Gerunds

the gerund is identical in form to the present participle (ending in -ing) and can behave as a verb
within a clause (so that it may be modified by an adverb or have an object), but the clause as a
whole (sometimes consisting of only one word, the gerund itself) acts as a noun within the larger
sentence. For example: Editing this article is easy.
In "Editing this article" (although this is traditionally known as a phrase, it is referred to as a
non-finite clause in modern linguistics), the word "Editing" behaves as a noun; the phrase "this
article" is the object of that noun. "Editing this article" acts as a noun phrase within the sentence
as a whole, though; it is the subject of the verb "is."
Other examples of the gerund:
• I like swimming. (direct object)
• Swimming is fun. (subject)
Some use "gerund" to refer to all nouns ending in -ing, but in more careful use, not all nouns
ending in -ing are gerunds.[1] The formal distinction is that a gerund is a verbal noun – a noun
derived from a verb that retains verb characteristics, that functions simultaneously as a noun and
a verb, while other nouns ending in -ing are deverbal nouns, which function as common nouns,
not as verbs at all. Compare:
• I like fencing. (gerund, an activity, could be replaced with "to fence")
• The white fencing adds to the character of the neighborhood. (deverbal, could be
replaced with an object such as "bench")

[edit] Double nature of the gerund

As the result of its origin and development the gerund has nominal and verbal properties. The
nominal characteristics of the gerund are as follows:
1. The gerund can perform the function of subject, object and predicative:
o Smoking endangers your health. (subject)

o I like making people happy. (object)

o All I can do is waiting (predicative)

2. The gerund can be preceded by a preposition:

o I'm tired of arguing.

3. Like a noun the gerund can be modified by a noun in the possessive case or by a
possessive adjective:
o I wonder at his keeping calm.
 o Is there any objection to my seeing her?

The verbal characteristics of the gerund are:

1. The gerund of transitive verbs can take a direct object:
o I've made a good progress in speaking English.

2. The gerund can be modified by an adverb:

o Breathing deeply helps you to calm down.

3. The gerund has tense distinctions; the gerund of transitive verbs has also voice
distinctions.

Causative
1. The causative has the meaning of 'someone causes someone to do something'.
2. The three verbs usually used for the causative are get, have, and make.
Examples:
a. John got Susan to rake the leaves.
b. John had Susan rake the leaves.
c.John made Susan rake the leaves.
Notice in a that there is a to in to rake.
Notice in b and c that there is no to.
3. Get gives the idea of persuasion, have is asking, and make is forcing or strong convincing.
There is not much difference between have and get.
4. These causative verbs can be in any verb tense:
a. I am making my students write the exam again next week because they did so poorly.
b. I have been having my kids shovel the sidewalks after every snowfall.
c. I have to get my wife to pick me up after work because my car is in for repairs.

Conditional if
 First conditional
a. Nature: Open condition, what is said in the condition is possible.
b. Time: This condition refers either to present or to future time.
e.g. If he is late, we will have to go without him.
If my mother knows about this, we are in serious trouble.

 Second conditional
a. Nature: unreal (impossible) or improbable situations.
 b. Time: present; the TENSE is past, but we are talking about the present, now.
e.g. If I knew her name, I would tell you.
If I were you, I would tell my father.
Compare: If I become president, I will change the social security system. (Said by a
presidential candidate)
If I became president, I would change the social security system. (Said by a schoolboy:
improbable)
If we win this match, we are qualified for the semifinals.
If I won a million pounds, I would stop teaching. (improbable)

 Third conditional
a. Nature: unreal
b. Time: Past (so we are talking about a situation that was not so in the past.)
e.g. If you had warned me, I would not have told your father about that party.(But you
didn't, and I have).
The Type 1 conditional, where the tense in the 'if clause is the simple present, and the tense in
the main clause is the simple future

'IF' CLAUSE MAIN CLAUSE

If + simple present Simple future

If it rains you will get wet
If you don't hurry we will miss the train.

In these sentences, the time is the present or future and the situation is real. They refer to a
possible condition and its probable result.
3. The Type 2 conditional, where the tense in the 'if' clause is the simple past, and the tense in
the main clause is the present conditional:

'IF' CLAUSE MAIN CLAUSE

If + simple past Present conditional

If it rained you would get wet
If you went to bed earlier you wouldn't be so tired.

In these sentences, the time is now or any time, and the situation is unreal. They are not based
on fact, and they refer to an unlikely or hypothetical condition and its probable result.
4. The Type 3 conditional, where the tense in the 'if' clause is the past perfect, and the tense in
the main clause is the perfect conditional:

'IF' CLAUSE MAIN CLAUSE

If + past perfect Perfect conditional
If it had rained you would have got wet
If you had worked harder you would have passed the exam.

In these sentences, the time is past, and the situation is contrary to reality. The facts they are
based on are the opposite of what is expressed, and they refer to an unreal past condition and
its probable past result.
A further type if 'if' sentence exists, where Type 2 and Type 3 are mixed. The tense in the 'if'
clause is the past perfect, and the tense in the main clause is the present conditional:

'IF' CLAUSE MAIN CLAUSE

If + past perfect Present conditional

If I had worked harder at school I would have a better job now.
If we had looked at the map we wouldn't be lost.

In these sentences, the time is past in the 'if' clause, and present in the main clause. They refer
to an unreal past condition and its probable result in the present.

Tag question

A question tag or tag question is a grammatical structure in which a declarative statement

or an imperative is turned into a question by adding an interrogative fragment (the "tag"). The
term "question tag" is generally preferred by British grammarians, while their American
counterparts prefer "tag question". In most languages, tag questions are more common in
colloquial spoken usage than in formal written usage. They can be an indicator of politeness,
emphasis, or irony. They may suggest confidence or lack of confidence; they may be
confrontational or tentative. In legal settings, tag questions can be found in leading question.
Some examples showing the wide variety of structure possible in English are:
• Open the window, will you?
• She doesn't really want those apples, does she?
• You'd better stop now, hadn't you?
• So you thought it would be a good idea to reprogram the computer, did you?
The English tag question is made up of an auxiliary verb and a pronoun. The auxiliary has to
agree with the tense, aspect and modality of the verb in the preceding sentence. If the verb is in
the perfect tense, for example, the tag question uses has or have; if the verb is in a present
progressive form, the tag is formed with am, are, is; if the verb is in a tense which does not
normally use an auxiliary, like the present simple, the auxiliary is taken from the emphatic do
form; and if the sentence has a modal auxiliary, this is echoed in the tag:
• He's read this book, hasn't he?
• He read this book, didn't he?
• He's reading this book, isn't he?
English tag questions may contain a negation, but need not. When there is no special emphasis,
the rule of thumb often applies that a positive sentence has a negative tag and vice versa:
• She is French, isn't she?
• She's not French, is she?
English tag questions can have a rising or a falling intonation pattern. This is contrasted with
Polish, French or German, for example, where all tags rise. As a rule, the English rising pattern is
used when soliciting information or motivating an action, that is, when some sort of response is
required. Since normal English yes/no questions have rising patterns (e.g. Are you coming?),
these tags make a grammatical statement into a real question:
• You're coming, aren't you?
• Do listen, will you?
• Let's have a beer, shall we?
The falling pattern is used to underline a statement. The statement itself ends with a falling
pattern, and the tag sounds like an echo, strengthening the pattern. Most English tag questions
have this falling pattern.
• He doesn't know what he's doing, does he?
• This is really boring, isn't it?
English tag questions are normally stressed on the verb, but the stress is on the pronoun if there
is a change of person.
• I don't like peas, do you?
• I like peas, don't you?
This is often a rising tag (especially when the tag contains no negation), or the intonation pattern
may be the typically English fall-rise.
In French, this would be expressed with et toi?, which is also a kind of tag question.
Reported Speech - Indirect Speech

Indirect Speech (also referred to as 'reported speech') refers to a sentence reporting what
someone has said. It is almost always used in spoken English.
• If the reporting verb (i.e. said) is in the past, the reported clause will be in a past form.
This form is usually one step back into the past from the original.
For example:
o He said the test was difficult.

o She said she watched TV every day.

o Jack said he came to school every day.

• If simple present, present perfect or the future is used in the reporting verb (i.e. says) the
tense is retained.
For example:
o He says the test is difficult.

o She has said that she watches TV every day.

o Jack will say that he comes to school every day.

• If reporting a general truth the present tense will be retained.

For example:The teacher said that phrasal verbs are very important.
Changing Pronouns and Time Signifiers
When changing from direct speech to indirect speech, it is often necessary to change the
pronouns to match the subject of the sentence.
For example:
• She said, "I want to bring my children." BECOMES She said she wanted to bring her
children.
• Jack said, "My wife went with me to the show." BECOMES Jack said his wife had gone
with him to the show.
It is also important to change time words (signifiers) when referring to present, past or future
time to match the moment of speaking.
For example:
 • She said, "I want to bring my children tomorrow." BECOMES She said she wanted to
bring her children the next day.
• Jack said, "My wife went with me to the show yesterday." BECOMES Jack said his wife
had gone with him to the show the day before.
Indirect Questions
When reporting questions, it is especially important to pay attention to sentence order. When
reporting yes/ no questions connect the reported question using 'if'. When reporting questions
using question words (why, where, when, etc.) use the question word.
For example:
• She asked, "Do you want to come with me?" BECOMES She asked me if I wanted to
come with her.
• Dave asked, "Where did you go last weekend?" BECOMES Dave asked me where I had
gone the previous weekend.
• He asked, "Why are you studying English?" BECOMES She asked me why I was
studying English.
The following chart includes sentences changed from quoted speech to reported speech using a
past form. NoteSimple past, present perfect, and past perfect allchange to past perfect in the
reported form.

Auxiliary
Helping verbs or auxiliary verbs such as will, shall, may, might, can, could, must, ought to,
should, would, used to, need are used in conjunction with main verbs to express shades of time
and mood. The combination of helping verbs with main verbs creates what are called verb
phrases or verb strings. In the following sentence, "will have been" are helping or auxiliary verbs
and "studying" is the main verb; the whole verb string is underlined:
• As of next August, I will have been studying chemistry for ten years.
Students should remember that adverbs and contracted forms are not, technically, part of the
verb. In the sentence, "He has already started." the adverb already modifies the verb, but it is not
really part of the verb. The same is true of the 'nt in "He hasn't started yet" (the adverb not,
represented by the contracted n't, is not part of the verb, has started).
Shall, will and forms of have, do and be combine with main verbs to indicate time and voice. As
auxiliaries, the verbs be, have and do can change form to indicate changes in subject and time.
• I shall go now.
• He had won the election.
• They did write that novel together.
 • I am going now.
• He was winning the election.
• They have been writing that novel for a long time.

STUCTURE II SUMMARY

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