at the optimum moisture
content showed the higher strength. However, after 28 days of
curing, triaxial strength was higher for the specimen com-
pacted on the dry side, confirming the results obtained by Con- FIG. 11. Stress-Strain-Volumetric Response for All Compaction Con-
soli and Carraro (1998) from unconfined compression tests. ditions, without Curing (Confining Pressure of 20 kN/m2)
The peak strength envelopes shown in Fig. 12 and the corre-
sponding parameters reported in Table 1 indicated that the quence of pozzolanic reactions. Furthermore, peak cohesion
peak friction angle for the specimens compacted at the opti- intercept increased from around 7 kN/m2 to about 24 kN/m2,
mum moisture content increased from 36⬚, for the soil-fly ash due to flocculation/agglomeration, and 122 kN/m2, after poz-
mixture, to about 41⬚ as a result of immediate flocculation, zolanic reactions occurrence. An additional analysis of the data
when lime is added to the mixture, and to 46⬚, as a conse- presented in Table 1 shows that, after 28 days of curing, the
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J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng., 2001, 127(9): 774-782

 peak friction angle is about 46⬚ for the specimens compacted
at the optimum moisture content and on the wet side, increas-
ing to around 49⬚ for the specimens compacted on the dry
side. The cohesion intercept of the specimens compacted on
the wet side was approximately half the cohesion intercept of
the specimens compacted at the optimum moisture content and
on the dry side. For the specimens tested without curing, it
can be observed that the peak friction was 40⬚–41⬚ for the
specimens molded on the dry side and at the optimum mois-
ture content, decreasing to 38⬚ for the specimens molded on
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the wet side. The peak cohesion intercept of the specimens
compacted at the optimum moisture content was around 24
kN/m2, decreasing to about 16–18 kN/m2 on the wet side and
on the dry side of the optimum moisture content.
Typical curves of secant deformation modulus versus axial
strains, obtained for the soil-fly ash-carbide lime mixture, are
presented in Fig. 13, on a logarithmic scale, for the confining
pressure of 20 kN/m2 and for all compaction and curing con-
ditions. Also, values of secant deformation modulus, obtained
at an axial strain of 0.1% and for confining stresses ranging
FIG. 12. Peak Strength Envelopes for Soil ⫹ 25% Fly Ash ⫹ 4%
Carbide Lime (All Compaction and Curing Conditions)
FIG. 13. Secant Deformation Modulus versus Axial Strain for All
Compaction Conditions of Mixture of Soil ⫹ 25% Fly Ash ⫹ 4% Carbide
Lime, Cured for 28 Days and without Curing (Confining Pressure of 20
kN/m2)
780 / JOURNAL OF GEOTECHNICAL AND GEOENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING / SEPTEMBER 2001
J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng., 2001, 127(9): 774-782
from 20 to 100 kN/m2, are presented in Table 1. Regarding
the specimens prepared without curing, it can be seen in Fig.
13 that, for the whole analyzed axial strain range, the moduli
of the specimens molded on the dry side are higher than the
moduli observed for the specimens molded at the optimum
moisture content, which are superior to the values observed
for the specimens molded on the wet side. Similar observa-
tions can be made for the same mixture after 28 days of curing.
It is important to note that, for the specimens cured for 28
days and those prepared without curing, the moduli for the
specimens molded on the dry side were 40–60% higher than
the values obtained at the optimum moisture content and 300–
350% higher than those observed for the specimens molded
on the wet side.
From the overall stress-strain-strength behavior described in
the foregoing paragraphs, it can be understood that the soil-
fly ash carbide lime mixture is stronger—more resistant and
stiffer—when molded either on the dry side for 28 days of
curing or at the optimum moisture content without curing. This
fact may be explained considering the coupled effect of the
two main contributing factors on the shear strength of the sta-
bilized soil: (1) the contribution of the structure imparted by
compaction, mainly density and packing, which predominates
before pozzolanic reactions have been started, and whose max-
imum is associated with optimum compaction conditions; and
(2) the contribution of the cementitious matrix, which predom-
inates after pozzolanic reactions have been developed. The ef-
ficiency of the matrix is supposed to be a function of the water-
to-binder (carbide lime plus fly ash) ratio, similar to concretes
and mortars [e.g., Mehta and Monteiro (1993) and Mitsui et
al. (1993)]. It is stated, therefore, that the higher strength ob-
served for the specimens compacted on the dry side of the
optimum, after 28 days of curing, results from the lower water-
to-binder ratio associated with the dry side compaction.
CONCLUSIONS
An extensive laboratory testing program was carried out to
investigate the effectiveness of using industrial by-products
such as carbide lime (a residue derived from the manufacturing
of acetylene gas) and thermal power plant fly ash (a residue
from coal burning) to improve the engineering behavior of a
weathered sandstone soil, prepared using a variety of curing
and compaction conditions. The observations and conclusions
can be summarized as follows:
• The addition of carbide lime significantly improved
strength and stiffness properties of the soil, even consid-
ering the nonplastic characteristic of the silty sand uti-
lized. However, the presence of fly ash is fundamental to
further improve the material behavior, due essentially to
the occurrence of a larger amount of time-dependent poz-
zolanic reactions.
• Factors such as curing temperature, compressive and ten-
sile strength mobilization rate, and compaction param-
eters, which definitely affect the stress-strain-strength be-
havior of the soil-fly ash-carbide lime mixture with time,
have to be cautiously taken into account when designing
or executing ground works with such material.
• Unconfined compression and Brazilian tensile test results
showed that, for the temperature of curing selected
(22⬚C), a gain in strength largely occurs after 90 days,
probably due to an induction period for the pozzolanic
reactions between lime and fly ash. Undoubtedly, this
might be a drawback to the practical utilization of the
stabilized soil. However, at a greater temperature of cur-
ing, which is reasonable for most of the year in tropical
and subtropical regions, a reduction in the induction pe-
riod is expected to occur.
 • Based on triaxial compression tests, it can be stated that,
after a short delay following compaction, the maximum
stiffness occurs for specimens compacted on the dry side
of the optimum moisture content and the maximum
strength at the optimum moisture content. After 28 days,
maximum strength and stiffness occur on the dry side of
the optimum moisture content. Such behavior is suggested
to result from the coupled effects of the two main con-
tributing factors to the stress-strain response of the fly ash-
carbide lime stabilized soil, namely, the structure imparted
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by compaction, mainly density and packing, which pre-
dominates in the short-term, and the formation of a ce-
mentitious matrix, which predominates after pozzolanic
reactions have been developed.
• The results indicate that, for the soil-fly ash-carbide lime
investigated, the compaction should be performed about
2% to the dry side of the optimum moisture content ob-
tained from a standard Proctor compaction test. On this
particular issue, further studies considering different types
of soil are necessary.
The present work has been envisaged as a contribution to the
field of ground improvement and soil stabilization by discuss-
ing some fundamental aspects of a soil-fly ash-carbide lime
mixture behavior, such as the short-term changes due to initial
reactions, which is of fundamental importance to allow site
workability, and the influence of compaction parameters on
strength and stiffness properties. Experimental evidences, ob-
tained from high quality triaxial tests, were useful in identi-
fying patterns from which the stress-strain behavior of the sta-
bilized soil can be characterized. Finally, it is necessary to
emphasize that the present study was constrained to the range
of low confining stresses, making it attractive to a great range
of problems such as shallow foundations assented on improved
layers and pavement structures.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The writers wish to express their gratitude to the Federal University
of Rio Grade do Sul, as well as to the British Council and Coordination
of Training of Higher Education Graduate (CAPES) (Project CAPES-
British Council 088/99) for the financial support to the research group.
Particular thanks are also due to Dr. Andrew M. Ridley of the Imperial
College of Science, Technology and Medicine—University of London
and Dr. Fernando Schnaid of Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul
for their comments on the draft paper.
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NOTATION
The following symbols are used in this paper:
B = Skempton’s pore-presure parameter;

Proc., 3rd Int. Congr. on Envir. Geotechnics, Balkema, Rotterdam, The

Netherlands, 721–726. qu = unconfined compressive strength;
Thompson, M. R. (1966). ‘‘Shear strength and elastic properties of lime- εa = axial strain;
soil mixtures.’’ Hwy. Res. Rec. 139, Highway Research Board, 141– ␴⬘1 = major principal stress; and
146. ␴⬘3 = minor principal stress.

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J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng., 2001, 127(9): 774-782