EC6202 ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS

Class Notes
Unit II

SYLLABUS:
UNIT II TRANSISTORS
BJT, JFET, MOSFET- structure, operation, characteristics and Biasing UJT, Thyristor and IGBT -
Structure and characteristics.

BJT –Bipolar Junction Transistor

Transistor consists of three portions namely emitter, base and collector. Among them base forms the
middle part. It is very thin and lightly doped because it allows most of the emitter current carriers
towards the collector. Since base is acting as an interface it doesn't need more area.
Transistor biasing is the process of maintaining proper flow of zero signal collector current and
collector-emitter voltage during the passage of signal. Biasing keeps emitter-base junction forward
biased and collector-base junction reverse biased during the passage of signal.
Active region: It is defined in which transistor collector junction is biased in reverse direction and
emitter junction in forward direction.
Cutoff region: The region in which the collector and emitter junctions are both reverse-biased
Saturation region : The region in which both the collector and emitter junctions are forward biased.
Common base configuration, Common emitter configuration Common collector configuration
CE Configuration:

Input Characteristics:

The curve between IB and VBE for different values of VCE are shown in figure. Since the base emitter
junction of a transistor is a diode, therefore the characteristic is similar to diode one. With higher
values of VCE collector gathers slightly more electrons and therefore base current reduces. Normally
this effect is neglected. (Early effect). When collector is shorted with emitter then the input
characteristic is the characteristic of a forward biased diode when VBE is zero and IB is also zero.

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Output Characteristics: The output characteristic is the curve between VCE and IC for various values
of IB. For fixed value of IB and is shown in figure. For fixed value of IB, IC is not varying much
dependent on VCE but slopes are greater than CE characteristic. The output characteristics can again
be divided into three parts.

(1) Active Region:

In this region collector junction is reverse biased and emitter junction is forward biased. It is the area
to the right of VCE = 0.5 V and above IB= 0. In this region transistor current responds most sensitively
to IB. If transistor is to be used as an amplifier, it must operate in this region.
I E  IC  I B
Since , I C  I CO   dc I E
I C  I CO   dc ( I C  I B )
or
(1   dc ) I C   dc I B  I co
0r
    1 
I C   dc  I B    I CO
 1   dc   1   dc 
 dc
 dc 
1   dc
 I C  (1   dc ) I CO   dc I B
IC  IC0
 dc 
I B  I CO

If adc is truly constant then IC would be independent of VCE. But because of early effect, αdc increases
by 0.1% (0.001) e.g. from 0.995 to 0.996 as VCE increases from a few volts to 10V.
Then βdc increases from 0.995 / (1-0.995) = 200 to 0.996 / (1-0.996) = 250 or about 25%. This shows

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that small change in a reflects large change in b. Therefore the curves are subjected to large variations
for the same type of transistors.
(2) Cut Off:
Cut off in a transistor is given by IB = 0, IC= ICO. A transistor is not at cut off if the base current is
simply reduced to zero (open circuited) under this condition,
IC = IE= ICO / ( 1-αdc) = ICEO
The actual collector current with base open is designated as ICEO. Since even in the neighborhood of
cut off, a dc may be as large as 0.9 for Ge, then IC=10 ICO(approximately), at zero base current.
Accordingly in order to cut off transistor it is not enough to reduce IB to zero, but it is necessary to
reverse bias the emitter junction slightly. It is found that reverse voltage of 0.1 V is sufficient for cut
off a transistor. In Si, the α dc is very nearly equal to zero, therefore, IC = ICO. Hence even with IB= 0,
IC= IE= ICO so that transistor is very close to cut off. In summary, cut off means IE = 0, IC = ICO, IB = -
IC = -ICO , and VBE is a reverse voltage whose magnitude is of the order of 0.1 V for Ge and 0 V for
Si.
(3).Saturation Region:
In this region both the diodes are forward biased by at least cut in voltage. Since the voltage VBE and
VBC across a forward is approximately 0.7 V therefore, VCE = VCB+ VBE = - VBC + VBE is also few
tenths of volts. Hence saturation region is very close to zero voltage axis, where all the current
rapidly reduces to zero. In this region the transistor collector current is approximately given by VCC /
R C and independent of base current. Normal transistor action is last and it acts like a small ohmic
resistance.
Comparison of CE, CB and CC configurations:
Parameters CB CE CC

Current gain (Ai) Low High High

Voltage gain (Vi) High High Low

Input resistance (Ri) Low Medium High

Output resistance (Ro) High Medium Low

Common Base Configuration

If the base is common to the input and output circuits, it is known as common base configuration as
shown in figure.

For a pnp transistor the largest current components are due to holes. Holes flow from emitter to
collector and few holes flow down towards ground out of the base terminal. The current directions

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are shown (IE = IC + IB ).For a forward biased junction, VEB is positive and for a reverse biased
junction VCB is negative. The complete transistor can be described by the following two relations,
which give the input voltage VEB and output current IC in terms of the output voltage (VCB) and input
current IE.
VEB = f1(VCB, IE)
IC= f2(VCB, IE)
The output characteristic:
The collector current IC is completely determined by the input current IE and the VCB voltage. It is a
plot of IC versus VCB, with emitter current IE as parameter. The curves are known as the output or
collector or static characteristics. The transistor consists of two diodes placed in series back to back
(with two cathodes connected together). The complete characteristic can be divided in three regions.

Figure 7.2
(1). Active region:
In this region the collector diode is reverse biased and the emitter diode is forward biased. Consider
first that the emitter current is zero. Then the collector current is small and equals the reverse
saturation current ICO of the collector junction considered as a diode. If the forward current IB is
increased, then a fraction of IE ie. αdcIE will reach the collector. In the active region, the collector
current is essentially independent of collector voltage and depends only upon the emitter current.
Because adc is, less than one but almost equal to unity, the magnitude of the collector current is
slightly less that of emitter current. The collector current is almost constant and works as a current
source. The collector current slightly increases with voltage. This is due to early effect. At higher
voltage collector gathers in a few more electrons. This reduces the base current. The difference is so
small, that it is usually neglected. If the collector voltage is increased, then space charge width
increases; this decreased the effective base width. Then there is less chance for recombination within
the base region.
(2). Saturation region
The region to the left of the ordinate VCB = 0, and above the IE = 0, characteristic in which both
emitter and collector junction are forward biased, is called saturation region.
When collector diode is forward biased, there is large change in collector current with small changes
in collector voltage. A forward bias means, that p is made positive with respect to n, there is a flow of
holes from p to n. This changes the collector current direction. If diode is sufficiently forward biased
the current changes rapidly. It does not depend upon emitter current.
(3). Cut off region:
The region below IE = 0 and to the right of VCB for which emitter and collector junctions are both
reversed biased is referred to cutoff region. The characteristics IE = 0, is similar to other
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characteristics but not coincident with horizontal axis. The collector current is same as ICO. ICBO is
frequently used for ICO. It means collector to base current with emitter open. This is also temperature
dependent.
The Input Characteristic:

In the active region the input diode is forward biased, therefore, input characteristic is simply the
forward biased characteristic of the emitter to base diode for various collector voltages Below cut in
voltage (0.7 or 0.3) the emitter current is very small. The curve with the collector open represents the
forward biased emitter diode. Because of the early effect the emitter current increases for same VEB.
(The diode becomes better diode).When the collector is shorted to the base, the emitter current
increases for a given VEBsince the collector now removes minority carriers from the base, and hence
base can attract more holes from the emitter. This mean that the curve VCB= 0, is shifted from the
character when VCB = open.

Common Collector Configuration.

The common emitter configuration has a current gain approximately equal to the β value of the
transistor itself. In the common collector configuration the load resistance is situated in series with
the emitter so its current is equal to that of the emitter current.
As the emitter current is the combination of the collector AND the base current combined, the load
resistance in this type of transistor configuration also has both the collector current and the input
current of the base flowing through it. Then the current gain of the circuit is given as:
Input characteristics:

i. The input current IB is plotted on the Y axis and the input voltage VBC is plotted on the X axis for a
constant output voltage VEC.

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ii. The base emitter junction is not forward biased upto VBC=1.5volt. Therefore the base current is
zero upto VBC=1.5 volt at constant VCE of 1volt.

iii. Then it increases rapidly as VBC is inceased beyond 1.5volt. This is because BE junction is more
and more forward biased.

Output Characteristics:

. It is a graph of output current IE vs output voltage VEC at constant value of input current IB.

ii. Biasing of the 2 junctions of a transistor is done as follows.

Sl. No. Region of operation Base emitter junction Collector base junction

1. Cutoff region Reverse biased Reverse biased

2. Active region Forward biased Reverse biased

3. Saturation region Forward biased Forward biased

iii. The region below the curve for IB = 0 is called cutoff region. In the active region, at a fixed value
of VEC if IB is increased, it will cause IE to increase substantially. In the saturation region, emitter
current increases rapidly with increase in VEC.

The Common Collector Current Gain

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 I E  IC  I B
I E IC  I B
Ai  
IB IB
IC
Ai  1
IB
Ai    1

Biasing of BJT:

1. Fixed bias
2. Collector-to-base bias
3. Fixed bias with emitter resistor
4. Voltage divider bias
5. Emitter bias

Fixed bias (base bias)

Fixed bias (Base bias):

This form of biasing is also called base bias. In the example image on the right, the single
power source (for example, a battery) is used for both collector and base of a transistor,
although separate batteries can also be used.
In the given circuit,
Vcc = IBRB + Vbe
Therefore,
IB = (Vcc − Vbe)/RB

For a given transistor, Vbe does not vary significantly during use. As Vcc is of fixed value, on
selection of RB, the base current IB is fixed. Therefore this type is called fixed bias type of
circuit.
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 Also for given circuit,
Vcc = ICRC + Vce
Therefore,
Vce = Vcc − ICRC
The common-emitter current gain of a transistor is an important parameter in circuit design,
and is specified on the data sheet for a particular transistor. It is denoted as β on this page.
Because IC = βIB
we can obtain IC as well. In this manner, operating point given as (Vce,IC) can be set for given
transistor.
Merits:
 It is simple to shift the operating point anywhere in the active region by merely changing the
base resistor (RB).
 A very small number of components are required.
Demerits:
 The collector current does not remain constant with variation in temperature or power supply
voltage. Therefore the operating point is unstable.
 Changes in Vbe will change IB and thus cause IE to change. This in turn will alter the gain of
the stage.
 When the transistor is replaced with another one, considerable change in the value of β can be
expected. Due to this change the operating point will shift.
 For small-signal transistors (e.g., not power transistors) with relatively high values of β (i.e.,
between 100 and 200), this configuration will be prone to thermal runaway. In particular,
the stability factor, which is a measure of the change in collector current with changes in
reverse saturation current, is approximately β+1. To ensure absolute stability of the amplifier,
a stability factor of less than 25 is preferred, and so small-signal transistors have large
stability factors.

Usage:
Due to the above inherent drawbacks, fixed bias is rarely used in linear circuits (i.e., those
circuits which use the transistor as a current source). Instead, it is often used in circuits where
transistor is used as a switch. However, one application of fixed bias is to achieve
crude automatic gain control in the transistor by feeding the base resistor from a DC signal
derived from the AC output of a later stage.
Collector feedback bias

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 Collector-to-base bias

This configuration employs negative feedback to prevent thermal runaway and stabilize the
operating point. In this form of biasing, the base resistor RB is connected to the collector
instead of connecting it to the DC source Vcc. So any thermal runaway will induce a voltage
drop across the Rc resistor that will throttle the transistor's base current.
From Kirchhoff's voltage law, the voltage VRb across the base resistor Rb is
V Rb  Vcc  ( I c  I b ) Rc  Vbe
By the Ebers–Moll model, I c  I B and so

VRb  Vcc  (I b  I b ) Rc  Vbe  Vcc  (  1) I b Rc  Vbe

From Ohm's law, the base current
I B  V RB / Rb and so
I b Rb  Vcc  (I b  I b ) Rc  Vbe  Vcc  (  1) I b Rc  Vbe
Hence, the base current is
Vcc  Vbe
Ib 
Rb  (   1) Rc
If Vbe is held constant and temperature increases, then the collector current Ic increases.
However, a larger Ic causes the voltage drop across resistor Rc to increase, which in turn
reduces the voltage VRb across the base resistor Rb. A lower base-resistor voltage drop reduces
the base current Ib, which results in less collector current Ic. Because an increase in collector
current with temperature is opposed, the operating point is kept stable.
Merits:
 Circuit stabilizes the operating point against variations in temperature and β (i.e. replacement
of transistor).
 Circuit stabilizes the operating point (as a fraction of Vcc) against variations in Vcc.
Demerits:

 Although small changes in β are OK, large changes in β will greatly change the operating
point. must be chosen once β is known fairly accurately (perhaps within ~ 25%), yet the
variability of β between "identical" parts is often larger than this.
 In this circuit, to keep Ic independent of β , the following condition must be met:
Vcc  Vbe V  Vbe
I c  I B =    cc
Rb  (   1) Rc Rc

which is the case when

Rc  Rb

 As  -value is fixed (and generally unknown) for a given transistor, this relation can be
satisfied either by keeping RC fairly large or making Rb very low.

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  If Rc is large, a high Vcc is necessary, which increases cost as well as precautions
necessary while handling.
 If Rb is low, the reverse bias of the collector–base region is small, which limits the
range of collector voltage swing that leaves the transistor in active mode.
 The resistor Rb causes an AC feedback, reducing the voltage gain of the amplifier. This
undesirable effect is a trade-off for greater Q-point stability.
Usage: The negative feedback also increases the input impedance of the amplifier as seen
from the base, which can be advantageous. Due to the gain reduction from feedback, this
biasing form is used only when the trade-off for stability is warranted.

Fixed Bias with emitter resistor:

Fixed bias with emitter resistor

Fixed bias with emitter resistor
The fixed bias circuit is modified by attaching an external resistor to the emitter. This resistor
introduces negative feedback that stabilizes the Q-point. FromKirchhoff's voltage law, the voltage
across the base resistor is
VRb  Vcc  I e Re  Vbe
From Ohm's law, the base current is
V
I b  Rb
Rb
The way feedback controls the bias point is as follows. If Vbe is held constant and temperature
increases, emitter current increases. However, a larger Ie increases the emitter voltage Ve = IeRe,
which in turn reduces the voltage VRb across the base resistor. A lower base-resistor voltage drop
reduces the base current, which results in less collector current because Ic = β IB. Collector current
and emitter current are related by Ic = α Ie with α ≈ 1, so the increase in emitter current with
temperature is opposed, and the operating point is kept stable.
Similarly, if the transistor is replaced by another, there may be a change in IC (corresponding to
change in β-value, for example). By similar process as above, the change is negated and operating
point kept stable.
For the given circuit,

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 Vcc  Vbe
IB 
RB  (   1) RE
Merits:
The circuit has the tendency to stabilize operating point against changes in temperature and β-value.
Demerits:
 In this circuit, to keep IC independent of β the following condition must be met:
 (Vcc  Vbe ) V V
I c  I b   cc be
Rb  (   1) RE RE
which is approximately the case if
(  1) RE  RB
 As β-value is fixed for a given transistor, this relation can be satisfied either by keeping RE very
large, or making RB very low.
 If RE is of large value, high VCC is necessary. This increases cost as well as precautions necessary
while handling.
 If RB is low, a separate low voltage supply should be used in the base circuit. Using two supplies
of different voltages is impractical.
 In addition to the above, RE causes ac feedback which reduces the voltage gain of the amplifier.
Usage:
The feedback also increases the input impedance of the amplifier when seen from the base, which can
be advantageous. Due to the above disadvantages, this type of biasing circuit is used only with
careful consideration of the trade-offs involved.
Collector-Stabilized Biasing
Voltage divider biasing:

Voltage divider bias

The voltage divider is formed using external resistors R1 and R2. The voltage across
R2 forward biases the emitter junction. By proper selection of resistors R1and R2, the
operating point of the transistor can be made independent of β. In this circuit, the voltage
divider holds the base voltage fixed independent of base current provided the divider current
is large compared to the base current. However, even with a fixed base voltage, collector

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 current varies with temperature (for example) so an emitter resistor is added to stabilize the Q-
point, similar to the above circuits with emitter resistor.
In this circuit the base voltage is given by
Vcc R2 I RR
VB  VR 2   B 1 2
( R1  R2 ) ( R1  R2 )
Vcc R2
VB  VR 2 
( R1  R2 )
provided I B  R2
Also VB  Vbe  I E RE
Also
For the given circuit,
Vcc
 Vbe
1  R1 / R2
IB 
(   1) RE  R1 || R2
Merits:

 Unlike above circuits, only one dc supply is necessary.

 Operating point is almost independent of β variation.
 Operating point stabilized against shift in temperature.
Demerits:

 In this circuit, to keep IC independent of β the following condition must be met:

Vcc Vcc
 Vbe  Vbe
1  R1 / R2 1  R1 / R2
I c  I b  
(   1) RE  R1 || R2 RE

which is approximately the case if

(  1) RE  R1 || R2 >> R1 || R2

where R1 || R2 denotes the equivalent resistance of R1 and R2 connected in parallel.

 As β-value is fixed for a given transistor, this relation can be satisfied either by keeping RE fairly
large, or making R1||R2 very low.
 If RE is of large value, high VCC is necessary. This increases cost as well as precautions necessary
while handling.
 If R1 || R2 is low, either R1 is low, or R2 is low, or both are low. A low R1 raises VB closer to VC,
reducing the available swing in collector voltage, and limiting how large RC can be made without
driving the transistor out of active mode. A low R2 lowers Vbe, reducing the allowed collector
current. Lowering both resistor values draws more current from the power supply and lowers the
input resistance of the amplifier as seen from the base.
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 AC as well as DC feedback is caused by RE, which reduces the AC voltage gain of the amplifier.
A method to avoid AC feedback while retaining DC feedback is discussed below.
Usage:
The circuit's stability and merits as above make it widely used for linear circuits.

JFET structure, operation, characteristics and Biasing

Consider a sample bar of N-type semiconductor. This is called N-channel and it is electrically
equivalent to a resistance. Ohmic contacts are then added on each side of the channel to bring the
external connection. Thus, if a voltage is applied across the bar, the current flows through the
channel. The terminal from where the majority carriers (electrons) enter the channel is called source
designated by S. The terminal through which majority carriers leave the channel is called drain and
designated by D. For an N-channel device, electrons are the majority carriers. Hence the circuit
behaves like a dc voltage VDS applied across a resistance RDS. The resulting current is the drain
current ID. If VDS increases, ID increases proportionally. Now on both sides of the n-type bar heavily
doped regions of p-type impurity have been formed by any method for creating pn junction. These
impurity regions are called gates. Both the gates are internally connected and they are grounded
yielding zero gate source voltage (VGS =0). The word gate is used because the potential applied
between gate and source controls the channel width and hence the current. As with all PN junctions, a
depletion region is formed on the two sides of the reverse biased PN junction. The current carriers
have diffused across the junction, leaving only uncovered positive ions on the n side and negative
ions on the p side. The depletion region width increases with the magnitude of reverse bias. The
conductivity of this channel is normally zero because of the unavailability of current carriers. The
potential at any point along the channel depends on the distance of that point from the drain, points
close to the drain are at a higher positive potential, relative to ground, then points close to the source.
Both depletion regions are therefore subject to greater reverse voltage near the drain. Therefore the
depletion region width increases as we move towards drain. The flow of electrons from source to
drain is now restricted to the narrow channel between the no conducting depletion regions. The width
of this channel determines the resistance between drain and source.

Consider now the behavior of drain current ID vs drain source voltage VDS. The gate source voltage is
zero therefore VGS= 0. Suppose that VDS is gradually linearly increased linearly from 0V. IDalso
increases. At this point further increase in VDS do not produce corresponding increase in ID. Instead,
as VDS increases, both depletion regions extend further into the channel, resulting in a no more cross
section, and hence a higher channel resistance. Thus even though, there is more voltage, the
resistance is also greater and the current remains relatively constant. This is called pinch off or
saturation region. The current in this region is maximum current that FET can produce and
designated by IDSS. (Drain to source current with gate shorted). As with all pn junctions, when the
reverse voltage exceeds a certain level, avalanche breakdown of pn junction occurs and ID rises very
rapidly .Consider now an N-channel JFET with a reverse gate source voltage. The additional reverse
bias, pinch off will occur for smaller values of | VDS |, and the maximum drain current will be smaller.
Suppose that VGS= 0 and that due of VDS at a specific point along the channel is +5V with respect to
ground. Therefore reverse voltage across either p-n junction is now 5V. If VGS is decreased from 0 to
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–1V the net reverse bias near the point is 5 - (-1) = 6V. Thus for any fixed value of VDS, the channel
width decreases as VGS is made more negative. Thus ID value changes correspondingly. When the
gate voltage is negative enough, the depletion layers touch each other and the conducting channel
pinches off (disappears). In this case the drain current is cut off. The gate voltage that produces cut
off is symbolized VGS(off) . It is same as pinch off voltage. Since the gate source junction is a reverse
biased silicon diode, only very small reverse current flows through it. Ideally gate current is zero. As
a result, all the free electrons from the source go to the drain i.e. ID = IS. Because the gate draws
almost negligible reverse current the input resistance is very high 10's or 100's of M ohm. Therefore
where high input impedance is required, JFET is preferred over BJT. The disadvantage is less control
over output current i.e. FET takes larger changes in input voltage to produce changes in output
current. For this reason, JFET has less voltage gain than a bipolar amplifier.

Drain characteristics graph

Transconductance Curves: The trans conductance curve of a JFET is a graph of output current (ID)
vs input voltage (VGS) .

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 Transfer characteristic curve
By reading the value of ID and VGS for a particular value of VDS, the trans conductance curve can be
plotted. The transconductance curve is a part of parabola. It has an equation of

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 V 
I D  I DSS 1  GS 
 V 
 GS ( Off ) 

Data sheet provides only IDSS and VGS(off) value. Using these values the transconductance curve can
be plotted.

MOSFET structure, operation, characteristics and Biasing

Figure shows the construction of an N-channel E-MOSFET. The main difference between the
construction of DE-MOSFET and that of E-MOSFET, as we see from the figures given below the E-
MOSFET substrate extends all the way to the silicon dioxide (SiO2) and no channels are doped
between the source and the drain. Channels are electrically induced in these MOSFETs, when a
positive gate-source voltage VGS is applied to it.

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Operation of EMOSFET:

As its name indicates, this MOSFET operates only in the enhancement mode and has no depletion
mode. It operates with large positive gate voltage only. It does not conduct when the gate-source
voltage VGS = 0. This is the reason that it is called normally-off MOSFET. In these MOSFET’s drain
current ID flows only when VGS exceeds VGST [gate-to-source threshold voltage]. When drain is
applied with positive voltage with respect to source and no potential is applied to the gate two N-
regions and one P-substrate from two P-N junctions connected back to back with a resistance of the
P-substrate. So a very small drain current that is, reverses leakage current flows. If the P-type
substrate is now connected to the source terminal, there is zero voltage across the source substrate
junction, and the-drain-substrate junction remains reverse biased. When the gate is made positive with
respect to the source and the substrate, negative (i.e. minority) charge carriers within the substrate are
attracted to the positive gate and accumulate close to the-surface of the substrate. As the gate voltage
is increased, more and more electrons accumulate under the gate. Since these electrons cannot flow
across the insulated layer of silicon dioxide to the gate, so they accumulate at the surface of the
substrate just below the gate. These accumulated minority charge carriers N -type channel stretching
from drain to source. When this occurs, a channel is induced by forming what is termed an inversion
layer (N-type). Now a drain current starts flowing. The strength of the drain current depends upon
the channel resistance which, in turn, depends upon the number of charge carriers attracted to the
positive gate. Thus drain current is controlled by the gate potential. Since the conductivity of the
channel is enhanced by the positive bias on the gate so this device is also called the enhancement
MOSFET or E- MOSFET.The minimum value of gate-to-source voltage VGS that is required to form
the inversion layer (N-type) is termed the gate-to-source threshold voltage VGST. For VGS below
VGST, the drain current ID = 0. But for VGS exceeding VGST an N-type inversion layer connects the
source to drain and the drain current ID is large. Depending upon the device being used, VGST may
vary from less than 1 V to more than 5 V.JFETs and DE-MOSFETs are classified as the depletion-
mode devices because their conductivity depends on the action of depletion layers. E-MOSFET is
classified as an enhancement-mode device because its conductivity depends on the action of the

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inversion layer. Depletion-mode devices are normally ON when the gate-source voltage VGS = 0,
whereas the enhancement-mode devices are normally OFF when VGS = 0.

Characteristics of EMOSFET

Drain characteristics of an N-channel E-MOSFET are shown in figure. The lowest curve is the
VGST curve. When VGS is lesser than VGST, ID is approximately zero. When VGS is greater than VGST,
the device turns- on and the drain current ID is controlled by the gate voltage. The characteristic
curves have almost vertical and almost horizontal parts. The almost vertical components of the curves
correspond to the ohmic region, and the horizontal components correspond to the constant current
region. Thus E-MOSFET can be operated in either of these regions i.e. it can be used as a variable-
voltage resistor (WR) or as a constant current source.

Figure shows a typical transconductance curve. The current IDSS at VGS <=0 is very small, being of
the order of a few nano-amperes. When the VGS is made positive, the drain current ID increases
slowly at first, and then much more rapidly with an increase in VGS. The manufacturer sometimes
indicates the gate-source threshold voltage VGST at which the drain current ID attains some defined
small value, say 10 u A. A current ID (0N, corresponding approximately to the maximum value given
on the drain characteristics and the values of VGS required to give this current VGs QN are also usually
given on the manufacturers data sheet. The equation for the transfer characteristic does not obey
equation. However it does follow a similar ―square law type‖ of relationship. The equation for the
transfer characteristic of E-MOSFETs is given as:
ID=K(VGS-VGST)2
UJT –Uni Junction Transistor- Structure and characteristics
Unijunction transistor (abbreviated as UJT), also called the double-base diode is a 2-layer,
3-terminal solid-state (silicon) switching device. The device has-a unique characteristic that when it
is triggered, its emitter current increases re generatively (due to negative resistance characteristic)
until it is restricted by emitter power supply. The low cost per unit, combined with its unique
characteristic, have warranted its use in a wide variety of applications. A few include oscillators,
pulse generators, saw-tooth generators, triggering circuits, phase control, timing circuits, and voltage-

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or current-regulated supplies. The device is in general, a low-power-absorbing device under normal
operating conditions and provides tremendous aid in the continual effort to design relatively efficient
systems.
Construction of a UJT
The basic structure of a uni junction transistor is shown in figure. It essentially consists of a
lightly-doped N-type silicon bar with a small piece of heavily doped P-type material alloyed to its
one side to produce single P-N junction. The single P-N junction accounts for the terminology
unijunction. The silicon bar, at its ends, has two ohmic contacts designated as base-1 (B1) and base-2
(B2), as shown and the P-type region is termed the emitter (E). The emitter junction is usually located
closer to base-2 (B2) than base-1 (B1) so that the device is not symmetrical, because symmetrical unit
does not provide optimum electrical characteristics for most of the applications.

UJT Symbol and Construction

The symbol for unijunction transistor is shown in figure. The emitter leg is drawn at an angle
to the vertical line representing the N-type material slab and the arrowhead points in the direction of
conventional current when the device is forward-biased, active or in the conducting state. The basic
arrangement for the UJT is shown in figure.
A complementary UJT is formed by diffusing an N-type emitter terminal on a P-type base.
Except for the polarities of voltage and current, the characteristics of a complementary UJT are
exactly the same as those of a conventional UJT.

The worth noting points about UJT are given below:

 The device has only one junction, so it is called the unijunction device.
 The device, because of one P-N junction, is quite similar to a diode but it differs from an
ordinary diode as it has three terminals.
 The structure of a UJT is quite similar to that of an N-channel JFET. The main difference is
that P-type (gate) material surrounds the N-type (channel) material in case of JFET and the gate
surface of the JFET is much larger than emitter junction of UJT.
 In a unijunction transistor the emitter is heavily doped while the N-region is lightly doped, so
the resistance between the base terminals is relatively high, typically 4 to 10 kilo Ohm when the
emitter is open.
 The N-type silicon bar has a high resistance and the resistance between emitter and base-1 is
larger than that between emitter and base-2. It is because emitter is closer to base-2 than base-1.
 UJT is operated with emitter junction forward- biased while the JFET is normally operated
with the gate junction reverse-biased.
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 UJT does not have ability to amplify but it has the ability to control a large ac power with a small
signal. It exhibits a negative resistance characteristic and so it can be employed as an oscillator.

Operation of a UJT
Imagine that the emitter supply voltage is turned down to zero. Then the intrinsic stand-off volt age
reverse-biases the emitter diode, as mentioned above. If VB is the barrier voltage of the emitter diode,
then the total reverse bias voltage is VA + VB = Ƞ VBB + VB. For silicon VB = 0.7 V.

Now let the emitter supply voltage VE be slowly increased. When VE becomes equal to Ƞ VBB,
IEo will be reduced to zero. With equal voltage levels on each side of the diode, neither reverse nor
forward current will flow. When emitter supply voltage is further increased, the diode becomes
forward-biased as soon as it exceeds the total reverse bias voltage (Ƞ VBB + VB). This value of emitter
voltage VE is called the peak-point voltage and is denoted by VP. When VE = VP, emitter current
IE starts to flow through RB1 to ground, that is B1. This is the minimum current that is required to
trigger the UJT. This is called the peak-point emitter current and denoted by IP. Ip is inversely
proportional to the inter base voltage, VBB. Now when the emitter diode starts conducting, charge
carriers are injected into the RB region of the bar. Since the resistance of a semiconductor material
depends upon doping, the resistance of region RB decreases rapidly due to additional charge carriers
(holes). With this decrease in resistance, the voltage drop across RB also decrease, cause the emitter
diode to be more heavily forward biased. This, in turn, results in larger forward current, and
consequently more charge carriers are injected causing still further reduction in the resistance of the
RB region. Thus the emitter current goes on increasing until it is limited by the emitter power supply.
Since VA decreases with the increase in emitter current, the UJT is said to have negative resistance
characteristic. It is seen that the base-2 (B2) is used only for applying external voltage VBB across it.
Terminals E and B1 are the active terminals. UJT is usually triggered into conduction by applying a
suitable positive pulse to the emitter. It can be turned off by applying a negative trigger pulse.

UJT Characteristics

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 The static emitter characteristic (a curve showing the relation between emitter voltage VE and
emitter current IE) of a UJT at a given inter base voltage VBB is shown in figure. From figure it is
noted that for emitter potentials to the left of peak point, emitter current IE never exceeds IEo . The
current IEo corresponds very closely to the reverse leakage current ICo of the conventional BJT. This
region, as shown in the figure, is called the cut-off region. Once conduction is established at VE =
VP the emitter potential VE starts decreasing with the increase in emitter current IE. This Corresponds
exactly with the decrease in resistance RB for increasing current IE. This device, therefore, has a
negative resistance region which is stable enough to be used with a great deal of reliability in the
areas of applications listed earlier. Eventually, the valley point reaches, and any further increase in
emitter current IE places the device in the saturation region, as shown in the figure. Three other
important parameters for the UJT are IP, VV and IV and are defined below:
Peak-Point Emitter Current (Ip): It is the emitter current at the peak point. It represents the
rnimrnum current that is required to trigger the device (UJT). It is inversely proportional to the
interbase voltage VBB.
Valley Point Voltage (VV): The valley point voltage is the emitter voltage at the valley point. The
valley voltage increases with the increase in interbase voltage VBB.
Valley Point Current (IV): The valley point current is the emitter current at the valley point. It
increases with the increase in inter-base voltage VBB.

Special Features of UJT: The special features of a UJT are :

1. A stable triggering voltage (VP)— a fixed fraction of applied inter base voltage VBB.
2. A very low value of triggering current.
3. A high pulse current capability.
4. A negative resistance characteristic.
5. Low cost.
Applications of UJT
 Relaxation oscillators.
 Switching Thyristors like SCR, TRIAC etc.
 Magnetic flux sensors.
 Voltage or current limiting circuit.
 Bistable oscillators.
 Voltage or current regulators.
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  Phase control circuits.
UJT relaxation oscillator

The circuit diagram of a UJT relaxation oscillator is given shown above. R1 and R2 are
current limiting resistors. Resistor R and capacitor C determines the frequency of the oscillator. The
frequency of the UJT relaxation oscillator can be expressed by the equation F = 1/ (RC ln(1/(1-
η)) where η is the intrinsic standoff ratio and ln stand for natural logarithm.
When power supply is switched ON the capacitor C starts charging through resistor R. The
capacitor keeps on charging until the voltage across it becomes equal to 0.7V plus ηVbb. This voltage
is the peak voltage point ―Vp‖ denoted in the characteristics curve (Fig:2). After this point the
emitter to RB1 resistance drops drastically and the capacitors starts discharging through this path.
When the capacitor is discharged to the valley point voltage ―Vv‖ (refer Fig : 1) the emitter to RB1
resistance climbs again and the capacitor starts charging. This cycle is repeated and results in a sort of
sawtooth waveform across the capacitor. The saw tooth waveform across the capacitor of a typical
UJT relaxation oscillator is shown in the figure.

Thyristor - Structure and characteristics.

The Thyristor family of semiconductors consists of several very useful devices. The most
widely used of this family are silicon controlled rectifiers (SCRs), Triacs, SIDACs, and DIACs. In
many applications these devices perform key functions and are real assets in meeting environmental,
speed, and reliability specifications which their electromechanical counterparts cannot fulfill. This
application note presents the basic fundamentals of SCR, Triac, SIDAC, and DIAC Thyristors so the
user understands how they differ in characteristics and parameters from their electro-mechanical
counterparts. Also, Thyristor terminology is defined.

SCR(Silicon Controlled Rectifier)

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Construction

The Silicon Control Rectifier (SCR) consists of four layers of semiconductors, which
form NPNP or PNPN structures. It has three junctions, labeled J1, J2, and J3 and three terminals.
The anode terminal of an SCR is connected to the P-Type material of a PNPN structure, and the
cathode terminal is connected to the N-Type layer, while the gate of the Silicon Control Rectifier
SCR is connected to the P-Type material nearest to the cathode. An SCR consists of four layers of
alternating P and N type semiconductor materials. Silicon is used as the intrinsic semiconductor, to
which the proper dopants are added. The junctions are either diffused or alloyed. The planar
construction is used for low power SCRs (and all the junctions are diffused). The mesa type
construction is used for high power SCRs. In this case, junction J2 is obtained by the diffusion
method and then the outer two layers are alloyed to it, since the PNPN pellet is required to handle
large currents. It is properly braced with tungsten or molybdenum plates to provide greater
mechanical strength. One of these plates is hard soldered to a copper stud, which is threaded for
attachment of heat sink. The doping of PNPN will depend on the application of SCR, since its
characteristics are similar to those of the thyratron. Today, the term thyristor applies to the larger
family of multilayer devices that exhibit bi-stable state-change behaviour, that is, switching either
ON or OFF.

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VI-CHARACTERISTICS OF SCR

Forward Characteristics (Forward Conduction):

 Anode is +ve w.r.t. cathode
 When supply voltage is increased from zero, suddenly the SCR starts conducting => break
over voltage
 Voltage drops at this point suddenly as shown by the dotted line.
 If proper gate current is made to flow, then SCR can close at smaller supply voltage.
Reverse Characteristics
 Anode is -ve w.r.t. cathode
 Initially the anode current retains small (viz. leakage current)
 Beyond a particular reverse voltage, the SCR starts massive conduction (avalanche) =>
Reverse breakdown voltage.
Break over voltage
Also called the forward-break over voltage, this is the minimum forward voltage with the gate open
that the SCR starts conducting. In other words, the point where the SCR is turned ON. For example,
if the break over voltage of an SCR is 100V, then it can block a forward voltage until the supply
voltage is < 100V.
Peak Reverse Voltage
This is the maximum reverse voltage that can be applied to an SCR without conducting in the reverse
direction.
Holding Current
It is the maximum anode current (with gate being open) at which the SCR is
turned off from on condition. The SCR cannot be turned OFF by removing the Gate voltage. The
only way to turn OFF or open the SCR is to reduce the supply voltage to almost zero, at which the
internal transistor (refer to the below figure) comes out of saturation and opens the SCR.
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Forward Current Rating
It is the maximum anode current that an SCR is capable of passing without destruction.
APPLICATION OF SCR:
 SCRs are mainly used in devices where the control of high power, possibly coupled with high
voltage, is demanded.
 Their operation makes them suitable for use in medium to high-voltage AC power control
applications, such as lamp dimming, regulators and motor control .
 SCRs and similar devices are used for rectification of high power AC in high-voltage direct
current power transmission.
TRIAC (TRIODE FOR ALTERNATING CURRENT):

BLOCK CONSTRUCTION

OPERATION AND WORKING OF A TRIAC

Though the triac can be turned on without any gate current provided the supply voltage becomes
equal to the breakover voltage of the triac but the normal way to turn on the triac is by applying a
proper gate current. As in case of SCR, here too, the larger the gate current, the smaller the supply
voltage at which the triac is turned on. Triac can conduct current irrespective of the voltage polarity
of terminals MT1 and MT2 with respect to each other and that of gate and terminal MT2.
Consequently four different possibilities of operation of triac exists. They are:

1. Terminal MT2 and gate are positive with respect to terminal MT1
When terminal MT2 is positive with respect to terminal MT1 current flows through path P1-N1-P2-
N2.The two junctions P1-N1 and P2-N2 are forward biased whereas junction N1 P2 is blocked. The triac
is now said to be positively biased.
A positive gate with respect to terminal MT1 forward biases the junction P2-N2 and the breakdown
occurs as in a normal SCR.

2. Terminal MT2 is positive but gate is negative with respect to terminal MT1
Though the flow path of current remains the same as in mode 1 but now junction P 2-N3 is forward
biased and current carriers injected into P2 turn on the triac.

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3. Terminal MT2 and gate are negative with respect to terminal MT1
When terminal MT2 is negative with respect to terminal MT1, the current flow path is P2-N1-P1-N4.
The two junctions P2-N1 and P1 – N4 are forward biased whereas junction N1-P1 is blocked. The triac
is now said to be negatively biased.
A negative gate with respect to terminal MT1 injects current carriers by forward biasing junction P2-
N3and thus initiates the conduction.

4. Terminal MT2 is negative but gate is positive with respect to terminal MT1
Though the flow path of current remains the same as in mode 3 but now junction P2-N2 is forward
biased, current carriers are injected and therefore, the triac is turned on.
Generally, trigger mode 4 should be avoided especially in circuits where high di/dt may occur. The
sensitivity of triggering modes 2 and 3 is high and in case of marginal triggering capability negative
gate pulses should be used. Though the triggering mode 1 is more sensitive compared to modes 2 and
3, it requires a positive gate trigger. However, for bidirectional control and uniform gate trigger
modes 2 and 3 are preferred.

VI CHARACTERISTICS

Typical V-I characteristics of a triac are shown in figure. The triac has on and off state characteristics
similar to SCR but now the char acteristic is applicable to both positive and negative voltages. This is
expected because triac consists of two SCRs connected in parallel but opposite in direc tions.
MT2 is positive with respect to MTX in the first quadrant and it is negative in the third quad rant. As
already said in previous blog posts, the gate triggering may occur in any of the following four modes.
Quadrant I operation : VMT2, positive; VG1 positive
Quadrant II operation : VMT21 positive; VGl negative
Quadrant III operation : VMT21 negative; VGl negative
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Quadrant IV operation : VMT21 negative; VG1 positive
where VMT21 and VGl are the voltages of terminal MT2 and gate with respect to terminal MT1.
The device, when starts conduction permits a very heavy amount of current to flow through it. This
large inrush of current must be restricted by employing external resist ance, otherwise the device may
get damaged. The gate is the control terminal of the device. By applying proper signal to the gate, the
firing angle of the device can be controlled. The circuits used in the gate for triggering the device are
called the gate-triggering circuits. The gate-triggering circuits for the triac are almost same like those
used for SCRs. These triggering circuits usually generate trigger pulses for firing the device. The
trigger pulse should be of sufficient magnitude and duration so that firing of the device is assured.
Usually, a duration of 35 us is sufficient for sustaining the firing of the device.

DIAC: (Diode for Alternating Current)

 Diac as bi-directional switch.

Construction:
The diac is basically a two terminal parellel-inverse combination of semiconductor layers that permits
triggering in either direction. The basic arrangement of the semiconductor layers of the diac is shown
in the figure, along with its graphical symbol. Nore that either terminal is referred as the cathode.
Instead, there is an anode 1 and an anode 2. When the anode 1 is positive with respect to anode 2, the
semiconductor

Operation:
Diac circuits use the fact that a diac only conducts current only after a certain breakdown voltage has
been exceeded. The actual breakdown voltage will depend upon the specification for the particular
component type. When the diac breakdown voltage occurs, the resistance of the component decreases
abruptly and this leads to a sharp decrease in the voltage drop across the diac, and a corresponding
increase in current. The diac will remain in its conducing state until the current flow through it drops
below a particular value known as the holding current. When the current falls below the holding
current, the diac switches back to its high resistance, or non-conducting state. Diacs are widely used
in AC applications and it is found that the device is "reset" to its non-conducting state, each time the
voltage on the cycle falls so that the current falls below the holding current.

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As the behavior of the device is approximately equal in both directions, it can provide a method of
providing equal switching for both halves of an AC cycle, e.g for triacs. Most diacs have a
breakdown voltage of around 30 volts, although the exact specifications will depend upon the
particular type of device. Interestingly their behavior is somewhat similar to that of a neon lamp,
although they offer a far more precise switch on voltage and thereby provide a far better degree of
switching equalization.

Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor (IGBT)

Introduction
The Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor also called an IGBT for short, is something of a cross
between a conventional Bipolar Junction Transistor, (BJT) and a Field Effect Transistor, (MOSFET)
making it ideal as a semiconductor switching device. The IGBT transistor takes the best parts of these
two types of transistors, the high input impedance and high switching speeds of a MOSFET with the
low saturation voltage of a bipolar transistor, and combines them together to produce another type of
transistor switching device that is capable of handling large collector-emitter currents with virtually
zero gate current drive.

Typical IGBT
The Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor, (IGBT) uses the insulated gate (hence the first part of
its name) technology of the MOSFET with the output performance characteristics of a conventional
bipolar transistor, (hence the second part of its name). The result of this hybrid combination is that
the ―IGBT Transistor‖ has the output switching and conduction characteristics of a bipolar transistor
but is voltage-controlled like a MOSFET. IGBTs are mainly used in power electronics applications,
such as inverters, converters and power supplies, were the demands of the solid state switching
device are not fully met by power bipolars and power MOSFETs. High-current and high-voltage
bipolars are available, but their switching speeds are slow, while power MOSFETs may have high
switching speeds, but high-voltage and high-current devices are expensive and hard to achieve. The
advantage gained by the insulated gate bipolar transistor device over a BJT or MOSFET is that it
offers greater power gain than the bipolar type together with the higher voltage operation and lower

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input losses of the MOSFET. In effect it is an FET integrated with a bipolar transistor in a form of
Darlington configuration as shown.

Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor

We can see that the insulated gate bipolar transistor is a three terminal, transconductance
device that combines an insulated gate N-channel MOSFET input with a PNP bipolar transistor
output connected in a type of Darlington configuration. As a result the terminals are labelled
as: Collector, Emitter and Gate. Two of its terminals (C-E) are associated with a conductance path
and the third terminal (G) associated with its control. The amount of amplification achieved by
the insulated gate bipolar transistor is a ratio between its output signal and its input signal. For a
conventional bipolar junction transistor, (BJT) the amount of gain is approximately equal to the ratio
of the output current to the input current, called Beta.

For a metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistor or MOSFET, there is no input current as the
gate is isolated from the main current carrying channel. Therefore, an FET’s gain is equal to the ratio
of output current change to input voltage change, making it a transconductance device and this is also
true of the IGBT. Then we can treat the IGBT as a power BJT whose base current is provided by a
MOSFET. The Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor can be used in small signal amplifier circuits in
much the same way as the BJT or MOSFET type transistors. But as the IGBT combines the low
conduction loss of a BJT with the high switching speed of a power MOSFET an optimal solid state
switch exists which is ideal for use in power electronics applications.
Also, the IGBT has a much lower ―on-state‖ resistance, RON than an equivalent MOSFET.
This means that the I2R drop across the bipolar output structure for a given switching current is much
lower. The forward blocking operation of the IGBT transistor is identical to a power MOSFET.
When used as static controlled switch, the insulated gate bipolar transistor has voltage and
current ratings similar to that of the bipolar transistor. However, the presence of an isolated gate in an
IGBT makes it a lot simpler to drive than the BJT as much less drive power is needed.
An insulated gate bipolar transistor is simply turned ―ON‖ or ―OFF‖ by activating and deactivating
its Gate terminal. A constant positive voltage input signal across the Gate and the Emitter will keep
the device in its ―ON‖ state, while removal of the input signal will cause it to turn ―OFF‖ in much the
same way as a bipolar transistor or MOSFET.

IGBT Characteristics
Because the IGBT is a voltage-controlled device, it only requires a small voltage on the Gate to
maintain conduction through the device unlike BJT’s which require that the Base current is
continuously supplied in a sufficient enough quantity to maintain saturation. Also the IGBT is a
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unidirectional device, meaning it can only switch current in the ―forward direction‖, that is from
Collector to Emitter unlike MOSFET’s which have bi-directional current switching capabilities
(controlled in the forward direction and uncontrolled in the reverse direction).

The principal of operation and Gate drive circuits for the insulated gate bipolar transistor are
very similar to that of the N-channel power MOSFET. The basic difference is that the resistance
offered by the main conducting channel when current flows through the device in its ―ON‖ state is
very much smaller in the IGBT. Because of this, the current ratings are much higher when compared
with an equivalent power MOSFET. The main advantages of using the Insulated Gate Bipolar
Transistor over other types of transistor devices are its high voltage capability, low ON-resistance,
ease of drive, relatively fast switching speeds and combined with zero gate drive current makes it a
good choice for moderate speed, high voltage applications such as in pulse-width modulated (PWM),
variable speed control, switch-mode power supplies or solar powered DC-AC inverter and frequency
converter applications operating in the hundreds of kilohertz range.

IGBT Comparison Table

A general comparison between BJT’s, MOSFET’s and IGBT’s is given in the following table.
We have seen that the Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor is semiconductor switching device that
has the output characteristics of a bipolar junction transistor, BJT, but is controlled like a metal oxide
field effect transistor, MOSFET.

Device Power Power

IGBT
Characteristic Bipolar MOSFET
Voltage Rating High <1kV High <1kV Very High >1kV
Current Rating High <500A Low <200A High >500A
Current Voltage Voltage
Input Drive
20-200 hFE VGS 3-10V VGE 4-8V
Input Impedance Low High High
Output Impedance Low Medium Low
Switching Speed Slow (uS) Fast (nS) Medium
Cost Low Medium High
One of the main advantages of the IGBT transistor is the simplicity by which it can be driven
ON or OFF or in its linear active region as a power amplifier. With its lower on-state conduction
losses and its ability to switch high voltages without damage makes this transistor ideal for driving
inductive loads such as coil windings, electromagnets and DC motors.

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