Small Ruminant Research 160 (2018) 54–58

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Small Ruminant Research

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Short communication

Effects of feeding system, heat treatment and season on phenolic compounds T

and antioxidant capacity in goat milk, whey and cheese
Jorge L. Chávez-Servín, Héctor M. Andrade-Montemayor, Cecilia Velázquez Vázquez,
Araceli Aguilera Barreyro, Teresa García-Gasca, Roberto A. Ferríz Martínez,
⁎
Andrea M. Olvera Ramírez, Karina de la Torre-Carbot
Facultad de Ciencias Naturales, Universidad Autónoma de Querétaro, Av. de las Ciencias S/N, Juriquilla, Querétaro, Qro. CP 76320, Mexico

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Phenolic compounds are present in goat milk and cheese. The composition of goat milk and its products may
Phenolic compounds vary depending on factors such as season, feeding system and heat treatment. The aim of this work is to quantify
Antioxidant capacity total phenolic compounds (TPC) and antioxidant capacity in pasteurized and unpasteurized samples of milk,
Goat dairy products milk whey, and cheese from goats fed in two different systems (free-range grazing and permanent confinement),
Feeding systems
during dry and rainy seasons. TPC concentrations were highest in unpasteurized samples from dry season
compared to pasteurized and rainy season: 132.4 ± 27.3, 76.5 ± 5.77 mg of gallic acid equivalent (GAE)/L for
unpasteurized milk and milk whey, respectively, and 363.21 ± 52.97 mg GAE/Kg for cheese. Antioxidant ca-
pacity for dry season produce was significantly higher (P < 0.05) than rainy season produce. Free-range grazing
was found to be a good option for producing a higher concentration of phenolic compounds and a higher
antioxidant capacity.

1. Introduction et al., 2010).

Goat milk and its derivatives are regaining prominence in the
human diet due to their composition and recognized benefits for human
health (Raynal-Ljutovac et al., 2008). Goat milk and its products are
superior to cow's milk in a number of aspects: lower allergenicity of
their proteins, greater digestibility and more bioactive components,
among others. Because of these, goat milk has gained the image of
being a healthy, functional product (Albenzio et al., 2012; Raynal-
Ljutovac et al., 2008).
There have been a number of recent studies on phenolic compounds
in foods, showing their benefits by reducing pathogenesis or severity of
chronic disease, including cardiovascular disease (Lewandowska et al.,
2016; Rangel-Huerta et al., 2015; Redan et al., 2016). But phenolic
compound content in goat milk and dairy products like cheese and
whey has so far been little studied (Hilario et al., 2010).
The feeding system used–free-range grazing or permanent con-
finement–has been found to affect the composition of goat milk, and
may influence antioxidant activity, not only in the milk, but in milk
products as well (Jordan et al., 2010; Keles et al., 2017). Other factors
that can affect composition is the season of the year (rainy or dry) and
the thermal treatment (pasteurization) process (Di et al., 2015; Hilario
Data on goat milk phenolic content and antioxidant capacity can be
used to improve goat milk quality and therefore it is important to assess
the impact of each of these factors on the composition of goat milk and
goat milk products. Accordingly, the aim of this study was to measure
and compare the total phenolic compound (TPC) concentration and
antioxidant capacity in pasteurized and unpasteurized samples of milk,
cheese and whey from goats fed in permanent confinement and free-
range grazing, during dry and rainy seasons.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Study design
Healthy, multiparous goats, on their 2nd or 3rd lactation, from the
Alpine breed were used, with an average weight of 50 ± 5 kg and an
average milk production of 2.5 ± 0.4 kg/day. The milk samples were
drawn after 60 days of lactation. The goats were raised in the state of
Querétaro, in the municipality of El Marques, on the Amazcala Campus
of the Autonomous University of Querétaro (UAQ). Animal welfare
principles of the good practices manual for caprine milk production
were followed (Kilkenny et al., 2017; SAGARPA, 2014). The project was

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: karina.delatorre@uaq.mx (K. de la Torre-Carbot).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.smallrumres.2018.01.011
Received 16 September 2017; Received in revised form 19 January 2018; Accepted 21 January 2018
Available online 31 January 2018
0921-4488/ © 2018 Published by Elsevier B.V.
J.L. Chávez-Servín et al.
reviewed and approved by the Bioethics Committee of the UAQ’s School
of Natural Sciences (FCN). To monitor animal health, a somatic cell
count (SCC) was performed each week with an EKOMILK ™ device. An
average SCC had a count of 260 × 103 ± 36 × 103 SCC/mL.
A randomized experimental study with 2 × 2 × 2 factorial ar-
rangement was made. First, goats were allocated into two treatments
(n = 20): Group 1: goats were confined and fed a controlled diet de-
signed according to their needs (National Research Council, 2007),
consisting of 1 kg of concentrate (88% dry matter (DM)), 1.5 kg of al-
falfa hay (85% DM) and 1.5 kg of corn silage (40% DM) (White corn:
Zea mays L.). Group 2: free-range grazing from 9:00 a.m. to 2:00 p.m. on
12 ha of thorny deciduous forest land, with a predominance of shrubs
such as Prosopis laevigata, Acacias spp, Celtis spp, Opuntia spp and other
types of cactus, and grasses, with 450 mm of precipitation and tempe-
rate climate. The diet was supplemented each day with preparations in
the following proportion: 0.8 kg of concentrate (88% DM) 0.75 kg of
alfalfa hay (85% DM) and 0.5 kg of corn silage (40% DM). The com-
position of the concentrate in DM was as follows: 33.27% ground corn
(White corn: Zea mays L.), 33.0% barley, 11.17% soybean meal, 10.08%
dry destiller grain (DDG), 10.30% corn gluten meal (60% CP), and
2.16% mineral and vitamin premix™. Nutrient contents of foods were:
concentrate 1.9 Mcal ENl/kg/DM and 19.26% CP, alfalfa hay: 1.35
Mcal ENl/kg/DM and 18% CP and corn silage: 1.45 Mcal ENl/kg/DM
and 6% CP.
For both groups of goats, milk was drawn during two seasons of the
year (rainy and dry). For each season, half of the milk samples were
pasteurized and half were left unpasteurized, same milk samples were
used to produce cheese and whey. This produced a total of 8 classes of
milk, 8 classes of whey, and 8 classes of cheese (2 × 2 × 2). Four sub-
samples were drawn of each of these categories: a total of 96 samples all
together. TPC concentration and antioxidant capacity were then eval-
uated in an aqueous extract obtained from the milk, whey and cheese.
2.2. Milking, pasteurization and cheese making process
The goats were milked once a day (7–9 a.m.). After cleaning the
udders, a mobile milker was used (J. Delgado FLACO™ brand) to extract
the milk, with a 38–40 kpa vacuum and a pulse ratio of 70–30.
Pasteurization (for pasteurized samples) was carried out in a stainless-
steel double-bottom pasteurizer with automatic temperature control,
stirred at a temperature of 63–65 °C for 30 min, and subsequently
cooled to 26 °C. Lactic acid culture–Lactobacillus and Mesofilos MA400
(2 g/100 l)–was added to both pasteurized and unpasteurized milk
samples at 30 °C, and organically-derived rennet (Cuamex ™) was added
in a solution with water at 28 °C (1.5 ml/L). The curd was added in
small grains and 1/3 of the serum (whey) was later removed, with
water added at 40 °C, and that temperature was maintained for 30 min.
The mix was then salted in 10% brine for 12 h, molded and allowed to
stand for 24 h at room temperature.
2.3. Analysis of samples
Samples of goat milk and whey were taken in 12 ml screw-cap
plastic tubes, and sampling of goat cheese was done in Ziploc-type
plastic bags. Samples were covered with aluminum foil to protect them
from light. They were refrigerated during transport and then stored in a
deep freezer at −40 °C until further analysis. All samples were prepared
at room temperature and in low-light conditions. The phenolic com-
pounds in milk, whey and cheese were extracted by a previously de-
veloped method (Hilario et al., 2010; Vazquez et al., 2015) and sub-
sequently quantified using the Folin-Ciocalteu method (Singleton and
Rossi, 1965).
Briefly, for obtaining phenolic compounds in milk and whey, sam-
ples were thawed in a water bath at 35°–40 °C and then homogenized.
Then 8 ml of fluid goat milk or milk whey was measured and trans-
ferred to a 25 ml volumetric flask; where it was dissolved with 10 ml of
55
Small Ruminant Research 160 (2018) 54–58
methanol-water (1:1, v/v); and protein precipitation was carried out
with 500 μl of Carrez I, 500 μl of Carrez II and 5 ml of acetonitrile. The
solution was complemented to 25 ml with methanol-water (1:1, v/v).
After complete clot protein precipitation, the resulting solution was
placed in a centrifuge tube and centrifuged at 7800 × g and 5 °C for
15 min. The liquid phase was separated and subsequently used for
quantification of total phenolic compounds.
For the extraction of TPC in goat cheese the samples were thawed in
a water bath at 35°–40 °C. Once thawed, 10 g previously ground, the
samples were weighed, and 10 ml of methanol were added. Sample was
vortexed for 40 min, and subsequently centrifuged at 3000 × g for
10 min at 5 °C. The extract was obtained as the supernatant, in which
TPC were later quantified.
All samples were prepared at room temperature and in low-light
conditions.
2.3.1. Determination of TPC and antioxidant capacity
TPCs were quantified using the Folin-Ciocalteu method (Vazquez
et al., 2015). A calibration curve was prepared using gallic acid (GA) as
standard with concentrations of 0.005–0.12 mg/mL. GA is con-
ventionally used as standard reference, because it is a compound
cheaply available in highly purified form, and is endowed with average
reactivity. TPC content is typically expressed in Gallic Acid Equivalents
(GAE) (Miniati, 2007). The equation of the line used was
y = 4.3008x + 0.0007, with a R2 = 0.9998. Values were reported in
mg of GA equivalents (GAE) per liter for milk and whey, and mg GAE/
Kg for cheese. The antioxidant capacity was determined using de Ferric
Reducing Ability of a Plasma (FRAP) method (Benzie and Strain, 1996).
A calibration curve was prepared using ascorbic acid (AA) at con-
centrations of 2.20–9.62 mg EAA/mL. The equation of the line used was
y = 0.0194x-0.0143, with an R2 = 0.9998. The antioxidant capacity
was also determined using the 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl, DPPH
method (Brand-Williams et al., 1995). A calibration curve was prepared
using AA at concentrations of 2.20–39.62 mg EAA/mL. The equation of
the line used was y = −0.0139x + 0.5685, with an R2 = 0.9998. Va-
lues were reported in mg EAA/L for milk or whey and mg EAA/Kg for
cheese.
2.4. Statistical analysis
The study was carried out on a completely randomized design basis
with a 2 × 2 × 2 factorial arrangement: 2 feeding systems (free-range
grazing or permanent confinement), 2 seasons of the year (rainy or
dry), and 2 thermal treatments (pasteurized or unpasteurized). The
differences between these groups were evaluated using ANOVA and
post-hoc Tukey HSD tests. We used a 95% confidence interval and a
significance level of P < 0.05.
3. Results and discussions
All variables– feeding system, season of year and pasteurization–had
an impact on the studied variables: antioxidant capacity and, especially,
TPC concentration.
TPC concentration was found to be 34.69% higher (P < 0.05) in
milk from free-range goats than in milk from confined goats. These
results are consistent with the results of other previously published
studies which concluded that it is possible to improve the quality,
achieve changes in the composition of and increase the concentration of
phenolic compounds in milk by making some modifications to the
goats’ feeding system, by adding high content phenolic compounds
foods (Jordan et al., 2010; Keles et al., 2017), increasing consumption
of fresh forages (Di et al., 2015), or with the free-range grazing system
(Hilario et al., 2010). TPC concentration was also significantly higher
(P < 0.05) in cheese made from unpasteurized milk than in pasteur-
ized milk. Antioxidant capacity, measured by the FRAP assay, was
significantly higher in unpasteurized whey and cheese (P < 0.05) than
J.L. Chávez-Servín et al. Small Ruminant Research 160 (2018) 54–58

Table 1
Total phenolic compounds and antioxidant capacity (FRAP and DPPH) in goat milk, whey and cheese, by feeding system (free-range grazing and permanent confinement), heat treatment
(pasteurized and unpasteurized), and season (dry or rainy).

* * *
Total Phenolic Compounds Antioxidant Capacity by FRAP Antioxidant Capacity by DPPH

Free-range Confinement Free-range Confinement Free-range Confinement

a b a a a
Milk 87.90 ± 30.19 65.26 ± 11.26 26.71 ± 9.19 23.45 ± 10.14 23.22 ± 3.41 20.86 ± 3.33a
Whey 74.02 ± 8.67a 61.04 ± 10.07a 17.66 ± 9.89a 16.37 ± 9.36a 18.03 ± 1.33a 16.81 ± 1.14a
Cheese 235.76 ± 110.14a 217.29 ± 94.32a 37.02 ± 10.06a 33.31 ± 18.81a 58.78 ± 2.76a 56.11 ± 3.74a

* * *
Total Phenolic Compounds Antioxidant Capacity by FRAP Antioxidant Capacity by DPPH

Unpasteurized Pasteurized Unpasteurized Pasteurized Unpasteurized Pasteurized

a a a a a
Milk 89.01 ± 29.30 64.15 ± 10.46 55.70 ± 22.20 43.28 ± 18.47 24.82 ± 1.55 19.25 ± 1.83b
Whey 72.72 ± 9.75a 62.34 ± 11.04a 18.73 ± 2.41a 15.30 ± 8.39b 18.33 ± 1.14a 16.51 ± 0.74b
Cheese 245.43 ± 114.76a 207.62 ± 84.45b 41.93 ± 12.09a 28.39 ± 1.72b 59.69 ± 1.14a 55.21 ± 2.28b

* * *
Total Phenolic Compounds Antioxidant Capacity by FRAP Antioxidant Capacity by DPPH

Dry Rainy Dry Rainy Dry Rainy

a a a b a
Milk 86.98 ± 30.41 66.17 ± 12.91 32.81 ± 5.31 17.36 ± 2.69 22.18 ± 3.53 21.90 ± 3.73a
Whey 73.11 ± 7.56a 61.94 ± 12.19a 25.12 ± 3.24a 8.92 ± 1.21b 17.88 ± 1.57a 16.96 ± 1.01a
Cheese 312.04 ± 41.17a 141.01 ± 7.68b 40.69 ± 12.9a 29.64 ± 4.75a 58.73 ± 3.91a 56.18 ± 2.60a

* TPC values expressed in mg GAE/L in milk and whey, and mg GAE/Kg in cheese. Antioxidant capacity values are expressed in mg AAE/L in milk and whey, and mg AAE/Kg in cheese.
Different letters indicate significant difference (P < 0.05) between feeding systems, between pasteurized and unpasteurized and between dry and rainy season.

in pasteurized whey and cheese. Measured by the DPPH technique,
antioxidant capacity was found to be significantly higher (P < 0.05) in
both unpasteurized milk and its derivatives, whey and cheese. The re-
sults obtained are consistent with the work done by Hilario et al.
(2010), which found that TPC concentrations and antioxidant capacity
are significantly higher in cheeses from the milk of free-range grazing
goats and without pasteurization treatment. Furthermore, TPC con-
centrations were significantly higher (P < 0.05) in cheese made from
milk drawn during the dry season, than in rainy season. Antioxidant
capacity, determined by the FRAP technique, was also significantly
higher (P < 0.05) in milk and whey drawn during dry season
(Table 1).
The ANOVA model was used to compare milk samples drawn from
goats fed in two feeding systems (confined or free-range), in two sea-
sons season (rainy or dry), and in two treatment systems (pasteurized or
unpasteurized) (Table 2). TPC concentrations were found to be
significantly higher (P < 0.05) in unpasteurized milk from free-range
goats, whey from pasteurized milk drawn from confined goats, and all
cheese samples from milk drawn in the dry season. Dry-season milk and
its derivatives (whey and cheese) always presented higher TPC in un-
pasteurized samples from free-range goats than in pasteurized samples
of milk, whey and cheese and confined goats (P < 0.05). This is in
accordance with the study by Kuhnen et al. (2014), where it is shown
that the amount of phenolic compounds in milk samples differs between
seasons of the year, due to differences in the botanical composition of
ingested forages, diversity of plant species and pastures in each season.
For rainy season samples, the same held true: a higher concentration
of TPC in unpasteurized milk from free-range goats (P < 0.05). In
addition, whey samples corresponding to pasteurized milk from con-
fined goats had lower concentrations of TPC than the other whey
samples (pasteurized milk from free-range goats and unpasteurized
milk from both feeding systems) (P < 0.05).

Table 2
Total phenolic compounds and antioxidant capacity (FRAP, DPPH) in goat milk, whey and cheese by season (dry versus rainy), and by heat treatment (pasteurization versus non
pasteurization) and feeding system (free-range and confinement).

* * *
Total Phenolic Compunds Antioxidant Capacity (FRAP) Antioxidant Capacity (DPPH)

Samples n = 4 Dry Rainy Dry Rainy Dry Rainy

1,a 1,b 1,a 1,b 1,a

Milk Free-range-Unpasteurized 132.45 ± 27.33 80.01 ± 11.4 37.05 ± 4.01 20.02 ± 7.09 26.34 ± 4.15 25.62 ± 3.521,a
Confined-Unpasteurized 74.51 ± 6.72,a 69.07 ± 6.952,a 36.68 ± 1.811,a 17.82 ± 4.661,b 22.75 ± 7.271,a 24.58 ± 1.891,a
Free-range-Pasteurized 72.36 ± 5.572,a 66.78 ± 4.232,a 31.81 ± 2.941,a 17.99 ± 5.86 1,b 21.9 ± 8.45 2,a 19.01 ± 2.591,a
Confined-Pasteurized 68.61 ± 5.733,a 48.85 ± 2.863,a 25.69 ± 0.481,a 13.6 ± 7.452,b 17.73 ± 5.642,a 18.38 ± 2.871,a

Whey Free-range-Unpasteurized 83.97 ± 5.771,a 76.56 ± 17.051,a 29.31 ± 1.911,a 10.5 ± 3.871,b 19.93 ± 5.031,a 17.99 ± 5.021,a
Confined-Unpasteurized 69.06 ± 3.142,a 61.28 ± 7.11 1,a 26.02 ± 0.551,a 9.1 ± 2.451,b 18.19 ± 7.76 1,a 17.23 ± 3.891,a
Free-range-Pasteurized 72.37 ± 4.902,a 63.17 ± 6.431,a 22.37 ± 1.81,a 8.46 ± 2.171,b 17.14 ± 6.071,a 17.07 ± 6.451,a
Confiined-Pasteurized 67.07 ± 2.623,a 46.77 ± 8.222,b 22.76 ± 0.921,a 7.62 ± 3.422,b 16.27 ± 4.041,a 15.56 ± 2.181,a

Cheese Free-range-Unpasteurized 363.21 ± 77.971,a 149.11 ± 5.641,b 52.77 ± 4.611,a 36.61 ± 10.611,b 61.65 ± 10.861,a 59.92 ± 11.191,a
Confined-Unpasteurized 324.52 ± 66.692,a 144.89 ± 10.091,b 50.95 ± 1.411,a 27.39 ± 10.962,b 61.52 ± 15.091,a 55.69 ± 3.961,a
Free-range-Pasteurized 292.21 ± 52.072,a 138.52 ± 13.831,b 30.23 ± 6.272,a 28.47 ± 8.852,a 58.43 ± 16.451,a 55.14 ± 3.221,a
Confined-Pasteurized 268.24 ± 55.843,a 131.51 ± 5.461,b 28.82 ± 5.512,a 26.07 ± 4.112,a 53.3 ± 7.321,a 53.95 ± 4.841,a

* TPC values expressed in mg GAE/L in milk and whey, and mg GAE/Kg in cheese. Antioxidant capacity values are expressed in mgEAA/L in milk and whey, and mg AAE/Kg in cheese.
Different letters indicate significant difference for each season (Dry versus Rainy) Different numbers in the same column indicate significant difference (P < 0.05) by type of feeding
system (free-range versus confinement) and heat treatment (pasteurized versus unpasteurized). (SPSS-post hoc Tukey Test).

56
J.L. Chávez-Servín et al.
In the case of antioxidant capacity measured by FRAP, in dry season
all milk samples, all whey samples and the two cheese samples from
unpasteurized milk were found to have higher antioxidant capacity
than in rainy season (P < 0.05). The two pasteurized cheese samples
from dry season had lower antioxidant capacity than their un-
pasteurized counterparts (P < 0.05). For the rainy season samples,
antioxidant capacity was greater (P < 0.05) in pasteurized milk and
whey from free-range goats, as well as in unpasteurized milk and whey
from both confined and free-range goats, than in pasteurized milk and
whey from confined goats. In the case of cheese, the samples made from
unpasteurized milk of free-range goats had a higher antioxidant capa-
city (P < 0.05) than the rest of the samples (unpasteurized milk from
confined goats and pasteurized milk from both feeding systems). This is
consistent with the results of Di et al. (2015), which show that the
consumption of fresh forage diets provides an antioxidant effect in the
products, due to the role of phenolic compounds that have a direct
effect on antioxidant activity in milk. Kuhnen et al. (2014) show that
TPC and antioxidant capacity measured by FRAP showed the highest
values in milk from cows fed by free-range grazing when compared
with different feeding system.
DPPH analysis revealed that for the dry-season samples, un-
pasteurized milk samples from both free-range and confined goats had
higher antioxidant capacity than pasteurized samples from both feeding
systems (Table 2). Hilario et al. (2010) analyze antioxidant activity
using different tests, including the DPPH method, in cheese from two
feeding systems. They found that free-range grazing represents a better
option than confinement to produce a healthy profile of bioactive
compounds, providing an increase in phenolic compounds and anti-
oxidant capacity.
These results are consistent with other studies analyzing the milk of
goats and other species, and it concluding that farming systems and
feeding aspects affect milk production, quality and composition, in-
cluding macro, micro and volatile components, which consequently
affect the characteristics of the products, as in the case of the cheese,
considering additional factors such as rheological and sensorial quali-
ties. Feeding factors can be modified to improve the characteristics of
the products and therefore benefit the health of those who consume
them. Free-range grazing has been reported to result in milk with a
higher content of compounds listed as healthy, than milk from animals
fed in intensive feeding systems (Morand-Fehr et al., 2007)
In general, TPC concentrations were higher in samples from free-
range goats whose milk was not pasteurized, and which had been
drawn in dry season (Table 2).
The free-range grazing system was also found to significantly in-
crease TPC concentration in milk during the rainy season, when that
milk is unpasteurized. TPC Concentrations may be higher in the milk of
free-range goats because these animals consume a wide variety of fresh
plants opportunistically, meaning they ingest more of these compounds,
which can be used, metabolized and transferred to their milk (Morand-
Fehr et al., 2007). These results are consistent with other findings on
the advantages of free-range systems for milk and milk products’
properties and quality (Elgersma et al., 2014; Hervás et al., 2008;
Hilario et al., 2010; Morand-Fehr et al., 2007).
The results of this study show higher TPC concentrations in un-
pasteurized products (see Table 1). Unpasteurized products were also
found to have greater antioxidant capacity: Table 2 also shows sig-
nificantly higher FRAP antioxidant capacity in unpasteurized whey and
also higher antioxidant capacity measured by DPPH in unpasteurized
milk, whey and cheese. The behavior of the milk under heating may
depend on temperature and time, but in general an increase in tem-
perature alters both the milk and its products. The stability of the col-
loidal solution and the fat emulsion can affect organoleptic changes, the
presence of some vitamins, bioactive substances, and phenolic com-
pounds (Buchin et al., 1998; De et al., 2014). Thermal pasteurization
can reduce TPC concentrations by triggering complex physical and
chemical reactions that affect phenolic composition, including the
57
Small Ruminant Research 160 (2018) 54–58
release of phenolic compounds from their bonded forms, the degrada-
tion polyphenols and the breakdown, hydrolysis and transformations of
phenolics. The differences in susceptibility to thermal processing de-
pends on the compounds’ structure and the phenolic subclass to which
they belong (Chen et al., 2013; De et al., 2014).
Finally, the season of year has also been found to affect TPC content
in the plants that goats consume in the free-range system. Several stu-
dies show an increase in secondary metabolites in stressed plants
(drought being a stress factor) (Puente-Garza et al., 2017) as a meta-
bolic response. This response increases when the plant is subject to a
lack of water, an abiotic stress known as water stress. The result is an
increase in the phenolics consumed by free-range goats during dry
season. In this study, a significant difference in antioxidant capacity
was found in most of the dry-season samples using the FRAP assay,
most clearly in milk and whey (Table 2).
4. Conclusions
This paper found TPC concentrations and antioxidant capacity in
goat milk products to be affected by the ways the goats are fed (the
plants free-range goats consume in a semiarid zone), the season of the
year, and the pasteurization of their milk. There was a beneficial in-
crease in TPC concentration and antioxidant capacity in milk, whey and
cheese from goats fed under the free-range grazing system, without
pasteurization, and drawn in dry season. The free-range grazing system
represents a good option for producing goat milk products with higher
concentrations of phenolic compounds. More research is needed to as-
sess the bioactivity and potential of the different components of goat
dairy products and to evaluate the effect on humans as consumers of
these products.
Conflict of interest
The authors report no conflict of interest.
Acknowledgements
The authors are grateful for the support of the technicians and re-
searchers in charge of the laboratories of Human Nutrition, Molecular
and Cell Biology and Animal Nutrition–Josué F. López-Martínez,
Mariela Camacho-Barron and Aurora Mejía-Jáuregui. We also thank
UAQ Amazcala campus staff for their assistance in the management,
feeding and milking of goats; and María T. Ontiveros-Hermández and
Carmen Redón-Rendón for their help in cheese production and sam-
pling for analysis. This research did not receive any specific grant from
funding agencies in the public, commercial, or nonprofit sectors.
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