4.

0 Compaction of Powders
• After achieving a desired blend of metal powders,
the next stage in the production process is
compaction of the powder.
• necessary to increase the density of the powder
prior to sintering in order to produce products that
are suitable for high stress environments.
• increase in density can be achieved by compacting
the powder in a die cavity.
• A die cavity is a mould with the shape of the
desired object.
• The upper portion of the shape is made by the
punch, which is pressed down on the powder to
achieve the required compaction.
• The resulting formed component after
compacting is called a green compact.
• The compacting cycle is shown below;
• The ejection of the compact from the die is an
equally important which should be done
carefully to eliminate the spring back effect.
• Spring back is the increase in compact size
after the compacting force is removed from
the die.
• This release of elastic stored energy of the
compact can damage the compact.
• Parameters Influencing the Spring-Back include
– Compacting pressure;
– Compacting density,
– Powder properties,
– Lubricants and alloying additions,
– Shape and elastic properties of the compacting die
 Objectives of compacting powders
• consolidate the powder into desired shape
• impart, to as high a degree as possible, the
desired final dimensions (with due consideration
to any dimensional changes resulting from
sintering)
• impart the desired level and type of porosity.
• impart adequate strength for subsequent
handling, this is achieved by cold welding of
particles as particles plastically deform under
pressure. The strength of the compact object is
called green strength.
 How is this achieved?
• Several approaches exist for achieving these
goals
• In general the techniques can be categorized
according to
Pressure: It can be pressurized or pressure-less
compaction
temperature - room or elevated temperature;
pressure direction: uniaxial or Isostatic
 4.1 Effect of pressure in pressing
• density of the green product largely depends on
the compacting pressure.
• The higher the compacting pressure the higher
the density of the compact
• Numerically, the variation of applied pressure,
P with the volume of powder, V is represented
by the equation;

• Where A and B are constants.

• Equation however does not apply at extremely
high pressure
• Generally both mechanical and physical
properties improve with increasing density.
• Thus method of powder compaction depends
on the level of performance required from the
part
• Many components are adequate when
produced at 85-90% of the true density
• high pressure compaction is mainly applied in
production of components that should be very
dense
Pressureless compaction: Entails filling the die
cavity without the application of pressure.
• materials move by force of gravity as well as
tapping of die cavity.
• Therefore the density of the green compact is
very low.
• Heat is applied in order to bring about
shrinkage of particles at a temperature below
the melting point of the material.
• This reduction in surface area reduces the
porosity of the material but the compact still
remain porous.
• Without pressure the only transport
mechanism that occurs is diffusion.
• Because of the small driving force, relatively
long periods of time are required to achieve
high density of final product.
• process is ideal for the production of low
density components such as metallic filters
and self lubricating bearings.
 4.2 Effect of Temperature in pressing
• metal powder formed at elevated
temperature gives significant impact on the
entire compaction process and the quality of
the green compact as well as the final product
• Mechanical properties of green compact are
largely influenced by the forming temperature
• For most metal powder the compaction is
done in the range 100-200oC
• Alternatively, only the die may be warmed
(50-100oC)
 4.3 Effects of direction of applied pressure
• The direction of application of pressure on the
powder may be Uniaxial (in one plane) or
Isostatic (uniform pressure from all directions)
4.3.1 Uniaxial or die compaction
• It is the most conventional metallic and
ceramic powder pressing method.
• This is achieved by pressing the powder in
rigid dies.
• The applied pressure can be in one direction
or from both ends of the die.
• The pressing forces may be mechanical or
hydraulic.
• Practically, densities of up to 90 % of full
density can be achieved following the
compaction cycle,
• Duration may be of the order of just a few
seconds for very small parts
• Powders do not respond to pressing in the
same way as fluids and do not assume the same
density throughout the compact
• friction between the powder and die wall and
between individual powder particles hinders
the transmission of pressure
• A high uniformity in green parts can be
achieved depending on:
– the kind of compacting technique
– the type of tools
– the materials to be pressed and the lubricant
 4.3.2 Isostatic compression
• powder is sealed in a flexible envelope and the
assembly of envelope and powder is immersed
in a fluid which is then pressurized.
• The hydrostatic pressure presses the powder
from all directions.
• Advantages
– More uniform density, as compared to uniaxial
– Shrinkage is unform and predictable
– No die wall friction, thus no residual stresses
– No lubricants and binders required
– Near net shape production achievable
• The surrounding fluid may either be cold,
resulting in cold Isostatic pressing or hot (hot
Isostatic pressing)
 4.3.2.1 Cold Isostatic pressing (CIP)
• High fluid pressure is applied to a powder in a
confined mould at ambient temperature to
compact the powder into the required shape
• Water or oil is usually used as the pressure
medium.
• Compacting pressure ranges from 210 to 410 MPa
though it can be as high as 760 MPa.
• powder parts are densifies to anything between
60-80% of their true density.
• process can be divided into 2 types, both of which
use preshaped elastomeric moulds to hold the
powder that is pressed.
 Dry bag method
• The elastomeric mould is fixed to the inside of
the pressure vessel.
• After filling mould with powder, pressure is
applied by introducing pressurized oil between
fixed mould and vessel wall.
• process has fast cycle time and high production
rates.
• It is used mainly to compact ceramic powders
in high output applications such as spark plugs.
 Wet bag method
• metal powder is filled in a mould made of
rubber urethane or PVC (out side the pressure
vessel).
• The metal powder loaded mould is then sealed
after evacuating air and then transferred to
the hydraulic pressing chamber to compact the
powder to desired shape.
• Final shape of the mould is the final shape of
the product.
• The method is used for making components
that are large, complicated in shape and are
produced in small quantities.
4.3.2.2 Hot Isostatic pressing (HIP)
• High isostatic pressure is applied to a powder
compact at elevated temperature to produce a
compact product.
• The process effectively combines compaction
and sintering.
• results in the manufacture of fully dense
products (almost 100% of TD), although partially
dense bodies can also be intentionally
produced.
• Metal powder is filled in a flexible of alloy sheet
metal and air is evacuated.
• The container is then sealed and heated to a
temperature ranging from 480oC (for Al alloys) to
1700oC (for W powder).
• Hydrostatic pressure is maintained at about
100MPa.
• The pressing media is usually high density inert
fluids such as argon gas or vitreous liquids
• Process is used in producing net shapes in Ni-
based superalloy discs and shafts for aircraft
engines, tool steels and dies, rolls and other
wear resistant (WC-based) parts.
 4.3.3 Metal injection moulding (MIM)
• makes use of very fine metal powders (<10µm)
mixed with some thermoplastic binder.
• The mixture is heated into a homogeneous
paste, which is later injected into a mould or die
under pressure and temperature to obtain a
compact product.
• Thereafter the thermoplastic is burnt off by
heating the moulded product, which is then
subsequently sintered in a furnace.
• Typical metal powders that are processed
include copper, bronze, carbon, Ti, stainless
steel and tool steels.
• Product range include watches, automobiles,
surgical knives, small-callibre gun barrels.
 4.3.4 Roll pressing
• is the continuous compaction of metal powder
between a set of rolls.
• metal powder is fed from a hopper to a set of
compacting rolls that produce a continuous
green strip or sheet.
• The sheet can go further processing by sintering
and re-rolling to produce end product of desired
properties.
• Density (and hence porosity) may be regulated.
• Desirable properties of powders suitable for
rolling include
– Good flowability
– Softness
– Irregularity
– Wide particle size distribution; to increase density
• These properties are common in powder
produced by atomization method.
• Typical applications of the sheet produced
include electronic equipment (integrated
circuits, resistor end caps, band terminators
etc) as well as sleeve bearings for internal
combustion engines.
 4.3.5 Centrifugal Compacting
• It is used for compacting heavy powders such as
WC.
• The metal powder is filled in a mould which is
subjected to centrifugal force to compact the
powder in the metal.
• This achieves high density of the compact through
close packing.
• The compact is later sintered to further increase
the density.
• Method is used to produce high abrasion and wear
resistant tools e.g. cutting tool bits and die material
for metal forming processes.