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    Aircraft Design Handbook PDF

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    Aaron Pacdemann | | Aircraft Design Handbook Aircraft Design Aid and Layout Guide by Nathan Kirschbaum with W.H. Mason Department of Aerospace and Ocean Engineering Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University \ VPI Aircraft Design Series W.H. Mason, Editor Edition for 1993-94 About the Author: Nathan Kirschbaum retired from the Grumman Aerospace Corporation as Chief of Configuration Design in 1989. He “retired” to Blacksburg, where he became Adjunct Professor of Aerospace Engineering. His experience with aircraft dates back to his ‘Navy service as an aviation ordnance man and turret gunner on a Grumman TBF tor- pedo bomber from 1944-1946. After the service he enrolled at MIT in Aeronautical Engineering, graduating in 1951. At MIT he participated in the coop program, work- ing at the Chance Vought Aircraft Corporation in Dallas, Texas. After graduation he worked for the Pilotless Aircraft Division of the Boeing Aircraft Company from 1951-1955. As a configuration designer he worked on the IM-99 BOMARC Mach 2.5 pllotes interceptor. Retuming tothe East coast, he was at Grumman from 1955 to 1989. There he worked on numerous advanced aircraft concepts and studies. These included STOL, VTOL and ground effects machines, as well as advanced supersonic tactical aircraft, and a variety of special projects. Aircraft programs included the FIIF-1 Tiger , OV-1 Mohawk, F-111 and F-14 Tomeat. ‘The data presented is intended to aid the novice designer/configurationist and members of an aircraft design team in the synthesis, evolution and evaluation of aircraft configurations. This data was compiled from Grumman Aerospace Corp. Aircraft Design Manual (anon.) Society of Allied Weight Engineers Handbook (Anon.) Society of Aeronautical Weight Engineers Paper 761, “High Lift Devices, a Weight and Performance Trade-off,” Karl L. Sanders Aircraft Landing Gear Design: Principals and Practices, Norman S, Currey Landing Gear Design, Hugh Conway Flight Handbook, W.T. Gunston (Ed.) Anatomy of the Airplane, Darrol Stinton ‘The Design of the Airplane, Darrol Stinton U.S. Air Force System Command Design Handbook, Chapter 4. Aviation Week Machine Design Flight Magazine Air International Magazine and personal data and notes of Ronald Cerank, formerly Aircraft Design Specialist, and Nathan Kirschbaum, formerly Chief of Configuration Design, both of Grumman Aerospace Advanced Aircraft Systems. Copyright permission for educational use has been obtained or is being sought for each item as appropriate. Aircraft Design Handbook Aircraft Design Aid And Layout Guide ‘Table of Contents Section Page Introduction iv 1 On the Scope/Drawing Board Design Progression and Optimization La List of Iustrations and Tables 1 Overview: Before the drawing starts 12 Initial Sketch, Verification of Concept 13 Drawing Start, Working Drawing 15 Post Design Progression 118 Examples 1-19 ‘Appendix A. Geometric Section Properties 1-30 1A. Drawing Representation Guidelines for Aircraft Configuration Designers Aircraft Description: Three View Drawing IAL Aircraft Description: Inboard Profile 1A5 Executive Summary: Three View Drawing 1A8 Executive Summary: Inboard Profile 1A8 2 Component Geometric Definition 21 List of Ilustrations and Tables 22 Overall Vehicle Parameters 24 ‘Wing Surface Parameters 212 Horizontal Tail Volume 2.19 Vertical Tail Volume 2.21 Vertical Tail Area Required to Trim Asymmetric Take-off Thrust 2-23 Horizontal Tail Placement 2.29 Landing Gear (Undercarriage) Parameters 241 Crew Station Geometry and Ergonomics 253 3 Landing Gear Considerations 34 List of Ilustrations 3B Landing Gears 3.2 Landing Gear Angle 36 Tip Back Angle 37 Turnover Angle 38 Landing Gear Retraction Geometries 38 9 Weight Considerations 9-4 List of Ilustrations and Tables 9-1 Definitions of Design Gross Weights 9.3 Weight and Balance Computation Form 9.5 AMPR Weight Definition 9-10 Weight of High Lift Systems 9.19 ‘Weight Statement and Balance Examples 9-48 Density of Current Fighters 9.54 Introduction ‘This handbook has been assembled to provide students with specific information not ad- dressed in the current aircraft design textbooks. It is in response to student requests for help in these areas. For 1992-93 the Aircraft Design Aid and Layout Guide includes: 1. On the Scope/Drawing Board Design Progression and Optimization This section explains how designers actually start the design. It explains the rela- tion of the designer to other contributors to the project, and describes a means of translating the first inklings of a new concept from the “mind’s eye” to paper (or a scope). Numerous examples and illustrations are included. 1A. Drawing Representation Guidelines for Aircraft Configuration Designers Aircraft design uses a standard approach to the description of a configuration, This section provides details of the standards that are used. Students must use these ‘guidelines in preparing the various concept drawings required for the course. 2. Component Geometric Definition This section provides information based on previous aircraft designs to provide some basis for establishing a number of geometrical features on aircraft, It also in- cludes basic details on landing gear and cockpit layout geometry. Students should spend a few minutes familiarizing themselves with the contents of this section. 3. Landing Gears A workable landing gear concept is an important part of aircraft concept develop- ment. This section provides specific details on the requirements for developing an air- ‘craft concept which will properly incorporate the landing gear. 9. Weight Considerations ‘This section contains weight definitions and defines the system used to document aircraft weight and center-of-gravity travel, Numerous statistical correlations are pre- sented to provide a basis for initial weight estimations. Other sections will be added to this guide in future years. Tt must be emphasized that the data in this guide is general in nature and cannot replace judgment or experience of specialists in the technical disciplines. Judgment is also required in understanding and using some of the statistical data which in many cases is based on fighter and attack aircraft, ‘This data is to be employed with extreme care in the design of low radar cross section (stealth) aircraft. iv Lt Section 1 On The Scope/Drawing Board Design Progression and Optimization How does an aircraft design start? What are the initial inputs? What is the gestation process? These are the issues examined in this section, List of Hlustrations and Tables Figure Page 1 Airoraft Reference Planes and Baseline Reference Lines 16 1-2 Aircraft Reference Planes 1-7 13 Wing and Stabilizing Surface Mean Aerodynamic Chord Determination a) simple trapezoidal wing 19 b) subsonic B767 type wing 1-10 ©) trisonic high speed aircraft type wing 1-10 14 Change in Wing Planform with CG Drift 1-13 LS Fuselage Fuel Determination 1-16 16 ‘Wing Fuel Distribution Li 1-7 Sketch: High Speed, Low Altitude/Supersonic, High Altitude Attack Aircraft 1-21 18 "Finalized" Working Drawing: High Speed, Low Altitude/Supersonic, High Altitude Attack Aircraft 1-22 1-9 Revised Finalized Working Drawing 1-23 1-10 Initial Sketch of AVRO Vulcan Delta Wing Bomber, Circa 1946 1-24 1-11 Photograph of Initial Production Version of AVRO Vulcan B 1 1-25 1-12 Perspective Cutaway Drawing of AVRO Vulcan B 1A 1-26 1-13 Perspective Cutaway Drawing of AVRO Vulcan B 2 1.27 4-14 Working Level Working Drawing AFFDL @ II/7 (FDL-34A) 1-28 1-15 Working Drawing Navy Light Weight Fighter Proposal, Circa 1977. 1.29 Acl. —_Centroid of Trapezoidal Planes and Frustrums, Right Circular Cone or Right Circular Pyramid 131 A-2 ‘Volume of Body Frustrums 1-31 A3 Section Properties of Shells: Surface (wetted) Areas and Centroid 1-32 A4 ‘Wetted Area of Blunt-Based Ogive Bodies 133 A-5.1 Section Properties of Plane Areas: Areas and Centroids 134 A-5.2 Section Properties of Plane Areas: Area and Centroids, continued. 1.35 A-5.3 Section Properties of Plane Areas: Areas and Centroids, concluded. 1.36 Table vee Assumptions for Calculating Fuel Weight 1-16 12 Overview: Before the drawing starts The aircraft designer/configurationist will receive inputs via an RFI (Request for Information) or an RFP (Request for Proposal) from one of the military services, commercial airlines, NASA or DARPA for performance and operational requirements of a flight vehicle. These usually specify DESIRED performance, mission and geometrical requirements (nice to have) and REQUIRED performance, mission and geometrical requirements (got to have). It should be noted that a very large percentage of the RFI/RFP's are the result of previous company-to-customer discussions and interplay as to future technology capabilities and date of their possible design inclusion; operational requirements with respect to threats (military) or competition (civil); and subsystem and material availability. ‘The latter can be such mundane items as forging and casting lead times, landing gear and special tooling delivery dates, and even manufacturing and assembly space, i.e. Boeing's Everett, WA 747 factory. With respect to the general aviation aircraft manufacturers, business opportunities dictated by market analysis—and hopes—will result in in-house performance and design requirements issued to the designer/configurationist. ‘The inputs to the designer/configurationist are delivered, usually, after review by: + Corporate Management/Business Development/Customer Relations—Corporate game plan based upon company capability. This includes past experience, research depth, perceived or actual discussion with the "customer", and even configuration biases dictated by "someone" powerful enough in the company to ram his biases through. + Aerodynamic and Propulsion Groups—Aerodynamic layout, tailled, canard, tailless, variable sweep, high lift system; number and types of engines, inlets, and possible nozzle systems’. Of course this can sometimes be constrained "by corporate management, see above. + Systems Groups— Avionic and/or reconnaissance systems, antenna sizes; seat/cockpit systems, boarding and emergency escape systems; environmental control. systems (ECS); special undercarriage types, wheel/tire loadings; reloading and inflight and ground refueling systems; armament system integration— gun installation and bomb/missile carriage and deployment systems; special launch or retrieval systems, ice, tow take-off, inflight ensnarement, etc. + Operational and “ilies” Groups— stowage and hangerage size limitations; maintenance and loading requirements; aircraft carrier launch and retrieval dimensional restrictions; radar and infrared (IR) signature reduction geometric shaping requirements, ‘With respect to civil aircraft: airport loading and turning radius dimensional restrictions, passenger seating and boarding arrangements, baggage stowing arrangement and volume, emergency evacuation provisions, cargo cross section and loading requirements; lavatory, kitchen/serving location and volume demands. + Weights or Aeroperformance Groups— vehicle weight and sizingt, design takeoff goss weight (TOGW), fuel weight, wing loading. In addition, ‘allowable wing planform and control surface size and planforms, fuselage length and configuration fineness ratio. This sizing function utilizes statistical, trend and technology biasing in * they have their own ideas of a an intial concept +f they also have their own ideas of a an intial concept 13 computer optimization codes. Luckily the day of the slide rule and mechanical calculator is over. This group works in conjunction with the aerodynamic and propulsion groups (see above) Sometimes the designer/configurationist can "doodle" using his personal "feel" to configure an aircraft and have it sized (and resized) by the weights/aeroperformance sizing groups and have it compared to the mainstream effort noted above. Usually only an experienced designer is given this free reign, It helps here to review comparative mission aircraft in extent to reveal any deficiency or opportunity in his grasp of the problem. ‘The designer/configurationist task is to INTEGRATE all the above geometrical and dimensional requirements, equipment, structural components, expendables (volumes, spacing, arrangements) into a vehicle that is BALANCED with respect to: + flight in all phases of its flight regime or envelope, takeoff, landing, subsonic, and supersonic (and possibly hypersonic) and *+ operation on ground, shipboard, or water, or special launch or retrieval considerations. ‘The initial task is to satisfy the DESIRED requirements with the lightest weight (or least. cost) vehicle. The designer/configurationist is expected to strive mightily to this end. Usually a mix of the DESIRED and REQUIRED requirements result—but only after many, many iterations, sometimes resulting in configuration "convulsions". It is indeed fortuitous if the initial design "pans out” with the first configuration layout, especially if it is a new, untried configuration in your company. Initial Sketch, Verification of Concept ‘Now, how does a designer/configurationist start? First, an airframe concept must be established. This concept is either visualized by the designer, proffered by one or more members of the support groups, or established by cognizant and responsible upper technical or corporate management that, sometimes, have had discourse with the "customer". The concept has to be pictured, stopped in time, so as to allow the designer to elaborate on it, explore its possibilities and contradictions and evaluate initial trade offs to see if the concept is viable. To start, whether designed on the scope or drawing board, the designer should sketch a two or three view on “A" size quadrille paper, or similar cross hatched graph paper, to organize his assumptions and thoughts on the aircraft concept. It should show *what-is-it” with respect to requirements, technical/corporate management recommendations (or “someone’s” dictates), sizing run outputs, and inputs from the various support groups. Using the quadrille squares for scale, the designer tries to establish: + crew station envelope with rouigh vision requirements + nose shape and envelope to house radars/reconnaissance equipment and with respect to speed requirements + wing with wing spar locations (at approximately the 15 and 65 percent chord locations) + control surfaces and their fixity points + engine locations inlet type and location + nozzle type and location 14 * center of gravity location. Try to ascertain CG locations on similar configured and powered aircraft. CG locations on "comparator" aircraft, military or civil, can be estimated by drawing a 15 degree line forward from the normal-to-the-ground line at wheel contact point and determining where it intersects the mid-fuselage line, biased up or down for high or low wing configurations. The following rules of thumb are for air- planes with aft-mounted engines. For twin engine fighter/attack aircraft with thrust to weight of approximately 1.0 the center of gravity is usually 60 to 62 percent of fuselage length; for single engine type itis usually 55 to 57 percent fuselage length. + weapon fixity, especially if weapons are carried internally or fuselage mounted. If the ‘weapons are fuselage mounted, he scales to see if the weapons are placed in/on the aircraft within the fuselage length respecting the retracted nose landing gear envelope, special accessibility dictates and tail-down rotation ground line. He also checks to ensure that the weapon pattern CG is close to the assumed aircraft CG. If civil aircraft is conceptualized: + required passenger and/or cargo volume and length requirements + passenger and/or cargo loading door/ramp sizes and locations + lavatory and kitchen facility locations + emergency exit locations Simultaneously, the designer should sketch cross sections at what appears to be decisive confluence planes with respect to the above components and installations. ‘These sections are cut when he is in doubt how different components install, or mesh together, or to get a feel for the necessary width or height of the airframe (especially with respect to similar cross sections fore and aft of the section under review). ‘The designer should establish whefe-

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