2 METAPHYSICS 1. Yakarana as A PumosopHicaL System The goal of the Indian Grammarians’ philosophy, which we here call gakarapa, is not mere intellectual knowledge, but direct experience of ultimate truth. Knowledge of grammar resulting in correct speech not only conveys meaning but also enables one to “sce” reality. This is the philosophical meaning of the Indian term darfana, which literally means “sight”. It is this feature that sets Indian philosophy apart from modern western perspectives on language. Vydkarana not only addresses itself to the analysis of grammatical rules (though that is certainly important) or to theorizing about the way speech conveys meaning (though that too is achieved), it also insists that one should not be satisfied with mere intellectual conviction but should transform that conviction into direct experience. From the early Vedas the Indian approach to language has never been narrow or restrictive. Language was examined in relation to consciousness—(the scope of the inquiry) not even limited to human consciousness. All aspects of the world and human experience were regarded as illuminated by language. Indian philosophy also postulated that language had both phenomenal and metaphysical dimensions. Itis remarkable that in the ancient hymns of the Rg Veda a semitechnical vocabulary wasalready developed to deal with such linguistic matters as grammar, poetic creation, inspiration, illumination, and so on# Although there was careful concern for the phenomenal or outer aspects of language, the Indians always paid equal attention to the inner or metaphysical aspects of language. Indian philosophers of language seem to have successfully avoided the two reductionist mistakes of much western modern language speculation. They did not reduce language to the condition of a merely human convention having only scientific or factual referents; neither did they fall into the error of metaphysical34 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF INDIAN PHILOSOPHIES reductionism that so devalues the meanings of human words that language ends up as obscure mysticism.* Grammarians like Panini and Patafijali and etymologists like Yaska were clearly concerned with human speech in the everyday empirical world, but they also made room for metaphysical study. Similarly, the great Indian philosopher of language, Bhartrhari, begins his Vakyapadiya with a metaphysical inquiry into the nature and origin of language in relation to Brahman, but then goes on in the second and third chapters to explore technical grammatical points involved in the everyday use of language. In classical Indian thought on language, the study of a particular phenomenon and the contemplation of it as a metaphysical mystery are not mutually exclusive. They are both considered parts of a dargana or systematic view of truth. ‘There is one more aspect of traditional Indian philosophy of langu- age that must be understood by the modern reader. Whereas the contemporary writer often thinks in terms of using language creatively, thatis, to createsomething “original” or “new”, the wakarana conception is quite different. The correct or insightful use of language is not seen as conveying new knowledge, but rather as uncovering ancient know- ledge that has been obscured due to the accrual of ignorance. The Vedic sage does not produce something new out of his own imagination, but rather relates ordinary things to their forgotten eternal truth. ‘Thus, from the perspective of grammatical philosophy the philo- sophical study of language and correct grammatical usage are seen as “ignorance-clearing activities”, which together open the way to a direct perception of truth. As a systematic means to knowledge vydkerana suffers from certain special difficulties, Language is the object of study in upakarana, yet all thinking about language must, by virtue of human limitations, be done in language itself. One cannot get outside of language so as to examine it objectively. Language must be used to study language from within. Vyakarapa does not draw back from this difficulty but relishes its challenge; it recognizes that, as Hans-Georg Gadamer puts it, all knowledge of ourselves and all knowledge of the world comes to us through language.‘ ‘hus the correct knowledge of language is basic to all other approaches to reality—all other darfanas.5 2. Saspa BraHMAN AND Its MANIFESTATIONS It was Bhartrhari who in Vakyapadiya 1.1 first systematically equated Brahman (the Absolute) with language (Sabda), going on to argue that everything else arises as a manifestation of this one Sabda Brah- man.® But equating Brahman with language is found much earlierMETAPHYSICS 35 in the Vedic literature. The Asyavamlya Hymn (Rg Veda 1.164) states that the ultimate abode of language (vdc) is Brahman.’ Language is described as being at the pinnacle of the universe. Three-quarters of language remain hidden in a cave, while the fourth part fashions creation (Rg Veda 1.164.10, 41, 45). In Rg Veda 10.71 it is made clear that the manifestations of Brahman in language are not equally perceived by all people. Those who have purified themselves, namely, the ysis or “seers”, experience the full manifestation of language. Others, whose ignorance obscures their minds and sense organs, hear little of the fullness of language. The Vedic seers are not considered to be composers of the hymns but rather the “secrs” of cternal truth. In Rg Veda 1,164.37 language is related to cosmic order (rta) and is understood as logos, which manifests itself as both the uttered word (for use in ritual chanting) and the inner word that reveals truth. ‘The equation of Brahman with language is also found within the Upanisads. In the Brhadaranyaka Upanisad 4.1.2 Brahman is identified as the one reality, without a second, which is identical with language. The Mandikya Upanisad 3.3 links the unspeakable absolute with the speakable via the symbol of aum. Aum is described as traversing the phenomenal levels of waking, dreaming, and deep sleep and as reaching out to the absolute. Brahman is identical with language, the basic manifestation of which is aum, Bhartrhari echoes this assertion in Vakyapadiya 1.9 in describing aum as “the source of all scripture and the common factor of all original causes,”* Vydkarana scholars have focused on those Vedas and Upanisads which equate language, Brahman, and absolute reality. Passages that state otherwise are ignored or passed over. This practice, of course, is usual within cach of the Indian philosophical schools (darfanas)—at least in those which claim to be orthodox (dstika) or grounded on the Vedas. The Vedas occupy a primary place in the manifestation of Sabda Brahman, as well as being the means by which Sabda Brahman may be realized and release experienced. The Veda, though One, is divided into many and spreads out through its various recensions and mani. festing sounds (dhvani) to the diversity of people. Although the experi- ence of the Vedas may be many, the reality they reveal is the one Sabda Brahman. Vedic language is at once the creator and sustainer of the world cycles and the revealer of the Divine. Language is taken as having Divine origin (daivi nak), as Spirit descending and embody- ing itself in phenomena, assuming various guises and disclosing its truth to the sensitive soul.? As Aurobindo describes it, The language of the Veda itself is Sruti, a rhythm not compos- ed by the intellect but heard, a divine Word that came vibrating outof the Infinite to the inner audience of the man who had