Sei sulla pagina 1di 6

1

LESSON 1: SELF FROM THE PERSPECTIVE OF PHILOSOPHY

Learning Objectives:
At the end of the lesson, the student is able to:
1. Explain the development of the self from the different philosophical perspectives;
2. Construct a concept of self-based on the philosophers’ perspectives (with the inclusion of what they say
regarding the influences to self); and
3. Express deeper understanding of who he/ she is based on the different philosophical perspectives.

Introduction

Philosophy, which is the queen of all Sciences, has human nature as one of its focus of inquiry.
But human nature goes together with “self”. This “self” has nature which reveals who I am.
Thus, in this lesson, you will learn about the “self” or who you are, by going through what the
selected philosophers say about human nature (the “what is man?”) or their perspective on this. Their
quotes tell their perspective about man.

PHILOSOPHERS AND THEIR PERSPECTIVES OF THE SELF


I. Socrates
Brief Background about Socrates:
Socrates was born in Athens in 470 B.C. and became the teacher of Plato
(Stumpf, 1984). He was given death sentence in 399 B.C. by drinking hemlock
(a poison drink) in public.

www.keepinspiring.me revealed his famous thoughts about human nature (or


what is a man?), and these are:

 “The only good is knowledge and the only evil is ignorance,” or “There is only one good,
knowledge, and one evil, ignorance.”

What does this mean? For Socrates, man does evil because he is ignorant or he is not
knowledgeable since evil (or vice) is the absence of knowledge (Stumpf, 1984). He believed that man
would not do evil if he knew it is evil. He only does evil involuntarily because he is ignorant about it.
So, wrong doings are done involuntarily and out of ignorance.
Furthermore, Socrates believed that true knowledge produces happiness. True knowledge of
who you are (your human nature) allows you to know what are required for you to be happy (Stumpf,
1984). Also, true knowledge of things and types of behavior allows you to know if they can fulfill your
requirements for happiness. Knowledge is needed to be able to distinguish between what appears to
give happiness and what truly does give happiness.
Conversationally, ignorance does not know that particular behavior cannot produce happiness
(Stumpf, 1984). Man’s wrongdoing is a product of his ignorance because he hopes that the deed will
result to happiness but it cannot. His wrongdoings were out of inaccurate estimate of which behavior
can result to or bring happiness, and inaccurate expectation that particular kind of things or pleasures
result to happiness. For example, a shabu user and pusher knew that what he is doing is wrong and
evil. But he/ she still does the act for the hope of providing for the material needs of his/ her family
and forgetting his/ her many problems in life.
But how can true knowledge be attained? For Socrates, true knowledge can be surely attained
through disciplined conversations which is acting as an intellectual midwife and which he called
dialectic method (or also known as Socratic method or midwifery method) (Stumpf, 1984). This
method always starts with a discussion of the most obvious aspects of any problem. Then, in the
process of conversation (or dialogue), all parties involve are force to clarify their ideas. The final
outcome of the conversation is a clear statement of what was meant. But there are conversations or
dialogues ending inconclusively.

 “The unexamined life is not worth living.”

This quotation is parallel to the quotation, “no unexamined idea is worth having”. The latter
means that an idea subjected to dialectic method or Socratic Method is a true knowledge which is
worth having. Because the idea has been clearly defined (which is the characteristic of true
knowledge) from employing the dialectic method. The examined idea can bring forth goodness to
man because he can do what is right in his life, and thus, he can be happy in life.
2

Following the meaning of the latter quotation, the quotation, “the unexamined life is not worth
living,” means that examined life or a life subjected to dialectic method is worth having. Because
through conversation or dialogue (dialectic method) the aspects of our life such as beliefs, customs,
and practice governing our life are examined, clarified, and freed from prejudices. We can also
clearly define what our life is. These enables us to do what is right in our life, thus, we can live a good
life and be happy.

II. Plato
Brief Background about Plato:
Plato was born in one of the distinguished family in Athens, who had history of political
involvement in the government, in 428/27 B.C. (Stumpf, 1984). He was the first to establish a
university in Western Europe under the name “Academy” in Athens. The primary aim of his university
was to pursue scientific knowledge through conducting original research.
The famous quotes of Plato which reveal his thoughts about the
nature of man (or what is man) are the following:

 “Ignorance is the stem or root of all evil.” (www.brainyquote.com)

For Plato, evil arises from the very nature of the soul and in the relation of the
soul to the body (Stumpf, 1984). He believed that soul is composed of rational and
irrational parts. The irrational part is further composed of spirit and appetite parts. Furthermore,
the rational part of the soul has clear vision of the truth and it is perfect while the irrational part of
the soul is unruly (Thus, it is imperfect.), because of the appetite and spirit that comprise it make
the soul a living and mortal creation. Furthermore, the irrational part of the soul makes disorder
an inherent part of it so that evil is within the soul itself, because the soul forgot and became
ignorant of the reality. Plato believed that this nature of the soul has pre-existence before it
descended into the body. What makes the soul descend? It is its irrational part and imperfect
characteristic. As the soul is in the body, its irrational part which is stimulated by the body to
overcome the dominance of reason breakdown the harmony of the different parts of the soul. The
spirit and appetite of the soul is influenced by the workings of the body disturbing the harmony of
the soul since the body exposes the soul to stimuli that prevent reason from remembering the
truth it has previously known or prevent reason from arriving to true knowledge. In application,
according to Stumpf (1984):

“In the world of people, error is perpetuated whenever the society has the wrong values.
Every society inevitably acts as the teacher of its members, and for this reason, its values
will become values of its individuals. Moreover, societies tend to perpetuate the evils and
errors committed by earlier generations. Plato underscored this notion by suggesting that
in addition to such a social transmission of evil, human souls would reappear via a trans-
migration, bringing into a new body their earlier errors and judgment of value. It is the body,
in the last analysis, that accounts for ignorance, rashness, and lust, for the body disturbs
that clear working of the reason, spirit, and appetites by exposing the soul to a cascade
of sensation.” (p. 66)

Thus, man does evil because of false knowledge (or ignorance) and inaccurate appraisal of things or
acts and their values. Plato believed that man would not choose to do an act that would harm him
(Stumpf, 1984). So, man does “wrong” acts such as stealing or slander even though they knew it is
wrong because they assume that they get some benefits from them.
How can man recover from immorality caused by ignorance? For Plato, it is only by reversing
the process. Reason must overcome appetite and body stimuli (particularly, the exaggeration of
appetites like thirst, hunger and procreation in the search for pleasure which becomes lust and
experience of sensation, desire, pleasure, pain, fear, and anger). But everything has to start from
one’s awareness of own ignorance of something happening inside or outside him which is called
human awakening. This works in two ways: recollection and external agent (effective teacher).
Recollection starts when the mind experiences difficulties with the contradictions of sense
experience. So that as one tries to make sense out of the multiplicity of things, one goes beyond the
things themselves to ideas. It is the experience of a problem that needs to be solved that sets the
mind to undergo such action. Furthermore, external agent (particularly, and effective teacher) can
break the prisoner’s chain, make him turn around, and bring him step-by-step outside the cave of
shadows to the light by employing dialectic method or Socratic method.
3

 “Human behavior flows from three main sources: desire, motive, and knowledge.”
(www.brainyquote.com)

This quote reveals Plato’s concept of the soul. For him, soul is composed of appetite, spirit, and
reason which are in situations of internal conflict or confusion in all humans and manifested in their
actions. But what are these? Reason acts in the awareness of goal or value while the spirit is initially
neutral but responds to the direction of reason and the drive towards action. On the other hand,
appetite is the desire for the things of the body. Furthermore, for Plato, the soul moves the inanimate
body and brings life to the body. But internal conflict which we experience reveals that the three
composition of the soul work differently. How these composition of the soul work as manifested in
human behavior is revealed in Plato’s story of Phaedrus.
In Phaedrus story, the charioteer drives a good and a bad horse altogether. The good horse is
only guided by word and admonition while the bad one is hardly yielding to whip because of
insolence and pride. Though the charioteer clearly knows where to go and the good horse is on the
course, the bad horse plunges and run away giving all manner of trouble to the good horse and
charioteer.
 “Good life is the life of inner harmony, well-being, and happiness.”

Plato believed that inner harmony can be achieved when each part of the soul does what it has
to do based on its nature (Stumpf, 1984). Reason has to act as it should be (It has to fulfill its
function.). But if passion pushes reason around, then, it fails to do its function. Thus, inner harmony is
not achieved. Because good life is only achieved when every part of the soul is fulfilling its duty or
function. Furthermore, good life is also about efficient functioning of the soul. For example, a knife is
good when it cuts efficiently because it has fulfilled its function.

III. Rene Descartes

Brief Background about Descartes:


Rene Descartes was born in Touraine in 1596 but settled down in Holland (Stumpf, 1984). His
father was a councilor of the Parliament of Brittany. He studied in a Jesuit college mathematics, logic,
and philosophy and he is usually called the father of modern philosophy.
The famous quotes of Descartes which reveal his thoughts about the
nature of man (or what is man) are the following:

 "Dubito ergo cogito; cogito ergo sum.(I doubt, therefore I think; I


think therefore I am)" (www.great-quotes.com)

For Descartes, to say, “I think, therefore I am” is to affirm one’s existence. It is to affirm that man
is a thinking thing that doubts, understands, affirms, denies, wills, refuses and which also imagines
and feels. That “man is doubting” is the truth about his existence which cannot be doubted and
denied. This truth is based on Descartes’ criterion of truth which is that all is true when the things can
be conceived very clearly and distinctly (Stumpf, 1984). Things are clearly conceived when objects
are clear to our eyes; and things are distinctly conceived when they are so different and precise in
comparison to other objects within itself. Thus, “I think, therefore I am” is true because it is distinct
and clear to the mind. For example, Mathematical propositions are true because they are very clear
and distinct that it cannot be denied to be true and that we cannot help accepting. Conversationally,
Descartes believed that all is illusion or false, and thus, all must be doubted except the truth about
man’s existence, that is, that he is doubting (Stumpf, 1984).

 "The two operations of our understanding, intuition and deduction, on which alone we
have said we must rely in the acquisition of knowledge." (www.great-quotes.com)

Descartes believed that man has mental powers by which we are able to arrive at the knowledge
of things. These are intuition and deduction.
“Intuition is an intellectual activity or vision of such clarity that it leaves no doubt in the mind,”
according to Descartes (Stumpf, 1984: p. 240). It provides us clear notions and some truths about
reality. For example, that I think, that I exist, that a square is composed of 4 equal sides are truths
that are basic, simple, and irreducible. Furthermore, it is by intuition that we grasp the connection
between one truth and another completely and immediately.
We arrive at truth by a process in deduction. For Descartes, deduction indicates the relations of
truth towards each other (Stumpf, 1984). This mental power moves from a certainly known fact to a
conclusion which is implied by the fact.
4

 “Divide each difficulty into as many parts as is feasible and necessary to resolve it.”
(www.brainyquote.com)

This quotation is one of the general rule which Descartes created in his Discourse on Method,
particularly, the second rule. Other rules are the following:
1. never accept anything as true when you have not clearly known as such; and
2. When you engage in intelligent thinking, do it by starting from the simplest and easiest to
know, then, ascend little by little, step by step to the more complex knowledge.

IV. John Locke


Brief Background about Locke:
John Locke, who was the founder of British empiricism, was born to a Puritan family and trained
in the values of hard work and simplicity in 1632 in Somerset (Stumpf, 1984). He studied in Oxford
University and there he earned his bachelor’s and master’s degree. Then, he studied medicine and
became a physician in 1674. He died in 1704.
Locke reveals his thoughts about the nature of man (or what is man) in this
quotation, ”All people in the world started in their life without knowing
nothing” (Stumpf, 1984: p. 266). This quote contains Locke’s view regarding
knowledge which is a part of human nature.
For Locke, all people’s mind started from a blank sheet of paper (which was
also called tabula rasa) and the writings on it (knowledge) only happens when
reflection is applied on sensory experience (Stumpf, 1984). He believed that man’s
knowledge is composed of and restricted to ideas that were generated by the objects he
experienced, which are sensation and reflection (These are two forms of experience.). Senses
enable man to experience his external world, and ideas are generated in his mind by the distinct
perceptions which the sensual experience of the object brings. On the other hand, reflection is mind’s
activity that “produces ideas by taking notice of previous ideas furnished by the senses” (Stumpf,
1984: p. 267). It involves perception, thinking, doubting, believing, reasoning, knowing, willing, and all
the activities of the mind that produce ideas. Thus, reflection is an inner experience of the object after
it has been experienced by the senses.
Locke defined knowledge as “the perception of the connection of and agreement, or
disagreement” and inconsistency or incompatibility of any of our ideas (Stumpf, 1984: p. 269-270).
There are three modes of perception bringing to the mind different degree of knowledge regarding
reality. These are intuitive, demonstrative, and sensitive knowledge. Intuitive knowledge is
“immediate, leaves no doubt, and is the clearest and most certain…” (Stumpf, 1984: p. 270). We
immediately know that 1 is not 8 because we clearly know the incompatibility of these two ideas to
each other as mathematical truth. Through intuition, we know that we exist because our external and
internal experiences convince us. On the other hand, demonstrative knowledge happens “when our
minds engage in trying to discover the agreement or disagreement of ideas by calling attention to
other ideas; and it is a mode of perception that leads the mind to a knowledge of some form of
existing reality” (Stumpf, 1984: p. 270). For example, man knows through intuitive knowledge that
bare nothing cannot create any real being brings and existing things has end and beginning clearly
shows that from eternity there has been something. Thus, through reasoning, there is God that is
most powerful and all knowing. This is man’s knowledge of God which is generated by demonstrative
knowledge and which intuitive knowledge have not. Sensitive knowledge is not a knowledge in the
strict sense of knowledge, and it only carries with it the name of knowledge (Stumpf, 1984). It does
not give us certainty, and it does not bring us any farther. Nevertheless, it gives man knowledge even
though it is not certainty. You sense that you see your seatmate and you do not doubt about the
reality of his/ her existence as long as you see him/ her. But your certainty of his/ her existence ends
when that person leaves.

V. Augustine
Brief Background about Augustine
St. Augustine was born in Tagaste, Numidia in Africa (Souk Ahras, Algeria at present) in 354
A.D. His father was a pagan, but his mother was a devout Christian. Christian values were instilled to
him by his mother. However, he threw all these and had two mistresses in his life (One was in Africa,
and the other was in Milan, Italy).
St. Augustine’s thoughts about human nature are revealed in the following quotes:
5

 “The eye sees things, but the mind grasps eternal truth.”

St. Augustine believes that sensation gives us some knowledge and he called this sense
knowledge. But this kind of knowledge is the lowest level of knowing. Nevertheless, it is necessary
because of its primary characteristic which is it points beyond the objects. Man sense things and
have some rational knowledge and rational judgment about them (which makes man different from
animals that only has the capacity to sense things). Since, man is a rational being, his senses that
impress on the object directs his mind to other objects like beauty and truths (e.g. mathematical truth,
God’s existence). But the objects of the bodily senses which are one of the objects man encounters
create in man less intellectual certainty. Because the senses are focused or directed to changing
physical objects. But when man focuses on objects of the mind (particularly, contemplating on the
eternal truths), high intellectual certainty is attained by the mind. Nevertheless, what is truth about
knowledge for St. Augustine is that it moves from the level of sense knowledge (which is the lowest
level) to the highest level of general truth. Thus, the highest level of knowledge is the knowledge of
God which is attained through sensation because it directs the mind upward.

 “Love brings satisfaction and happiness.”

Man cannot avoid to love because there are incompleteness in his life. Man’s love focuses on
different objects such as physical objects (example, cars, jewelries, etc.), other persons (example,
father, mother, boyfriend, etc.), or oneself depending on what is missing in his/ her life. All these
objects of love bring satisfaction for some desires or passions, and happiness. For St. Augustine,
these objects of love are not evil because they are not the absence of something. They are all good
because they all come from God who is goodness itself. Nevertheless, man still feel miserable,
unhappy, and restless because of the kind of love that they have which is disordered love.

Disordered love is characterized by having more expectation from an object of love which it
cannot provide. So, when man treat the objects of love as the ultimate source of happiness, he/ she
is having a disordered love. Disordered love is the source of all forms of pathology in human
behavior. For example, when man loves other person more than he/ she should be loved because of
what this other person can give him/ her, man’s love can become destructive. Because man tries to
get from this other person more than what he/she could give. So, appetite flourishes, passion
multiplies and there is a desperate attempt to achieve peace by satisfying all desires. The soul
becomes seriously disfigured. Next, it gets involved in envy greed, jealousy, trickery, panic, and
unending restlessness. This disordered love will produce eventually disordered person, and
consequently, disordered society is produced. But this kind of society can be reconstructed and have
an orderly or peaceful one by first reconstructing the self. Personal reconstruction is possible only by
reordering love and loving the proper things properly. So, we can love a person properly only if we
first love God because when we do this, we will not expect to derive from human love what we can
derive only from our love of God. Also, we can love ourselves properly if we remove our self-pride
and subordinate ourselves to God.

It is normal to love oneself, but when it becomes pride, then, cardinal sin has been committed.
Because pride affects all aspects of people’s conduct. Pride’s essence is self-sufficiency, but man is
not self-sufficient because he/ she has infinite needs which he/ she wants to sustain through finite
things. But St. Augustine believed that satisfaction and happiness can be attained when man’s
various needs is sustained with the proper object. So, in the case of pride in man, it only turns him/
her away from God and leads them to many forms of overindulgence to sustain their infinite needs.
But man would not find satisfaction and happiness in this because he/ she is using the finite things or
objects to sustain his/ her infinite needs. For St. Augustine, only the love for God who is infinite brings
happiness to man whose needs are infinite (Stumpf, 1984).

References
6

Montemayor, F.M. (2005). Introduction to Philosophy Through Philosophy of Man. National


Bookstore: Philippines.

Stumpf, S. E. (1994). Philosophy: History and Problems. McGraw-Hill, Inc.: USA.

http://www.keepinspiring.me/socrates-quotes/ (Retrieved on June 15, 2018)

https://www.brainyquote.com/lists/authors/top_10_plato_quotes (retrieved on June 16, 2018)

https://www.google.com/search?biw=1280&bih=615&tbm=isch&sa=1&ei=f9skW8f1GJW_rQHnmYj
wDg&q=socrates&oq=socrates&gs_l=img.3...785320.786896.0.787561.9.7.0.0.0.0.0.0..0.0....0...1c.
1.64.img..9.0.0.0...0.buyV6sWcR0w#imgrc=UZ2-ImtzhMMBDM: (retrieved on June 16, 2018)

https://quotabulary.com/famous-quotes-by-plato (retrieved on June 16, 2018)

https://www.google.com/search?biw=1280&bih=615&tbm=isch&sa=1&ei=qdYkW4iuGcy-9QPI5prw
AQ&q=plato&oq=plato&gs_l=img.3...3342.4978.0.5581.6.6.0.0.0.0.0.0..0.0....0...1c.1.64.img..6.0.0.0
...0.lJLHB8bmVis#imgrc=mBE9t73IGNoBtM: (retrieved on June 16, 2018)

https://www.brainyquote.com/lists/authors/top_10_rene_descartes_quotes (retrieved on June 16,


2018)

https://www.google.com/search?biw=1280&bih=615&tbm=isch&sa=1&ei=qt4kW4v2FYH5rQGujbbIB
w&q=rene+descartes&oq=rene+descartes&gs_l=img.3..35i39k1j0l9.235038.238007.0.238658.15.13
.0.0.0.0.434.1844.0j4j2j1j1.8.0....0...1c.1.64.img..7.8.1840.0..0i67k1.0.A7VozCpOpyE#imgrc=a82LT
3hCbIL1QM: (retrieved on June 16, 2018)

https://www.google.com/search?biw=1280&bih=615&tbm=isch&sa=1&ei=qdYkW4iuGcy-9QPI5prw
AQ&q=John+Locke&oq=John+Locke&gs_l=img.3...426905.431019.0.431840.15.12.0.0.0.0.0.0..0.0.
...0...1c.1.64.img..15.0.0.0...0.HTICaetgnJc#imgrc=m-AZdOn0Xvk0mM: (retrieved on June 16,
2018)

https://www.britannica.com/biography/Saint-Augustine (retrieved on June 19, 2018)

http://faculty.georgetown.edu/jod/twayne/aug1.html (retrieved on June 19, 2018)

Potrebbero piacerti anche