Pharaoh in Canaan

The Untold Story

Daphna Ben-Tor

With contri butions by

EranAne

and
Noga Ayah-Darshan
Aaron A. Burke
Anat Cohen-Wemberger
Orly Goldwasser
Eythan Levy
ManoA. S. Martm
Oree Mein
Martin Peilstoecker
Rachel! Shalom1-Hen
Andrea Squitieri
Edwin C. M. van den Bnnk
James M. We1nstem

~··
TO The Israel Museum, Jerusalem

Pbanob "'ean.&n· Th< l:ntold 510<)"
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Cum""- Enn Ari< and Dapll"' Bcn·Tor
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Eltlubwon .to.oan.llcbonh 1\andla•>ki
and Jonathan c.ncni
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IWnsthistorisches MUKUm, \ icnn:a
Mu.stt du Lou\TC, Pam
Mus.o£aizlo,Tilrin
The Mctropoht~n Mw.cum of Art, NC"t\' York
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Admutistr.uionof)udc.aand ~rmna
Th< uhobouon and no'"""'•
\\Crt' nude J'IO)Siblc by: Contributors to the Catalogue
Tht- W1lham 0.1\ldson Foundluon. Ottron
Junnettc, Jon;uhan, SJ!rah, and Adam R.oicn,
l'<ew\00.. on honor ofDar luu S.n·T«
The donon to the l1rul Mu.w:um's
.zo16 E.x.hibtuon funJ. EA EranAne
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m n1emory o( Ru1h and Leon ~\idoff /tru.JDI~m
tlanno D ~lon, New Yetk
The N~~h f~maly founcb tion. Sew York
Noga Ayalo-Darshan
Makolm \\'caner, Crttn\'l"leh, Canne...--ucul Ucuuw, Dtporrmtnt ofHtbrrwand Stmmc Lnnguagn, Bar·llan Unil'trfll}'
Surrort for the J'llblouuon ••• J'N'td..! b)· DBT Daphna Ben· To r
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J~ann~llt and Jonatlurn Rosen Cmutoro{EIJplUin Arrl11uol0f)·, Th~ lmul Mrutum,
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w. Arnold Moja,l'<ethcrlanw AAB Aaron A . Burke

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RSH Racheh Shalomo·Hen

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JW James M. Weansto1n
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 9 The Egyptian Empire m Canaan 50

The Early Campaogns of the Eighteenth Oynasty 50

10
Acknowledgments
Thutmosellland the Foundong of tho E&Yptoan Em pore on Canaan 51
12
Mapa
The Cultural Impact of E&YPt on Canaan after t he Megoddo Compaogn 53
14
Chronological Table
The Amarno Period 55
16
Pharaohs of the Egyptoan Empore in Canaan
The Labayu Affai r on the Amarna Letters I Eran Aroe 56

Catalogue Entroes (16-211 58

20
Introduction 67
The Strengthenong of Egyptoan Control over Canaan
68
Egyptoan Strongholds on Canaan
The Beginning: Early Contact between Egypt and Canaan 23
Egypllan·Type Pottery I Maroo A. S Marton 69
Catalogue Entries (1-31 24
71
E&Yptoan Stone Vessels on Canaan dunn& the
Late Bronze Age / And'E 3 5Qu•t "
An Archaeologtcal Enigma: Egyptian-Canaanite Relations 74
Catalogue Entroes (22-351
in the Middle Kingdom 27 Culturallnteractoon between Egypt and Canaan
Execration Texts 28 durong the Nonetoenth and Early Twentoeth Oynastoes
97
ECYPt'• Relatoons woth Byblos 29 Anthropoid Coltons I Eran Ar
101
The Influence of Canaanote Mythology on E&YPt I Noga Ayalo·Darshan
Canaanotelnliltration and Settlement In tho Eastern Delta 30
103
E&Yptian Moddle Kongdom Scarabs of Olfocials in Southern Canaan 30 Catalocue Entroes (36- 521
133
E&Yplian Moddle Kongdom Statuettes on Southern Canaan 31 Jewelry 1 Or~ t-..te•r•
135
Rosumption of Contact between E&Ypt and Southern Canaan 32 Catalogua Entroes (53-561
140
Early Productoon of Canaanite Scarabs 33 The Fall of the E&Yptoan Empire
142
Catalogue Entroes (4-111 34
Catalocu• Entry (571
143
The Caneanotes on E&Yptoan Eyes / Rachulo Shalom•· Hen
145
The Hyksos: Canaantte Rule in Egypt Catalogue Entroes (58-591
41
148
Egyptoen·Canaanote Relations durong tho Hyksoa Perood The Goddess Hathor I Rach• Shalom•· Hen
42 151
Tellei·Yahudoya Ware I Anat Cohen·Woonb<trger Catalogue Entries (60-661
43
Can Scarabs Argue for the Ongm of the Hyksos? 46 163
The Expulsoon of the Hyksos Egypt and Canaon on the Genesos·Exodus Narratoves
47 AppendoxA
166
Catalogue Entn01 (12-151 The Borth of the Alphabet from Egyptoan Hoeroglyphs
48 AppendoxB
on the Sonao Desert I Orly GQid,,asser
171
Bobloography
180
Copynghts and lllustratoon Credotl
 Foreword

The 1101)' ofEg)-pt and C.nun is known popularly from the biblical accounts orJoseph and Moses as wrinen
in the books ofGenesis and E.•odus-and in the popular mythology th:ot has tvol>rd from t ' - nvntiva
0\"n time. Yet a CTUcial chapter in this histoty is miuing from these stories and remains largely unknown.
It is the ~pli\-.ting Slaty of the reciproc•l relationship be'-On 110'0 an~nt d\iliutiono during the second
millennium BCE- a tale now l't'Wal<d in l'hGfGoh inC"""""' 1M U"to/J Story, the first uhobirion toaddtns
the cuhur.tl dialogue between ancient Egypt and C.naon durin& this time.
l'lwrwolt inC"""""e.uminesthttits betw<cn Egypt and Canullduringl10'<>crucialph.... ortheir
history. the Middle Bronze Age (ca.tBoO-ljSO BCE}, which saw the infillr.ltion and setdcment ofCanaanites
in the Eg)t'li•n Delta and the subsequent rise of a Canaanite d)"IUsty (the Hyksos), and the Late Bronze Age
(ca. tjoo-uso BCE), when the then-moghty Eg)-ptian Empize eJitendcd ias rule"'"' Canaan. The n:m.ubble
d<gfft' ofCTOSl·fertilization that took place betw<cn these 110'0 high!)- distinct cultures during this 6jO•)nr
period may be unique in ancient history, refl<eting a phenomenon whicll has not pn:\iousl)· b<cn uhibited
"ith theln-el ofinterpn:t>tion •nd anal~SJSih>t f'lwraoiJ ilf CdM~n pro\idH.
Man: than 68oobJcrts are presented in the exhibition, from royal Yic:tory stelae and anthropoid
collins to scarabs and amulctl, many of them drown from the Israel Museum'seJCtcn>i« holdingJ and from
archacolog~eal ex<•~ion. in lsratl. They are complemented by oeminalloano from museums and priv:11e
collectionstn lsra<land around the world, and W< take thisopportunityto thank the exhibition's many lender>,
ated at the beginnins of this publication. We an: also profoundly gratefUl to thedonOB who hn-eenabled us
to reali•• this n:marl<able und<nakins with the depth and breadth that it des<.-.: The Willw.t Davidson
foundation, Dctroit; jeannette, jonathan, Sarah, and Ad.tm Rosen, New York, in honorofO.phna Ben-Tor;
the donors to the luael Museum's1o16 E!thibi1ion fund; and Malcolm Wcinor, Gr<cnwich, CoMtcUat!. And
we thank Or. Da\id and Jemima )nelsohn, Zurich, for their support for this richly rese=htd publiCation.
Lastly and most importantly, ..~ th•nk the c:t~r.~ton or the exhibition, D>phna Ben-Tor, Jeannette and
Jonathan ROKil Cu1'2tor or E(nrti•n An:hoeokle)', and Eran Nie, Frieder Burda Cuntor of Iron Age and
~man Period An:hacology, whooc coll•bol'2<ion as experts in the uehacologyofthe ancientlandsofEg)'Pf
and IsrocI mirrotS the crosscu""nas ofconn<e~ion th>t the e.<hibi<ion it><! If explor-es. for Oaphna Ben-Tor, the
exhihi1ion also raps a rareer orthtrty'-nine 1-ears as a distinguished curator in the Museum's Samurland Said)~
Bronfman MflaeoiOj,')'WtnJ-And tocether the)' ben<fited from the dcdi<•<ed commitment ofmany memb<tS
of tho 1..-.cl Muscum'sst•lfwho supported thuxhibition'ssuc<ess in meaninJfulw•l~

james S. Snyder
Anne and }erom< fuhcr Director

L :.--
__-----1
•. ·-·~ -<::j
,.
 Acknowledgments

The exhibition I'Mrtzt>lt in C.~UW~: T1v Untold Sroryw011ld not ha\'t been possible without the support ofa
gr<at nwn~rof~le to 10·hom we wish to exprus out sin«re gr.uitude. Special thanks are fint due to our We also thank the Israel Museum Rtstoration Laboralories, who worked with n:markable dedication
rotleaguesm le d' · · • and professionalism on the C'Onservation and restoration ofal"''• variety ofobjects and on the production
• . ~ous n '"~ ~lltui!Ons, whose &rn<row colbboration has gr<allyonhaneed the qualiry
0
f the uhiblbon. Uu Dahan, Moebael Sebban, Alegre Savariego, Callt Litani Debbi Ben·Anu' 0 ·r Sh . oflarge-oc:ale n:ronstru<tions: David Bigelajzen, Head of the Re1toration Labomories, Andrei Vainer,
Zvi Cic'ftnhut ~ . • ' , n am1r, Head of the Object Conservation Labor.atory,lrit Ln·Beit, Aetins Head of the Chemistry Laboratory, and
• Cobon·Amin, IW<n Co\'ello·Paran, Edwin van den Brink, Elisheva Ka · ky d
YaeiBancbakofth 1 fAn· 11 · - rna,. ,an ll.JJI' members VictOI' Uziel, Paolo Reeanati, Alon Ked em, Connie Creon, Zipi Elli Goldschmidt, Annemsrie
for Arehacol ~ ~e , . qwlles Authority (IAA); Han.tnya Hizmi and Yoav ZI)'Onit of the StaffOfficer
Banfdt, Maya Delano, HadasSeri, and Jessio• Lewinsky.
. ogy•Cl\il Adlllln!Sir>tlonofJudea ond Samaria; Batya Borowski, Amanda Weiss, and Phili
~ul<osa\'OYicofthe Bible Lands Museum jerusalem; lritZilferofthe Eretzlsrad Museum Td Avi Of p Wo are g..,ady indebted to \'oel &mbergor, for her exquisite d<S~gnofthe catalogue; and to Elie Posner,
mon, Shurut Marmel.nein, and Peny Livne of the Heebt M . . . ' v; ra llrad ofPhotoaraphy, for his outstanding photographs. Very •peeial thanks aredue1o Nancy Benovitz, for
theNationaiMaritimoMusewn H., D.... usewn,UruvennyofHa.fa;AvshalomZ.merof her fine editing ofthe English texts of the cat.>logue and the exhib1tion, and for her helpful romments and
' >ha; a,...naTsoranoftheJnstitut fA h I
ofJerusolem;TheSoniaandMarcoNadl • f eo rr aeoogy,TheHebrewUni~iry generous assrslance; and to Malan·EI Shukrun, for his unondlns romm•tment and dedic:ation over the long
1
Nislim Badusofthe Israel Nann and Pae~-nA.nuhute_o Arrhaool~, TeiAviY Uni•=ity; Tsvlka Tsuk and count of the exhibi1ion. We thank Tami Mich..li, for herslullful ed1ting of the Hebrew tens of!he exhibition;
,.. ut onty; Varon Klem ofThe Old 1 tl' 0 1
NaamaMeirowitzof'TbeOidJolfaMusewnofAnt' 'ti ·R . • a eve opmentCompany; Ester Stark, for her meticulous drawings of the illustntions; Noa Finkelsrein, for producing the beautiful maps;
Craig Patch, Adela n.......nheim .-•.e- . ft • •h lqW es; uth W~enerofthe Em Hashofct Museum; Diona Yael Oinor, for her ti..,less work on the catalogue proofs; and Bel~ Cershovieh, for her crucial assistance with
-.,.. • -..u..nne""" ng, and Mmha H'IJ f'Tbe
York; VuiCentRondotandChristopheD- boti f . I o MetropoluanMuseurnofAn,New photographs and c-opyrights.
""' no Mweedul.om·re Pa · Ch . .
ofMweo Egitio Turin· and D••; Hc'zl d ' ns; nsllan C"'co and Marco Rossan .I Alsoworthyofspeeialappreciationat the Israel Museum are Henle van Doomik, HudofShippingand
' ' """'"' "' an BarbaraK
Wea~alsoindebtedtothepn'vate-"<<1 h
r h
. ovaeso t <KunsthistorischesMuseum,Vienna Loans, and Tal Elispor, Liat Benzguidaand Shira Cohen ofCuratorial Servicos; Dalia Angel, Exhibitoon Budget
. "'" onw oennehedth h'b' 1 • - . •
holdings:W.Amold Meijer, Netherlands; Maud Spaor, e ·~ Ilion wuh beauufuJ pi«es from their Offic-er; \'aniv Cohen, Head ofTechnieal Senicts, and Shay NiY, Artut AvkoY, Ala Marl<ov,lnbal Cerzon, Guy
York. l<rusalem, and an anon)mous privatea~llc<tor, New Nir, and Ofir Halaly; Menahem Amin, Amir Ronen, and Al<=der U..,tskyofthe Audiovisual Depanment;
WesiiiC<relythank Luc DelvaW<ofthe •--"r Tob Cavish,llead of !be Youth Wing, and Benni Maor, Dana Rubin, and Lior.l Vogel man; Ronit Sorrk, Arid
h ·-,~·· US<IlmJofAn dH'
usep otosofanexeerationfigurine;Lawrences,. er • an IStory,Brussels,forpennissionto Tishby, Noam Cal, and Niva Simon ofthe F'111e Ans Wing; DaiSY Rxcah· Dji\'re, ChiefCuntorof1he Jewish
~kel~, for permission to display recenlly <>c:a.!ed: :. :=~~MasterofThe Leon~ E>pedition to An and Life Wing, and Rachel Sarl'oti; Amalia Keshet, Hood oflmage Rtsourees and C<lpyright Managtment;
Uru\'<flltyofJ<rus.l•m, forpennissiontodi-Iay II mAshkelon;Amnon Ben·TorofThe Hebrew Lea Rotslein, Dirt<lor,lsraeli Friend>; Nirit Zur, tlead of Publications; and Ri•b M}"<rS, Head ofExhibition
Be -c . . . •y recent Y••eavated bj fi Design. f'111ally, our ..-.rm thanks go to our rolleagues in the Areh•eology \V'111g for their invaluable support,
n unon Unwenltyofthe Negev,forpermissiontod Ia o «<S rom Hazar; EliezcrOren of
Swuurland, for permission to use photogr.phsof ~~ y matenaJ from Tel Sora; Othmar Keol Fribourg especially: AliSon Ash•nberJ, Shira Dan, Nurit Goshen, Debby Henhman, Fawzi lbr:lhim, Natasha
forpermisliontousehispho•~-ph fth 'I scara.,.,mrnhisprivat<eolle<tion;CregCulb 'd ' Katsnelson, EleN Magid, Hagit Mooz, Da>id M•_.h, Osnat Misch·Br.and~ and RonitSelig; the helpful
hot . . ...,.. • o c • erneptah stela; and AYJ'aham ran sen,
p ogr>ph oflhe S<U1\itar replica Prtsenled to Amnr S d HO)'alrl, for helping to locate • young intems from Tel Aviv University, Haleli Hard, Oren Cohen, and Nirit Kedem; and Judy Goldstein.
Weare profOilndl a al. Last but no< least, ~ wish 10 cxpnr.as 0\lt sincoro thanks to Racheli Shalomi·H<n, Associate Curator
. . YP"Ie!Uhothedesignenofthewibit'
C.nettJ, for thelt beaulifuland inspiring treatment ofa p •
,..ry p>l<fulto Michal Sahar ...,ph.IC d .
'7' Deborah Wanchawski and Jonathan
<OJe<l 0 grt'at c:omplex1ty and......,. W
of Egyptian An:hoeology; and to out rollugues Nadav Na'arnon, Amihai M:uar,lsrael Finkelsteon, Orly
Goldwasser, Yuval Coren, Mario Manin, Benjamin Sass, and all the other contribu1ors to the cataloguo, foe
. ,.,... <s•gncr,andher~amr. th . ··.....- <arealso
eapableprodUCllonofthevidtosac<ompan)'l·n··L. h'bi or <ltfintwori<;toCiladTokolly for hi's sharing their knowledge and e.q>n1isc with u.s. To all the above, ~extend 0\lt deepest gratitude.
Anu ..1 • - • •'-nc:e• r flon· loAm" 8 '
"": "'"'llmedoa kiosk; and to Design lie Arrhit«!Ure ' II aumland Yael Molul, for the
Hana Hlncbfeld, wbo helped edil the He•- . Zeks, for the ]0 animation. Similarly ~ oL c Daphna Ben·Tor EranAri<
a1ogu • uo•w at a aucialearl • -• uoan..
eat e, forhlsskillfulworkand tirelessoommiunenr toth yn.~;and YosefKuris,cditorofthe Hebn:w Jeanne no and ,...than Rosen FriederBurdaCur.atorof
Wen1end ourheanfelt •ppre . . e prOJect, Cuntor of Elll'l'tian Arrhaoology Iron Age and Persian Period Archaeology
and fi cation to all those It lhelsrael
Gille;,~:~~::!;:;; l~us•um Dire<tor;Tania Coon-~=~~~l6d US along th.• way, first
• ,and o...,nS.Ilv,ChiefO.signer, UratonaiSel"lllees, Haim

101
In
" ...~ · . _.:21J
 ltitor •

.
. ,• ..

Medtterranean Sea
• -,.,\1\ Shun
Mediterranean Sea • T~llthoY

.
;,. S...ai.!.ShiTtma.l)
• Tt1M"'r
d!· Shtmnh

Mop of southern Canaan

Map of the Eastern Mediterranean In the 11cond millennium BCE

121
 Chronological Table

Approx1mate Dates Egypt Canaan I Egyptian-Canaanite Relations Key Events

The Firstl\\o Pharaohs: Eg\'pllan tradmg J'OS" estabhshed Un1ficouon of Egypt •nJ the begtnmng of
]tSo-]OSO BCE Lote Early Bronze AgeiB
Dynastyo in south\\C!Stem CanJJn ph;uaontc Cl\1l~tion

Earl)• Dynastic Penod: Eg)l'll:m lr:ldmg posts in solllh\\tStcm

30so-z68S BCE Early Bronze Age II City SIJitS :appc.ar in 50\ltht:m Can;un
Dynanies 1-1 Canun abandoned

OldKmgdom: Early Bronze Age Ill - EJn'J'Ii>n relouons wrth 8) h!<x, b)"P>»rng The great P\ ramids constructed in Eg)1>t
z6Bs· zt8o BCE
Dj'llasties}-6 lmen'!lcdiate Bronze Age 'W)Uthe:m C..naJn

zzoo-z~o BCE
Fintlnten'llcdi:ue Period: Olsmtcgr:nion of centr.tJ rule in Eg)'pl
lnlen'!lcdiale Bronze Age lh.1tu\ m Eg\]\UJn fo~1gn relations
Dynasty] - Earl) D)'ll:lSI} II

Early Middle Kingdom Rcun&liauon ofEg)'PI and mJugur.mon

lnlermN~ate Bronze Age Resumption ofE!l)"J'U>n relouons 1\lth 0) bios
Lote Dynasty 11- Early Dj'llasty u of the M1ddle "ingdom
Middle Bronze Age l lA

~trong Egypll>n rdouons wnh 8) bios ~sumptron ofsmall-scale E&)"Phan eont>ct

•Bso-•;oo BCE Lote Middle Kingdom•
Lote O)'llast) u - Dj'IIUty I ] Middle Bronze Age IIA C..n;~anue:s scule m Tell d~D~b-J m 1hc e~ncm Dellit wuh southern ~naan
----------~~~~----
•;oo-•6so BCE Early Second lnltn'lledialt Penod: Caruanue t~kCO\crofthc: E.Jstc:m Dclu
lmual producuon ofC.anaanuc scanbs
Dj'llasty 14? Early Middle llronze Age liB

t6so-tS40 BCE Second lnlen'!ledialt Period: Commerciol•nd cultur.tl cont>cts ""t"«n E&>l"
Dynasues •s-•7 M1ddlo Bronze Age liB and southern CanaJn
Rcunlfic~tion of Egypt and inaugur.ltJon
1'/cwK.ingdom: Expulsron of the II) !..so<
Lo1e Middle Bronze Age liB - of the hew Kingdom
Early D)'nasty 18 EgypU)O nmrougns'" C.lnaan
Lo1e Bronze Age lA

t48o-1400 BCE New Kingdom. Esl>bhshment of the Ell)1'11>n Emr•"' The boule ofMegiddo led b)•Thutmose Ill
Mod·O)'IIUI) 18 Lo1e Bronze AgeiB 1nCoana~n

New Kingdom Egypuan Empm: in C2n;aan rc:ftL"<'tcd A1.htna1cn'~ rdig1ous rt\'oluuon 1n Egypt
1400-t]oo BCE
Late Dynasty 18 Lote Bronze Age IIA in the Am.tma letters
------- ~rliest recorded mention of the name '"lst:lcl•
t]00-118o BCE New Kingdom: Egyptian control O\'Cr Can:u~n S:trl!ngthencd a.s an cthmc group in CJnJan
0ynUtyl9 Lote Bronze Age liB
------- --------
Ptulisunc:s scnle 1n the southern co.ut.al pbm
uBo-u]o BCE New Kingdom• Fmal phuc: of the: l:.gypt1.1n Emp1re 111 Cln.un ofCDna:m
Fim Halfof Dynuty 10 Iron Age lA

115
 Pharaohs of the Egyptian Empire in Canaan

Etghteenth Dynasty Ii Nineteenth Dynasty Twentieth Dynasty

Ramesses I Sttnaklrte
Ahmosel Amm/rotep lii ca. 1187-1185 BCE
ca. 1295-1l94 BCE
ca. 1550-1525 BCE ca. 1390- 1352 BCE
Stti I Ramesses III
Amenhottpl Amen/rotep fV ca. 129-!- 12i9 BCE ca. 1185-1153 BCE
ca. 1525-1504 BCE ca 1352-1349 BCE
Ramuses II RamesstsfV
Thutmosel Ammlrottp IV as Aklrenamr ca. 1179-1212 BCE
ca. 1153-146 BCE
c~ 1504-1491 BCE (Amama Penod)
ca. 1349-1336 BCE Mm ltptalr RamessesV
Tlrutmost II ca. 146-1141 BCE
ca 1212-1201 BCE
ca 149l-1479 BCE Nefmreftntaten
ca. 1338-1336 BCE Rame.ssesVI
Sttrii
ca 1141-1133 BCE
Hatslrepsut as rtgent ofThutmose 1/1 ca llOI-1195 BCE
ca. 1479-1473 BCE Smmk/rkare
en. 1336-1336 BCE AlllellllltSSt
joint rergrr ofHatslrepsut and Tlwtmose Ill 1200- 1196 BCE
ca 1473-1458 BCE TIItmrklramrm
ca. 1336-1327 BCE Siptalr
Sole reign ofT/rumrost 1/1 1195-1189 BCE
ca. 1458- 1425 BCE Aya
ca. 1327-1323 BCE Tali'OSn!l
Ammlrottp II ca 1189- 1187 BCE
ca. 1425-1400 BCE Horem/rab
ca 1323-1295 BCE
Tlwtmost iV
ca 1400-1390 BCE

Ill

Introduction
The name "Canaan," "hich deriVI:S f10m the Bible and from
ancient Egyptian and ~ear Eastern records, generally refers to
the n:gion ofpre..,nt-day lsnel, western Jordan, I.A!banon, and
roasrol and southern S)'ria and is more or less equi..lent to !he
modem t~nn "Levant.~ Ancient ttxts from the region indicate
!hat its population wu ofSemitic origin. The earliest mention
ofCanaan and Canaanites dates ftom !he eighteenth centwy
BCE, but !he term. .re now often applied to !he n:gion and
its population in relation to earlier periods as well. Rebtions
between Canaan and Egypt, its southwestern neighbor, are
attested by tutual evidence and aTthaeologital remairu dating
as far back as !he fourth millennium BCE. The>e relations were
ddermined by politico) developments ut both regions and thus
were rontinually changing.
The geography of!he land or Egypt, wilh its natural
division into the narTOW strip of!he Nile Valley in the south
and the broad Nile Delta in !he norlh (Upper and Lower Egypt
respective!)·), influenced the long history of pharaonic Egypt,
which began with the unificationoflhe twO region• under one
rule in ca. }ISO BCE. Anaent Eg)-ptian civilization experienced
periods of 5trcngth when Upper and Lower Eg)-pt were united,
wllich were punctuated by intennediate periods when the
central rule disintegnted and the bnd wasdi111ded, with
different dynasties ruling from !he north and the south.
The periods ofstrength that began with the unification of
Eg)-pt included the Early Dynastic Period (ca. 31S0-168s BCE),
the Old Kingdom, which was the age of!he great pyramids
(ca.l6Ss-zt8o BCE), !he Middle Kingdom, rons1dered !he
classical period ofEg)-ptian literature (ta.1040-1700 BCE),
and the New Kingdom, the most glorious period of pharaonic
hi.s.tory, when the Egyptian Empire ruled over Canaan in the
norlh and Nubia in the south (ca.ts-co·t070 BCE). The final
period of unity before the conquest of Alexander the Great wao
the Late Period (ca. 664-33• BCE), which witnessed a shon
renaissance but did not achieve the glories of earlier periods.
201
The intermedi>te periods are the first Intermediate Period
between the Old and Middle Kingdomo (ca. 118o-1o40 BCE),
the Second Intermediate Period between the Middle and New
Kingdoms (ca. '700-IS40 BCE), and the Tlurdlntermediate
Period berween the New Kingdom and the Late Period (ca.
1070-664 BCE).
lnrontrast to the pohricalstructureofpharaonic
Ell)"PI, which was based, ideally, on the con""pt ofa single
unified kingdom, the poluic~l system ofCanaan rewl~
around individualcity Slates, each with its own ruler. The
city state system was established ca. 19S0/1900 BCE, with
the urbanization of the "'gion in the Early Bror11e Age, and it
rontinued until the end of the serond millennium BC£. As in
Egypt, the Canaanite political strUcture uw period• ofstrength
during which the urban centers flourished and periods of
de mi.., during which the city states experienced decline and
destruction. The- precise tenninology, characteriution, and
absolute chronology of the"' periods are not as dear as in Ell)-pi,
but sec PP·14-tS for a suggested chronological framework, a5
well as the rele\r.lnt discussions in the chapters below.
During periods of unity and strenglh, Eg)-ptdeterrnined
the nature ofits rel:uions \\ith Canaan in :.ccotdance l\ith its
own needL However, when central rule in Egypt disintegrated,
control ofits borden weakened, and, os archaeological and ·.
lextuol records from the first and Second lntermediatel'l:riods
indicate, largc:~scale infiltration offon:igners (rom Can1.an into
the eastern Delta took place. Never!heless, pharaonic Ell)-pl
dearly remained the major political power in the reg•on, and
Canaaniu:s, whether in their home~nd or as settlers in Egypt,
rontinucd to hold Egypt1an culture in high esteem, adopting
Egypuan cultural traits that they deemed pn:stigious. At the
ume time, tc.xtual and archarologLc.tl evidence also shows
Canaanite cultural influence on Egypt; the impact ofeach
culture on the other i• discussed in de toil in the chapters below.
/
I
Eg,.'Pt's earlie-st org.tniz~d conucu with Canaan were twO regions in the Late Bronze loge is felt in a vuiety ofculrural
associated with the imponation ofluxwy 1oods sought by spheres and in a ronSJdenbly ~rget number ofobjects.
the risong Egyption elite around the time of !he unification of The r•talogue is o~ganized chronologicolly, pnsenting
Eg)-pt in the late founh millennium BCE. k was at that rime a historical oucline and panicular asperu of the polititol
that culrural interaction bet,.een the two re1ions commenced, and cultural interaction betw..n Egypt and Canaan from its
gradually increasing 0\..,r the coune of!he th1rdand >«Ond bcgmning in the L1te fourlh millennium BCE until !he fall of the
millenn1a BCE and nrying to a great extent on ac<ordance Eg)-ptian Empire in C..naan in the >«ond halfof the 11"elfth
..ith political d.....,lopments in both regions.Simila~ly, there «!ntury BCE. These discussions are followed by catalogue
were con!olderable differences between Eg)l't'• relotions with entries. Two appendices ha\"e also been included devoted to
0011thern Canaan, nomely, the area ofprescnt-<la)·lsrael, and Egypt and Canun in the biblital tradition and the origin of the
iu ~lalions with nonhcm CJ.na.an, the R"gion or Leb~non ~nd alphabet in Eg)"Pnan hieroglyphs.
fOilthem Syria.
The aim of the e.-.hibition l'll•tr•oh in ClUW~Il: Th<
Untold Story is to P"'..nt •n:haeological evid<nce "'fleeting
the relations bel1"-,en Egypt and Canaan, with a focus on
the politK"al and cultural implications of th..., relations. The
emphasis is on the period of!he ..cond millenmum BCE, which
uw two aucial dc'\:~lopmcnts in Egyptian-Can.;~.;2ni1e relarions..
The first was a gradual infiltratiOn and "'ttlement ofCanaanites
in the eastern Delta, which led to the rule ofa d)110Sty of
Canaanite origin in Egypt (the Hyksos) bcrw«n ca. t6so and
tS40 BCE. The ..,.ond was along·losting Eg)-ptian Empire in
Canaan • ·nh a mihtary and admlnistnuve preKnce ~tween
c<L. tsoo and uso BCE.In hiotoricaland an:haeologicaltenns,
this period_..,,. the ~Iiddie K1ngdom, Second Intermediate
l'l:riod, and Ne,. Kingdom in £1!)-pt, and the Middle and Late
81"01UC Age in Can•••·
A selection of Eg)1'tian and Eg)l'tian·style ob,ecu from
M1ddle and Late Bronu Age occupation le,..,ls in IIOUthem
Canaan form• the co"' of the eah1bllion. Also exhibited ore I
omall number ofobjects from tltis JegJon rcftecting the initial
phase ofofficial contact betw..,n Egypt and canaan in the L1te
fourth millennium BCE. The>e items arc complemcnted by
objecu from Eg)-pt rcftecting Eg)l'tian-Canaanite political and
cultural relations during the ...rond millennium BCE. All of the
above shed lillht on panicular aspects of the interaction between
the two lands and highlight the differences between the
oiruation during the Middle Bronze Age (the period ofHyksol
rule in Eg)"]>t) and that of the Lote Bronu loge (the period of
Egyptian rule in Canun).ln contra>tto the Mid~le Bronu lFi& 1l8ound Asiatic priso.nt-r ld•nt1f1ed by the n•me-c&nun·
tncloltd within • tymbalic city ltll411t, dtpic11on on the bat• of •
Age, when Egyptian~Can:tanite interaction round expression
royalatat"•
primarily in trade and kinsh•r tics, the interaction between the
 The Beginning: Early Contact between Egypt and Canaan

Mediterranean Sea
(Fie,. 21 The area of EIYptlan coton•zat•on in aouthYwestern CAnaan In the EarIY Bronze A&e 1
The e•rlu:st C\'!dcncc for trJde bct\\'C<n £1111" ond Conoon dotes to
the moddlc of the fourth mtllcnnoum BCE. -.ben the dom<>tocotion
ofth< donlq :Uio"'td for the tronspon•tion ofgoodsO\'crlong
d1~121\ttS. 11us earl\· concact, howe,~r, wuspc>DdJC, 21kl 1t lSonl)'tn
the l•te fourth ITIIUennoum BCE trot the first Stgns ofcxpntzed trod<
bc1\\'C<n tbc tWO"''lliflS find C.\f"C$-<100 Ulthc •"'iucoi"C''f rt<Ord.
Such orpn!ZN tnde wu oruu•tcd b) the nstng rofouc:tl !'""~" tn
Einl"• .,tud!, Junng th< fin>l rrosc ofth< Prcd)1USUC !'<nod,
founded colon1es ~~:a number ofsues 1n southwestrm Cln.un. An
olfkaal E'g)'J'ItUn aJmmastr.tll\"e mfr.ucructu~ w;u esubluhc:d
21 these sncuround J tSO RCE, coonCtdong \\1th the unoficouon
~~ Ell)l" under one ruler, the c.-.nt th•t mooo the bcgtnnong of
rt..roonJC lustot).
The bnd·b•~d trade nctworl. on southern C.n.-n
, .., dcSI~ncd to <Uf'PI)' the nC\\cl) es..bltshed El!'l'll•n dote
\\lth e\ ot•c:rrodun.s that wert: r.arcoruna\<Jibblc: '"Egypt
Th< •rch•cologoc.lc-.dencc orgues for • clusterofEI!)l'tun
rolomes m the rcgaon, wh•ch 1ncludcd :a nuclurarca "'than
.uimanL)tr.mvc center at Tell es-SJ.k:m in the G:au Stnp, and a
lo'ller •rc• \\1th ondtng posu, such u Tel Eronoond En U.,sor
Eg)'pti•n •nd Eli)'J'Uon-St)l< pottery pooduccd on southern
Clna.Jn for the Egyruans statK>flC'Ci there :accounts for more than
runety pc=nt of the ponery found ot these 51tc<. The offia•l
Eg)"Pti:a.n econormc mterest '" thas rcgton as tndlattd b)· the
Jars that h;ad contained 1mponcd Clnaanne "1nc and oil wh1ch
\\Crc doSCO\'Crcd on one of the e•riocst <0)'21tornbs on El)l"· At
t.he~rne nm~, thedtSC"'\"i!f) an southern CannnofEg)-ptlan
J:lrS bcanng t.h~ n~mcs of th~ c01rhe:st Egypuan kings .mrns 10
the presence ofon Eli),U•n odmmostr•uon mthc rq;ron An
Eg)'Jlllon p~ncc IS funhersuggcstcd byd>) scolongsproduccd
on Cor!JJn usong EG)'P'o•n·>l)le C) Iinder scols, r<tlcctin~ Jn
Eg)-pban admtniSirJ.U\-c pr.~ctiC'C ofttus pcnod. The m:un
producuuplolled b)•the Eg),u•ns on C.no:lll"'"'",ncand
o1l and prob:lbl)' also coprcr These were inmall) rnnsponrd
to Egypt b)' donl..c)'S \'13 northern S1n;1, but ,,,th ume, mariume
tmnsponJUOO bcame i~JSIOgl\ prom&ncnt, llS lndiCJttd b\
the a~.ar.ance ofelong2tcd JUS lh31 were more: c;uii)' C'OO\"C)'e<i
b)· shop.
The dC\<lopmcnt ofm.:~ritimc tr.lll5poruuon wos :among
th< f•cton tlut tnggeml• oigrufiont chong< m th< comma=I
r<IJuons bcn•«n Egyplond Can.w>, ond •round JOSO BCE,
dunngtbc forst O)n>Sty, Egyptwunenuon shifted from south<m
to nonhcm C.l\2311. Conuru« products now om•'td b\•~· from
th< ~b3nesc co.uul a=, m•ml} •u th< pon at) ofB)'bios. 'flus
51tu.noon conunucd throughout th< pcnods ofsuong «ntr.ll ruk
in Egyrt(th<OIJond Middle Kingdoms),\\1thonl) uhon b«oL
dunng th< Forst lntcrmcdo•tc !'<nod 111 E~l" (o.ll8o-!~O BCE},
"hen ccnlr.ll ruk 111 E~nl" disontqptcd M•numc tnnSpOfUuon
.UO.."cd for btgerargo<S.<Spc<i;illyomporunt for the slurmcnt of
wood, plcnufuJ in nonhem Can.w> .00 dcsoml 111 Eori} O)m<IIC
Et!>l"·" it \\'ll used on th<consuuction of <0)'21 monuments.
The cstabhshmtnt ofa sea route to northern ClnJan rendc~
lioe trodmg posos in southern C.n20n superfluous, ond thC) """'
ab.Jndontd. Theotnb3ndonmcnt, ho\\l!\~r,coincidcs ""h the
emergence ofbrgt fortified t0\\1\S in thiS "'!liOn, the l!JOI'1hof
which ma) h2\c been occelcrotcd b) the Egyptian ropubuon th•t
hod sculcd on the rq;ton e:trlicr on The :uchocologjc:tl C\1dcncc
foom th•'SC t0\\1\S oncludcs • snull numbcroflu.<Ut) ucms from
Eg)l't,cspccuUy highqu>lol)•Sionc ;and pott<t)''-..scls · roob•bl\'
dorfomotic gJls to th< loc:tl etitc or trJdc ucms. O.c..U, """"'"'·
11 •rgu<> for mononul, Jf:my. commcrcul con!JetS bcr\\c<n EG'rt
ond south<m C.= for morc thon • """'-"'nd l"•rs. EG)l"WI
tcxU suggc>1 th< posso'bihty ofocc:uiolulnulolJI)• oncur<ion> 11110
th< rq;ton dunng tlus umc. but it 1\'ll not until• rodJc:tl J'Obuc:tl
d.-elopm<nt tool< pbcc 111 Eml" ot th< bcginrungofth< 5c<onJ
lntcmwdootc !'<nod (co t700 BCE) tlut Eml"WW onte""' in
soutMm <:annn \\"J.S rc:ne~~
Rc-fcK~
8cn·Tor 1991; BnnJlt991; Bnunn al :001. 0.: ~hfOkhcdl• !(.'01;
~"Jd.l :009: """den Hnnl. '99S

123
221

(1 I "Abyd"' jar
TtiArod I EaalyEaonzoA£oll
(ca 30!>0-2900 BCEJI Pa,nted pottety I
H 3ScmW 23cmltAAI1964 237
Thas \'tssel w.. produc.d from • pale,
laght b..,..,, porous clay. 11 presumably
onginaled in a potter's workshop in
or close to Ar.ld 11u h>pe c>n best be
desrnbed u a hybnd bel\\een a jug
and a jar. lured-slapped, bumashed
lovterput, us narrow base, :~nd the
four dinunuti\.., \ en ial handles affixed
:u ~u mterv;1ls arc remin1sccnt of
jugs belonging to a group orlate Early
Bronze Age 1{11 \·esseIs known u •Ab)·d01
Wtl~,- an e~s cpon)rm since such
jugs, \\hilc indc~ found an SC\'enl Firs1
Dynastytombs ofthe iO)al cemetery
at Ab)uos, Egypt, and be}'ond, were in
fact produced in the southern Levant, as
proved by the petrographic <J<>manotion
of Se\'tralexarnples. The upper pan of
the vessel, in p:.nicul:ar llS rtlau\ cly
Wide neck ond floring red·slipped rim,
aschoracteruueofEarly Bronze Age II
J:US, manufactured, for ex.1mple, 1n the
tradition of "'mclalhc w-;a~/" one of 1hc
h>llmorks of the period A red·painted
design w.. applaed O\'<r the untrut<d,
extenor surf-a« on the \«5el's upper
pan, neck, and shoulder 11 C'Onsisu of
lhrte r<gjsters filled with pendent ond
standmg dotted triangles o11ematang
"ilh 1\\'0 rogmers filled \\i th WO\'f lanes.
An mterpretauon ofthe des•gn i.s not
:anemptcd here.
The Jar, selttted from among Jix
Wnllar jars uncO\ered :nAnd, belong~
to a •moll but haghly dastanctave gJoup
of ce:ram•ccont:aincrs produced in
Lhc southern Levant, which mdudcs
jugs, jugleu, ond t•rs, all ex<C'Uted and
painted in the S>me tr.1d1tion, a Ibeat
\\1lh '" l)i ng 10\..,IS ofCr.lftsmanshap
The)• \\Ore c:xpon ed to ploces as far
3 W3)'lS Egypt, " here they have been
found, for ins1ance, 1n the rombs of two
kmJl'Oflhe Fin;t O)'T1asty: Horus Den
ond Horus Semerkhet. l'lotobl)•, the
crafism•nshipofthe El!}ptaan specamen•
is much bener thon thoI of the Arad I"·
being high· fired, thm·,.,.llcd, made of
finely levigJtcd postes, and skU Ifull)
painted wath deliCate lines ofequal
thac~nus opplaed on • laght C'Oiorod,
usuolly pola<hed, slap - hence !herr nJnl<
"laght·faced p;unted \\arc • The And
eumple is mort crudcl) ex<C'Uted and
maght have been an imnouon lor local
consumption of the much finer conr;uner\
opparently designJ~ed for cxpon. \\hiCh
most lakely rontJOned olave oat. The
gr<al ampomnc. of the Ar.ld J>r and
related s~cimen.s found, for mst;ance, ;:n
)en cho and Mcgaddo lau an the 1nferred
chronologacal rorrel>tion betwcrn the«
southern Levontane Early Bronze Age I
II settlement snes and con1empomry,
First Dynasty <t!meteT)' sues m El!)l'l,
such os AI>)"<los, Abusar ei·Meleq, ond
Saqq;ar;a, Yo he~ simil:u \cssels were found
u ampons. The vessels date from around
1900 BCE.
E\'dB
Rdnrncc.J.;
Anunn1974.!;Amir.t~nna1 1978,j1 St.pls
19·4 :and 6o, BrJWllOtl, Bnun :z:otJ:; Kantor
196j.
(2) Fraamont of an EIYptlon wino jor
bearln& t he name of Kin I Harmer
lJ.tl AI :1 E HI'( 8 C"Z~ ~... A J(1
P!!tt ry l H 1'J:cm\•{ t6cm IAAI1t:';~· 17
The JJr fr;agmcnt w~s restored from
four potsherds unco\ered in thrct
dalrcr~nt find spots'" t\\'0 supcnmposcd
O<'Cllp>Uon Je,·eJs (Str>t> IV and 111).
The jJr, ongm;aiJy ::almost :l meter hJ~h,
""' roal·bualt ond had • knaf.,.tnmmed,
non·slipped but "ell·bumasheddark
brown exterior surfJtt A surkh. :a Sl) llud
pala« bcadc topped b) a reprcsent•uon
of the Egypuan f•lcon god Horus...,.,
incised on us shoulder before finng. The
tncomplctdy prc5en"Cd )trrklt consJ.SI.S
oft\'1 o p3rtS: The lh~ \ertiC31, p.u :alld
lines m the lo\'ltr p;art ofchc rrC1:lnttuiJr
fr.tntc,the bouom of Yo hid\ IS broken ~tf,
;arc 3 schematic n:ndauon ofan EgypuJn
mud·bnck, buttressed r•laee f•cade.
The honzonc;als•gn •n II.S upptrp;art lS
a scheanotic rendauon of the hicrogi)'Ph
BCEJ
o f ;a c.:atfhh, read nar- the first p;art of
the name of the first kong of the Forst •
0)1lasty, Nmncr ("The Fierce C:ufish J,
\\ho y.-as buried in the El.rl)' O)'T13SIIC
I'O)"Icemeter)' •t Umm <1-GJ'ab, Ab)'dCK
an Uppcr Egypt. The seC"Ond element
of N:lnner's n;~mt, rcprr~nttd ~ the
haerogl)-ph of> chasel, read mtr( The
Fien:<: One") ,aso~scnt from the Arad
fr.~gntcnt , but nn bt u:cn 111ter ab;~ on
tht fJmou.s eponrmous ccremoni;al sl.lte
J'llcnc on d•spiJ) tn th~ ~tro Museum
The Jilt as p.trt of:llong tr.adJUon of
"cll·lnoon Early D)nasue, tall Etn'P"""
wmt j;~rs wuh u•pcn:d bodies. wuatl~ ten
pban but ()(..""C;a.sionally bc:mng :10 anctscd
snrkh-s•tt" or, more frequent!}, :a )Ingle
Ol compound pocm;uk. These ::appc:.tr m
large quantiues an First 0)11>Sty IO)"lond
due ctmctery Sitts in Upper :and Lower
Egypt (e g, at AI>)"<los, S:lqqara, Helu>n,
ond Mmshot Abu Omor), but were olso
c:xponed to wrious late Early Bronze
Age I settlement sites in tht: southern
Lc•ant (e.g., Arod, Tel HalafTerracc,
Tel Er>na, En Besor,and Telles·Sakon).
The Jarisbut one ofse\er>ll)-pesof
Egypuan \"eSSCis imponed to And during
the late Eorly Bronze Agel/11. The
fr.Jgment dtscussed hctc is of ampon;~nce
because u pnMdes • darect chronolOgical
correbuon between Arad Strat\IJ11111
and the first Icing of the Forst Egypuan
0)1losl), Horus N.u(mer), amund JOOO
BCE. Twenl)'·two pottery· mcised sml:hs
are attributed to Kong N.u(mer). Four of
these 3 re p~n~ on tnt3C1 ~,n~ j;ars
unCO\-cred m Eg)'Pt and II u fragments
onl), the majonl)•ofthesc,surpnsmgly,
found an the southern LevOJnt. Bes•des
Arad,lhese include the btt Eorl) Bronze
Age 1settlement situ in Lod, Tel Er.uu,
Tel HolifTerracr, and Telle>·Sakan.
E'dB
~==:~b; Braun :ott, \mdcn !nnk t996;
\lift den Bnnk and Br.~un :oo:.
The Bollnn'nll25

[3) Two clay buU.. with f&Yptlan cylinder
oat Impressions
Elcca\":IIIOCIS in the 19i'OS :II En~
ho\'e bnlughtto bghta coll<ctton ofone
hundted, frequentlyO\erbppng C)iinder
,.,;U impressions pr<SCI\...1 on cb)- bull.te,
most ofthem pr<SCI\...1 incomplete. Moll)'
shcM segmentsofthe some unpress>onS-
Sc\...-..1 belong 10 a Single, finely cut C)iinder.
In gcner:tl, such c:by se:tlmgs were used
asadmirustnh\"edC'\'lCC:Stocuher ~
cords (used to locl<doon) orSIMgs used
for 5<2hng commocbties conuined m sm:tll
textile bogs, sacks, orpollery jars. The En
~ buiLte \\'tt< :til sm:tll-b>gse:tlmgs.
Pmographic an:ti)'SIS ofsome ofthe d.l)
bull.te rt\"e:tled WI the impressions"ere
:awJied to loalloessi>l d.ly 1)-picol of
the liOUIItem pan oftsncl. HO..'e\"er, the
,-.riouul)ies and motJfsdispl.t)'Od by the
impn:sstons, some ofthem hieroglyphs, are
de2rty Eg)--ptUn in ongin, and comporuon
"ithC)iinder....U impressions found m
Egypt J"'P<<' sh<M~ WI the collecnon dotes
mainly 10 the begmrung of the rust Dytusl)•,
around ;oso BCE. Although this is b) far the
Ltrgest coll<ctton oftruenbed maten:tls from
aSIOgJe site m011)' region OUI>lde Egypl,
addition:tl c:by se:tlmgs, "ith and v.1thow
C)iinder se:tl unpressiOOS, h;r,'e been found
at a f<Wothercontemporarylate Early
Bronze Af1! ISIIa m the repon, nomely at
Td Enni and at Td H:lhi"Terr.tc<, Silo oite,
Slratwnll
AI Td H:lhfTemce, three of the
r<CIO\"er<d cl.t)•bull.te bore C)itnder oe:tl
impresSIORS, M"Oof" hich d1$pl.t)' the
recurring fe•~ ofa sunding nun.
EniB
fttfrnnce:s
Cophru 199.s;nndcn 8rinki99S,K.rlony
1001. Lcvytt •I 1997oSchuJ~n 1976,
SchWman 19lo;Schulman 1991
[31) Bulla
En!l.!so<IEarty&onzt"f:e'ta 3050BCEJ
O.y H2Sernl· 32cm)IAA)I975· 1871.
The bull• consists of• single regi5ter
framed by horizontol border lines.
On top, •n the ctnter, a.s ;& standmg
bearded mon facrng left, his bonds
r>rsed, OCCUP\ mg the full hcrght of
the seoUng. In front and behind hrm
are 1\\"0 honzon~ally supcrirni'O"'d
rows ofnorrow triongular wedges. The
rcpresenuoon, at the top, oh st.1nd1ng
or stnding upnght or shghtly bent figure
ofa mon with dilfcrentcmpty·handcd
:;arm positions as a rtcurring featurt of the
En Besor seoll impressions (uccpt for one
eumplc, in -.hoch the man" holding a
s1alf). Atguobly, thosomogc rep,..sents,
from an EJm>uan pcrspectm,, a (foreign)
chiefodonng the king
Rt-fcrencr:
SchuJmo~n 19;6, fig. 1;14-
An Archaeological Enigma:
Egyptian-Canaanite Relations in the Middle Kingdom
The conuct between Egypt and the !.Aobanese coostth>t began Eg)"ptian presence :and e\en :an Egnni:an Em pare m the region
in the Earl) Dynasuc !'<nod"" partrcularly strong dunng the (sec nos. 4 , 6·9) The fact thot the synchroniution ofthe ~hddle
~hddle Ktngdom, \\hen clost pohucolond cuhurol rclouons Bronze Age •rchaeological pha"'s in southern C.noan "1th the
e'nted bet\\ecn the two reg_&ons. :as and&c;ucd b) both u~·uu.tl hostorie>l pcnods ofEg)'PI was otthelime of these discussrons
ilnd :archuologJcal e\i dencc. Bycontr.a.sc, the n.nureofthe tenr;ati\C at best aused e\'en funherc:onfu.s1on, luding to
...Ialions bct»«n Egwtond southern C.no>n dunng th" the m&Sinterpre~tion of the ong~nal contens, functionSt
pcnod hos been the rui>Ject ofscholarlydcbote. ThrsdebJte ond srgnrfiance ofthe Mrddle Kingdom rmpons rn southern
was ~cnerated b) r•nrculor I)-pes ofEg)1'lr>n Muldle Kingdom Can:a~n
o~tcCU found rn southern C:.naon, "hrch h»e been rntcrpreoed The confusion ...gardrng the sprchronizauon of Eg)-pt~n
[3b) Bulla
.t\ C\1dcncc for rebuons nngtng hom sign•finnt commertul
and Conoonrte chronology hos to olal}lC d~e been ,...oJved
En& r E. 1 8ror:eAj;ol u ~i':CE)
b) the archoeologrcole<c.tv:ruons conduced at Tellci· Dob"o
C1ayoH<•cmL46Cm IAA 1~'> 11t- Jnd t..hplonutic ucs beaween Eg}"J'I and southern C.lnnn to an
The bull:a rontaJns t\\'0 ronuguouJ
regosters, each origrnall) framed b)
honzontal border hne~. rolled one
>bo"c the other by 1he same" hnder
"'al. Thclo"<r rollong be" presti\CS
the rcpresent:auon of a suanding m:an
facrng left, rai<rng his nght hand. The
upper rolling best presel\es the dcprcuon
ofwh>t rs behrnd this figure, namely,
a pair ofin\·en ed arms and (four·
fingered) hands, a hierogln>h that reods
either ka \Soul") or uk:lun ("He Who
Embraces")
Jlrfcrrnce
Sdtulnun 198o, fie.- aaa
(FI&. CorGvlln of C.naan•t• merc:hants. drow.na bat ed on a Mlddt• K.ncdom tomb pa1nt•na from Ben~-Hosan, EI)'Pt
31
27
on Eg)-pt's US~em Delta. The ua,..tions un=-,r<d milled
assemblages of Eg)"J'IIan and Canunite matenal (seep 10),
which helped establiSh a reliable conespondencc betw..n the
Middle Bronze Age phues in Canaan and the Middle Kingdom
and Second lntermedtate Penod 1n Egypt This allowed for
a more aC'CURie historical re-constructiOn of these: periods 1n
both rqpons. Based on thiS e\idencc, it has become apparent
that the Eg)"J'Iian Middle Kingdom objecu found in southern
Canaan came almost elldusi,-,1)" fiom archaeological deposits
correspondong to the Second lntennedl>te Period or later in
Eg)'J'l- in other words, from conte<ts postdatong the Middle
Kingdom
As for the EJ>"J'Iian remaons diJCO\"er<d in Canaan in
contexts eorrespondong to the Middle Kingdom in Eg}"J't, deor
chrunctions <:an be made between the ricture 1n southern
Dnaan and that in nonhem Canaan. In conrr::~st to the wc3hh
ofEg)"J'Iian Middle Kingdom obJ«!S uneanhed at Byblos on
the Leban<R coast, exca,..tions 1n southern Canun yoelded
only isolated EJ>"J'Iian Middle Kingdom pottel) at Tellfshar in
the Sharon Coastal Plain (see no. 4) and a group of cia)' seatings
bearing Middle Kingdom scarab Impressions at the southern
pon oty ofAshkelon (see no. 10) The significance ofthese finds
is stdl under dehate; while some regard them as a sign of more
to come, others ~ee them as exceptions. Wh:alc\cr the a.sc m~y
be, the archaeological remoins anest to the fact that southern
and northern Canaan had different rela11onsh1ps \\1lh Ei>l't in
the period correspondong to the M1ddle Kingdom, rcftecting 0
c:ombonation ofgeogrophical and h1Storic:ll factors. Whde the
rcbtionslup between Eg)"J't and northern Canaan ....s Strong,
the relationship betw-,en El)l't and southern Canaan rcma1ns
somewhat ofan en1gma. Though the1dea ofan Elt)-ptian Empire
1n southern Canaan dunng the lime of the Middle Kingdom
IS no longer espoused, the rrccise nature of the rclationsh1p
betw-,en El)l't and southern Canaan in this penod is still under
CORiidcration
Ref~«;
lcn·Tor 199... Bc:n·Tor 1997; Bcn·Tor 100}; kn·Tor ZOO]J;Cohcn
zoozt MMCUl ct aJ zooS; We1nstrin 197... \\'rin~can I9JJ, \\'nn"c1n
1991b.
211
Execration Texts
The namrsofC3n:~anut en)' SLllcs and thcar rulers ha\.e been
prcsened on • class ofEil)"J'Uan Middle Kingdom obJects
associated with the practice ofmogoc. The objects, comprisong
ponery ond schcmouc figurines of bound pnsonel$, were
inscnbed \\.ith the n3mcs ofcuics and indwiduals that the
Eg)"J'll3ns consldeltd hostile, and then broken and buried os
part ofa m>glcol e<rcmon)' The rurpose of the e<r<mOn) 1\JS
to subdue I he adcs :and/ or mdlvtduJI.S "hose nJmcs \\"C~
onSClibed. Such inSCliphons, which often also onclude curse
formulas, are known as "execnujon teJits." ~bn)· were dirccu:d
against El!l-"J't's neighbors ond their rulers
The Middle Kongdom execrJUon texu pro\lde \alwble
ond detailed inform3llon ond h.-e been ron•idercd to reflect
:accu~te scnlement situauons, espcn all) those: te),LS listing
the names ofCanaonue cuy sutes and their ruler.. It hJs
been sugge<ted thot the ti!>l\ ••press Elt)"Pt ·,concern for the
protection of1U tr.tdc routci :and economic intrrest\ 10 Cln~Jn
Thee"UStene< ofnn Egypnan Middle Kongdom Emp~re in
Canaan h•s e\en been pnopo"'d on the hom of these t<\ls.
Howtver, areh>eolog1ral tvidenc-, cle•rl¥ <hO\n thJ t no such
empire e•usoed, •nd thot the supposed pohncal and economic
lFi.£.41 Front end back v•ewa of I ctey figurine depleting a bound
pnaoner lnacubed w•th an tXKfation text btanna names of
naanllt City atatea. Royet Muttuma of Art and Hl&lOfY BruaHII
Cal
nv. No E74JoO •
1elauons between Eg)"Pt ond southern Cannn dunng thiS
penod h3\"e been much exaggcrattd. While some of the sues
mcnuoncd 10 thtse texts, suc:h as Ashkclon, Arhe~. 2nd Akko,
hO\e indeed reveoled rich orchuecturaland other rcm31ns from
this period, and it IS conrei,-.blc th>t the!' \\ere1eg•rded as
threats, other sites, such as Je~lem, Shechem, Rc.hm,, Hazar,
2nd Beth Shean, \\C:I'C ctther untnhabated at this ome orha\'e:
)1elded only sc:anty rcmaons, and Il lS thus d1ffieuh to undemond
\\h)•the~ v.ere indudcd in the tc.\t<. ln an attrmpt to eJ:plam
th"dacrepanq,ll hos bctn proposed thot the n•mes of these
CJnumtc cil) <t~tes and thctr rulers \\ere copied I rom car Iter
te•t> onsenbed dunng the Old Kmgdom (the Earl) Bronze Age
'"C.1nailn), v.hcn all these sue~ wc1e ocC'Upted and m:~n\ were
fort1hed. This <xpl.ln>non IS supported b1 the f>ct th•t 1n Eg}"Pt,
m.agial texts, 1nc.luJ.ng c'tccr.tuon te\ts, oflen t\l)lu·d tnto
ti.:ccJ fonnulou th~t ,..err roptcd O\er 11nd O\ Cr ag;un, some tames
bec:ommg garbled along th< \\a)'· Thus the nJme of • Ot)' could
a~~r 1n :m e.xe:'r~uon text long :~ftcr th:~t ot)' h~d Nased to be
an ~~.:tUJI threat The custom of \\OIIng C\tcr.Uton texts d;ucs
b>tk to the nme ol the Old t:ongdom, >nd m the e\Jmplcs from
this pcnod, C.nJJnote silo< ore 1ndeed hsted In hght oJ these
obsci'\'JIIons. u m.l} be cond udcd that the occu~uonJI m:~p
portra)-,d b)· the M1Jdle !Yngdom exeeuuon tC'U reftects. at
lea" to wme «tent, the rcoht)·ofOld l:1ngdom Eg}l''·
RtfC'I"C'nc«!
lkn·Tor loo6a, Po.fMr 19.ao: ~ncr 1y66. rotcnC'r 19:"j. R.td10n.l
1q111~ SoJI~)w:t : 001
Egypt's Relations with Byblos
Goods such :u romfcrous resin~. :uom:~uc oils.. Jnd ceJ;~rand
pane ,...ood \\ere tncrtastng_l)-sought after ~ member$ ofthe
Egypu:m ro)"JI rouns starting 10 the Eart~ O)-nJ5tie Pc!nod.
These muwul resources were JbundJnt 1n the Lcb.1nc~ co.1st.tl
rcgton, :and spcclll rclutons dC\·clo~J bct,.. ccn E~'T'' and
th•• 3 ,..3, espeei>ll) \\1lh the port <Ill of B1blos. A> menuoned
abo\·e, these re:lluon' McJme p3rucub rt) strong dunng the
Elt)'JlliOn ~IIddle ~mgdom ll)•blos supphed Eg) pt '" th the
commodmcs thJtlhe Egrrti:ms dc(ircd, :and1 in re:curn, Eg)T"
prtn:tdcd Lhe rulers of B) bios " uh llll'UI'\' Ilemsfrom USr'O)JI
workshops, such os h1gh·qualit) Slone vessels beanng the n>mes
ofEmu•n longs
The emulouon ofEmu•n eulturc b) Bybl11e rulers IS
clearly ind1cated h1 the Ell)"J'll>n·sl) lc rcliefs and onscnptions
the) commisSioned It is especiolly notable in theor •ssurnption
of the u~es of EI)l'll3n lugh officials; 1he1 C\"en enclosed their
n;amcs in a nouches hke Lhe Egypuan phitr.aohs. FW'thennorc,
there IS ev1dencc for the worslup ofEI!)"PII•n gods by B) blue
rulers, on particular, the goddess Haohor, \\ho ...., associoted
""h exouc goods 1mponed from foreign lands (indeed, one of
her offic1Jl ulles " as "l.adyofB) blos"; sec p 48). The royol
tombs at B)'blos h3\c 11elded imprcssl\e Egyptian-style Jewelry
ond other locally manufactured oruf•cts, sho\\1ng • Slrong
Eg)-pttan cultunl tnftucnce.
Tht EI!)"Ptian court granted the rulers ofB)blos personol
S<3rabs m>nufoctured on Eg)l't, idenncol to those m>de for
Emuon offici> Is of the Moddle Kingdom. These scarabs are
onscnbed m h1erog))1'h1< sc:npt .,, th the customary udc of
gD\"<mOI$ of Eit)"Pti•n dom>.~ns, usuall)transl.ued "mal-or"
\\hen foiiO\\ed b) o n•meofa ol) Thus the scarabsofB)bhtc
rule!$ be>rthe Ulle ·~la)or{GO\emorofB)-blos" followed b)•
the ruler's rumc:, in most ca1es a \\'esl Semiucone (sec no. j).
The use ofth1>n~e b)• Bybhte rulers hu raiSed the quesuon
of" hether 8)1>1<» \\"OS an official Eg)"Pti•n domam, 1ts rulers
go,cmong on behalf of the ph>r:>oh, or\\ hether the adopuon
of the Eg)-ptt:an title "'ma\or/go\-emor"' wusimply :a milttcr
ofprestt£_c, )-el another form ofcuhur.al c:mubuon The l~ccer
scenulosccmi more likely, conSJdenng the fxt th:atlhcsc
rulers odopt<d Ell)"J'II>n "'1-.1 pm1lq;es thaowould hove been
ummJginJblc lo Eg\"J)Uiln officials, such :IS the: enclosing of
chctr nJmcs tn can ouchcs, :as mcnuoned Jbo\-c, and the use of
EI!)"PtJJn royol epithets Also. the pnm•rv function of « >robs
beanng names • nd ulles ofoffiaals in M1ddle !Yngdom EC\1''
".a' :amulcuc r.acher th.tn ;adminastnm-c, ::and th1s"':I.' the cue
in B! bios as .. ell.
Rct«cnco:
AJM"'t 19'6-t, A.lbnghti96J.Ikn·Tor 199~• Nt~ 1g6;; M.utJn t96l;
Mlf1tn 19'96; N~t anJ Mo.i.""-lti 1966;TUfncllanJ W.ud 1966..
M1ddla K•ncdom I 29
Canaanite Infiltration and Settlement in the
Eastern Delta
Throughout d~e lone COWSC! ofpharaonic hi>lory lhe people
ofCanaan took advan••ce ofpmods of weak """'raJ
rule on
EJYPIIO infillral< Egyptian l<rrilory \U lht <ast<rn Otlla. Tht
polibcal Situation in lhtlal< Moddl< Kmgdom olf<~ such
an opponunil)•. During the final phase oflhe 5trong Twtlfth
Dynally and lhe nse ofthe \\Uker Thon<<nlh D).naSI)', a latge
sttlkmen1 tmetged atlhe <astern Otlla Sll< ofTellei·Dab'a.
The sttlkmen1 was onhabited b)•a mued rommunily of
Egyplians and Canaanites, whose origins .ue cle2rly ondocated
by lhe archa<ological remauts a11he Site. Twenly pereen1 of the
ponery from lhe senlement's lint phase, correspondmg 10 the
final phase of!he Twelfth Ojnasty, consists ofCanaanite Middle
Bronze Ace lypeS MOr<O\-er, fiftypereen1 ofthe male burtals
oncluded Canaanite ~IIddle Bronze Age \\'eapons, suggesting
lha1 manyoflh< foreogn men >~<r< mcreenaneson l'O)'al
EJYPioan employ. In lhe next occupation IC\cl, ron-espondmg 10
lhe rise of!he Thineenth l>)nasl),lhe Canaanite Moddlt Bronu
Age matenal cultw-e became e"·c.n more prominent, with fony
pereenl oflhe pottery dospla>1ng Canaanite Middle Bronze Age
charact<nsucs, allhough most oflhos ware was manufactured
locally. Thtoncrease ofCanaan11e Middle Bronze Age ponery
lypes during lhi> phase sugg<•ts a new onftwc ofpeople from lhe
Le\'ODL While lhi> could h•'• resulted from Egypt's nted for
additional foreigners to serve :n warrio~ seamen, or cr.lft.smen,
II could also reflect EJYPI's inabihly 10 control its borders. Eilher
way, it would ha\-e serious consequen""S for future political
de\1:lopments in lhc eastern Otlta The arehaeologicale\1dtnce
from later lewis 11 Tell d·Dab'a m1:als • gradual Egypti.>n
anfhaence on the material cuhwe of the Canaanite ~tiers, who
increaSJncly adopted Egypuan customs and ultimately became
highly Ee>'Jlliaruud.
The exact place oforigin of!he Canaanite population at
Tcllei·Dab'a is still the subject ofdcb"e.The mued material
culture allhc Slle and !he locally produced Canaonite·sl)ic
>ftlds make i1 dollicuh 10 determine whether lhc foreogn
inhabitants came from soulhcrn or from norlhern Canaan.
Moftove~, it is unclear whether theyC"t·en had a s.ngJe ongin,
as !he evidc""" points to more than one onftwc ofCanaanite
settkn at Tell ei·Dab'a and, later on, at other site.s an the
301
eastern Otlla as well. Since Ee>'Jllian trode dunng lhc final
phase oflhe Mtddle Kingdom focused on lhc Lebanese rout,
11 has been suggested that !he earhes1 Canaan11cs
al Tcllei-Dab"a came from lhc non h. Yetlhe
archaeological evidence from Middle Bronze Age
Canoan, panocularly the evidence pro'1ded by
scarabs, argues for a southern Canaanite ongin
for lhe foreign populotoon in lhe eastern Otllo
lhroughoulthe Middle Bronze Age Thi<
evid<ncc IS dosrussed below (sec pp.
46-47).
~ftrcrK'U·
Bt.rtal.t99t; Ru:t8t997,81ttlk
lOIOj Bowri..Ju 10001 ll"'bd:1y
0997·
(F!& 5} CanaJnltt dl&n•tory I SSOCIIted With the tarty WJ;-Je of
Can.aan•t• senlera In the 111tern o.tlll. reconstructaon baled on a
ltltue from Tell ei·Oab'a
Egyptian Middle Kingdom Scarabs of
Officials in Southern Canaan
0\-er sox1y Egyption ~toddle Ktngdom S<:arobs beoring lhe nomes
and lilies ofoffiaals ha~e been found on southern ean..n
More lhon lhinyoflhese were uncovered in archacologocal
exc:~~w-ations, mainly 10 M1ddle Bronze Age contexts. The rest
were purehosed on the ontiquuy market, and the details ofthetr
discO\-ery arc unknown.
Some scholors rcc•rd these ""'rabs IS offictalseals of
the Egyptian admmastr.uion, rtftecting Egyptj:an rule o\'er
c_anun dunng lhe Mtddle Kongdom or, atlhe \'ely leosr, strong
deplomaue and economic relations ~tween the two 1:1nds .lt
thatume. Others, howe\-er, noung that !he arch•eologocal
contexts of the excav;~ced Items correspond to the Hyk.sos
Penod rolher than the Middle Kongdom in E&>l'•• and tllkong
mto account addition;~l a.rc:haeological evtdcnce th;n potnts co
mmem.tl contact between Egypt and southern Can2.:1n in the
Middle Kongdom, have •uggested lholthe searobs wen: oobbed
from theor origonol Middle Kongdom contexts in Egypt and
brought to soulhern Canun during lhe Second lntermedoate
Penod, when t.tcs ~tween Egypt :and C3n3an \\ere strong
The questoon of the function oflhesc sc>robs on sou them
Canoon is closely related to the hoghly deb>ted ossue of the
pnnmy functoon of scuabs be•ring nomes and titles ofofficoals
in Ee>l'tllself. These sea robs aoe frequentl)•consodered to be
otficool •cols of the ondo\1du•ls whose n>mesthe)' beor. \'e111 h•s
Jbo been suggested tha11heororiginolond pnmory functoon \\'OS
amulctic. Scarabs of >111)1''" ha.·e frequently been ducnbed
as seals on the buis of their flat, usuallydecoroted or on>Cnbed
bases. and on lhe bosis oflhelorge numberofclo) seohngs
wlth K~r:t.b tmpressions found m adnumstr.am·c conteXls an
Ee>l'•· \'et lhe origonolond pnmonl)· amuleuc functoon of
5a.rabs ls tndtateJ, ;~bo\-e :a.ll, b) the protecta\-e or otherv.ise
beneficO> I nature of most of the designs dcrorotong the or
b•ses throughout !heor long penod of use in Egypt. The mong
funer>ry ronnomoon ofscarabs os imphed by the or associouon
\\llh the d•oly re~ltth oft he sun, b)·theorcustom>t) use as bun•!
g~fis, and b)'«na.in mocjfs. Segnsof\,·c:aron mJn)· ex1mples
:a.nd thctr common tnrorrorauon mto finger nngs :.nest to the
f•ct thJtthO> sened as amulets for the hnng, JS well Fin•ll)o
some des1gm arreanng on SCJr.tbs :a.nd the contexts in \\htC'h
they \\ere found poant to the sar.abs" 3ffihJuon \\1th ro)'3l
and temple cull> It appears thalli w•s only for • shon penod
thlt sc:ar.abs were iii.SO used a.n Egypt .u admintstr.aU\<e sc.tls,
m nddauon to their amuletic function, ~nd thes took place first
and foremost dunng the Moddle Kingdom. Non<thelcss, the
designs deroroung most Middle Kingdom seorobs are good·
luck sogns ond protccti'" symbols, •uggcsung th>ten:n dunng
the Middle Kingdom,lhe use ofseorobs as seols '"sserond>l')
10 thetr ;~muletic funcuon. The inccnU\e 10 USC sanbs a._(
admimstr:ni~w~ se:~ls w-.u mosl prob.l~y pngm~uc, as the \<Ut
m~,onty of them were mda\1du:tll~· Cln~ of steatite, eo~ch
K>rob displopng a unique b• se dcsogn dofficull toduphc;ote and
thus offenng a perfect device for sealong.
Who lethe pnmaril) amulenc functoon of i<'orabs beonng
good-luck sogns and s)m bols is gcneroll) •=rted• .corobs
bcanng names and utlcs ofofficuls are sull otlen r<gatdtd
maenly as offici.ll scal.s Exceptions include, on the one h3.nd,
scarabs mJdc: of hard sC"mi·prccious stones, \~o.hich :ue \'ell
shallowlyengra>ed and could not hove been u<ed for sea long,
:~nd, on the other, Ihose lh :at bear, in :a.dJiuon to n:unes ;and
tides, epithets and formulu associoted e.•clusi,·elywuh lh<
Egypuon funerary cull - lhesc are generolly rcg>rded as funeral')
amulets.
As for lhe seorobs that come to hght in southern Canun
ond beor the nomcs and ntles of officio Is, most of these were
found in C.noanitclombs used for mulliple buriols, where
they sen-cd as burial gifl5. There is no evidence fortheir usc as
official sc3ls in this region. Moreo\ er, :.s~Mt of these: scar:abs :tlso
be•r funerory ep11hct> after lhe nomes The utles on man)' of the
ocanbs found in Conaan are ofofficials of vet)' high rank, such
as treasurers. choef sle\\ards, hogh pne5ts, ond chiefscnbes,
who "ould ho1c had no busoness outSide Ee>l''· Considering
rhos ond lhe H)'ksos Period contexts on >~hoch lhesc seorobs were
found, II IS nowgener.oll)· •greed lhotlhe appearonce oflhese
sc;orabs on Canun does not n:ftcct fe>l'tian rule or diplomatic
rclotoons " ' lh Canaon in lhe ~IIddie Kmgdom Rather, !he use
ofscoarabs was a D nu rute adoption of an Egrpu.tn funerary
custom, " hich most probobly reached Canoan by means oflhe
~.trutes who had sculed in the us:tem De.lta at that ume and
"ho hod been greatly inftuenced by EgypU.n culture.
kc(c:rcmn·
Jkn~lor 199.1, Ct\'fOO 1976, C1\.r<m tQSo, ~l.Jni.n 19!4.
Egyptian Middle Kmgdom Statuettes rn
Southern Canaan
Asmall numbcrof <O)'al•nd pn\"al< Middle Kingdom stotuenes
hi\C been found m Middle and l.:lte Bronze Age o«:up1tion
le\-cls m southern CQnaan; \\i thout e.'<tertion the)' are from
alt'hocologocol contexts postdating lhe Middle Kmgdom on
EID'l''
The 1'0)".11sutueues end ude :a. fr:~gment3.t') sph1nx
ofPrin«ss Sobclrroncfru, chsco\·eud an Geter, u well as a
frogmcno>l') sphonx of Kong Amenemh>t Ill (sec no. 9) •nd lhc
hcod ofan unlmolm king, both uneanhed at !Iazor. AlllhC5<
fO)'otl staruenes we~ tOund m L:lte Brotue Age contc.xu.
The pn\ate 5tatuenes an: stond>rd Middle Kingdom types
belongmg to Eg>'J'lo•n officials and femole members oflhe elite
Three fragmental)' stiltueues \\"Cte found at Megiddo; t\\O of
them prcser>e onl)' the hcod •nd upper IOr>O. \\hole ohe thord
M iddlel<tn&dom I 31
 C<>nsists ofpan ofa square ..,at and the Jo..~ body of a sea~ed
male figure, identified by an inscription as the High Priest of
Thoth and District G-mor Djehutihotep. Astaruette ""•ring
the nome ofHotlta (or Jo:hentiwka) was found at Tell ei·Ajjul (see
no. 8). A.ruatuette "".uing the name and ti~eofthe Bu~er of the
Cham""r He<piband a fr:agmentaJy statu<tt< of tho Offi~rof
the City R<ogiment Deduamun ,...refound at Gner.ln addition,
a fngmentary statuette of the Prieal Nofenem W:l$ found at
Tel Dan, a fngment ofa square seat and pan ofthe lower body
ofan official was fOUDd at Hazar (also bearing the schem•tic
inuges and namesofhisson and -.;ro), and afngmentary
statuette ofan unknown official was found near Ein H..hofet.
The private staruenes were eXCS\'llted in both Middle and Late
Bronze a3ntexts.
Like the sarabs ""•ring names and titles ofofficials,
the private statuettes found in southern Canaan haVI!
""-~ ~sad~red eviden~ for the P'""'n~ ofan Egyptian
edmomstrauon in this rcgoon or for close diplorn2tic relauons
""t>oo~ El:)'Pt and southern Canaan during the Middle
Kingdom. HO\\~r. among the swvilling inscriptions are
standard Egyptian funerary formulas ensuring SUIVival in the
afterlife for the stat~s owners. During the rime of the Middle
~gdom, st:.oruesofth.is rype were pla~ in tombs orpre..,nted
'" tem~es, particularly temples ofOsiris, god of the dead. The
posSlbdoty thatanyofthe owners of these statues was buried in
south~rn.Canoan is highly unlikely, con•idering the importance
ofbunal_'" the land of Egypt to any Egyptian, let alone mem""rs
of the due. Mor._r, the types ofadministrati•-. titles
appearing in th_e inscriptions strongly ugue against the notion
that theseollicials mighthaVI! been stationed in th '-
d th eo.cvant,as
"':" e arehaeologieal eviden~ from settlements io Canaan
whoeh point.to minimal contact ""1\\'ftn Egypt and southem '
Canaan dunng the MM!d[el(jngdom.
. In aU likhhood, the private st>tUettes Wtte 1\onerary
~brecu plundered from Middle Kingdom tombs and temples
"'Egyp~. The plundering and'"""' ofboth royol•nd priv:ote
Jlatuesm Egypt ia attested throughout aU periods ofpharaortic
~IS~ and the posSibility ofsuch objeets ending up outside of
gypt hould not beruled OuL Thest.atucttes found in Middle
lkonze Age occupauon levels in southern canaan_,. b bl
brought during the Hyksos Period, "hen close romme.: • y
and cultural relations betwec!n Egypt and C fosteredbythela "····- '
.
M •'-
_.uUlC'rn anaan ~~
321
attested. Those found in Late Bronze Age C<>ntuts could h•ve
""-n brouglueitherdwingthe Hyksos Period or during the
New Kingdom, when Canaan w•s under Egyptian rule (see pp.
j0·t4t).
R<fcrmca:
lkn·DCJ\j' 1011, 1j$; Grveon 1971,.zi-JO; Loud S94&.16S-'7i M.acali1 rtr
19u, JU-u; Pttnc 19Jt, pl. u; Weinstein 1974·
Resumption of Contact between Egypt and
Southern Canaan
The earliest evidence for the re~l ofcontact berw..,n Egj'PI
and southern Canaan in the Middle Bronz.e Age comes from the
portcityof Ashulon. More than forty day sealings stamped o1most
exdusively by Egyption Middle Kingdom scor.bs ,..,"'found 01 the
&i~e in anarducologieal conte.rtoorresponding to the late Middle
~gdo~ ~Egypt: (<a.t780·If'lO BeE). The Ashkelon ..,alings.
which onginally..,aledCOiltainersand po...bly also doors, rrflect
a distincti\'0 Egyptian Middle J(ingdorn adminiarraU.., ~;to
date,Ashkclon ilthe only place OUtSide the Nile Valleywhene it has
be~n anest_ed. The SCII:Ib impressions on the.., sealing> feature the
l)1lieaJ dcsrgnsof£g)-ption ~tid die Kingdom scanbs. MOI'CO\In,
they show • l!m.ukable similarity to thousands ofda ·"- ,
Middle · . . . y..,.......gs •rom
J(ingd~ •clministf31l\1! oon~xts in Egypt, whicb onginally
seeur.d oont>mers, doors, and papyna dD<IIIllenU..
. . l'etrogr.tphic anal)'Sisperformedon the Ashkclon sealing>
indatestheywereallprod~ '-" th
. """"Yo US~thc
Cana_alllte adoption ofan Egyptian Middle Kingdom administrati\-.
prac:noe ot th~ site. This is somewhat surprising, considering the
noal•gibleevode~insouthern"--·- , • .
th ........n.oroommercialn:lolllons
'" Ee\-ptduringtheMiddleJ(ingdom, when Egypt'1 COI11J1IcrtiaJ
contacuwiththe• --- ,
. ""'•ontoocusedonthel.ebanesecoasc.E tian
tmportsaremre 1 • gyp
. me y ran:"' southern Canaanite OCC\Ip•tion levels
~ng to the Middle Kingdom,""'" at Ashkelon, wloene the
Ell)-ptran·UISplred ..,alingowrre found.
Based on ortlueological evide~ from
Carwn • has been
E....,;,
d th
Dor•ln sou em
K Alggested that the resumption ofCXlrtllncrciol
<on tact belwoen the rwo cogions in the Mrddle Bronze_._ was
, ·-&•
rge - .....•te popul•llon th•t settled in the
eastern Deltaduringthel.ttc: Middle J(ingdom. These Wft'ethc
foreign Settlers th>tO\'entually took OV<r the regJon and ruled
northern Egypt from theireastern Della capital during the 5<cond
lntenmdiote Pmod (the Hylcsos). The initial interaction between
Egypt and Ashkdon occum:d after • =derable Cana.:mite
popublion had already 6etllcd in the eaSlern Delr.a. kwasprobably
this popul.uion thot ";u responsible for promoting Eg)-ptian
interaction with southern Canun.
It has ""-n shown thotthe earbest significant
m:anifestation ofan Egj'J'tian culturallllfluence on southern
Canaan in the Mrddle Bronze Age was the initi•llatge·
scaleproduc:tionofCanunite scanbs in this region. This
d"""lopmentcoind<kd with the >boVI!-mentionod takeo.uof
the eastern Delta by Canaanite set~crs, the 0\ent th•t marks
the beginning of the Scmnd lntenn<:di•te Penod in El:)'PI· The
A>hkdon sealings indicateth>t thccultunl interaction betweeD
the two regions began, though on • •m•ll scale, slightly e•rlier.
The spread ofa late Middle Kmgdom administnti•'< practice
to some1011them coascol Canaan ice ta..,s. suc:h u Ashulon,
was in all prob•bllil)' facrlit>ted by the Cana•nite population at
Telld·Dab'a, which pla)ed a keyrolein the Levantine maritime
lr.tde during this period. NeVI!nheless, the insignilinnt number
oflate Middle Kin~dom scarabs in southern Cana>n •nd the
rare oceurrence ofse•hngs in Middle Bronze Age derositt
argue that chis admin•w;ati"" practice,..., short li•-.d and De\'Ct
benme common in the Lev:ant.
lld'trmcn:
S.n·Tor 100)'1, 117·11, ll<n·Toc and Boll fcrtlrcominJ.
Early Production of Canaanite Scarabs
The large number ofscanbs found rn Moddlo Bronze ,O.gt oites in
southern Canaan is unpanllded in romparison to the numbers
from Cana•nite sites 111 other periods. The great majonty of
these scanbs wrre made in Canaan itself. and it is generally
agreed th>l the "'""production ofICiltObs in Canaan reflects
close aoltunl interaction betwe«n Egypt and southern C>naan
during the Scmnd !ntertMdUte Perio<L This is sllf'P"r1ed by the
fact that the initial production ofscarabs in SO<Ithem Canaan
coincides with the beginning of the S<cond lntermedi•t• Period
in Egj-pt, ea. 1700 BCE.
The early groups ofCanaanite scarabs display signs and
symbols that atturately copy the d<llgnsofEgyptiau Middle
l(jngdorn scarabs, the latter fcaruring a variety ofsymmetrieal
apotroraic panerns romprising good-luck hierogl)-phs and royal
symbols. Tho Canaanites who copied these p•nems olmost
certainlyn:mgnized the amulcticnlue ofthe signs. <VI!n if
they were not always aware of their original moaning. Such
signs probably also carried • cenain prestige value, being of
EII)'Piian origin. In addrtion, the earlyCanaanite scar.obs also
display signs that are best described as pseudo-hieroglyphs.
These imitations ofEII)-ptian hieroglyphs indude individual
srgnsas ""lias regular groupings ofn.-oor more signs. Yce the
random distribution of the signs on the scanb's base and the
inconsistencyoftheitorderand association with other signs
ergue stron&fy ag;~inst a~nt script or • meaning. Thus
the signs decorating the early Canaanite scanbs do not reftect
knowledge of the Ell)-pti•n langu>ge or ofthe original meaning
ofmany Eg)-ptian hierogl)pbS. Newrtheless, the Eg)-ptian
inspintion behind these signs is evident and undoubtedI)' points
co an Egyptian aoltur:r.l inftuence on southern C>naan durins
this perio<L Early Canaanite scarabs also include a smoll number
ofexamples displa)'inJ figurariVI! motifs. such as ES)-ptian·
style human figures and sphirues. usu.JI)• in combination with
pseudo-hitrogl)-phs. The figurati•-. motifs 1\'<re dearly inspired
by E~'Pii•n an, though 1101 necessotily by Egyptian scarabs.ln
addition, early Canaanite scanbs fmjllently displayderonted
backs. the most common decorations induding crosshatching,
spi11ls, and lotus ft""'ers (see no. 11).
Like thoir Ell)'l'tian models, e•rlyCanaanite sanbs ha''<
rome to light in tombs along •ith other burial gifts, ind1e1ting
that thty scrVI!d as funerary amulets. Theywenealsowcdas
amulets by the living, as sha.., by eumples attached to b =,
sih..r, or gold finger rings.
ltt(mnca::
left-Tor 1997t kft.Tor zoo~, Ben-Tor .t007J. Ktocl zoo.c.
Middle t(jnadam I 33

(4) EcYPtJan bottle
"!'t..,t (': · lh~ar I '-' dO'o 8ronzet.&e IIA(earty
!9th century BCEJ IPottery IH 21.4em 1
IAAI1987·637
The only complete pottery \ '<SSe I of
Egyptian Middle Kingdom ongin found
in $0Uthem Canaan is a boule eu:avated
at Tell cl·lfshar,located in lhe Sh.uon
Coawl Plain, about five km from lhe
Medttemnean Sea on the northern side
of the Alexander RJYer. Elgin diStinct
Middle Bronze Age IlA phases ,.,re
idenufied at !he Site, yieldinsabundant
and ,-ar;ed potter')· assemblages from
O«UJ>ation la'Cis, e>«J'(ional in
comparuon to other sites of this period in
!he southern l.nanL
The eU<t Sl<ati&nphic ISSOIJUI>ent
of!he bonk IS unclear, but 11 can be
safely onributed to the Middle Bronu
Age IIA, tbe archacologocal period
latply cormpondina to the Moddk
Kongdom on Egypt. The fabnc ofthis
"'ncl (Marl AJ) indicates !he .,...,l's
341
origin on Upper Egyrt. This is confirmed
by the decorations, comprising rolls of
clay on the ,..,ssd's neck and inci.<ed
line decorations on its ohoulder
Establishina the exac:t date of th" type
of bottle ,.;lhon the Moddle Kingdom os
some..·hat problematic, consodering the
small number ofexcavated parallels on
Ein'Pt and the fac:t that !he)· come from
multi pi< and reused burials r<H<cung
along time sran ,.ithon lhe Middle
K.ongdom. NC\'Crthcloss, t)'J>Oiogical
argum<nts suggest a dat< in th< mid·
T,.'Cifth D)nasty, betw<en the retgns of
Amen<mhat II and Senwo•n:t 111 (ca.
•9Jo-t8so BCE). The Middle Bronze Age
IlA le,'Cis at Tell eJ.Ifshar also )1<1ded
a f<w fragments ofEI)optian ~hddle
K.ongdom '-e.ssels, ,.hich represent a
mtnimum ofeoght and a maximum of
u vessels. Their fabncs potntto origins
in both Upper and t.o....,, EI)'J't, "bile
th<or typological proftlu suggest a
chronolog~calrange betw<en the mid·
to lote Twelllh Dynasty, wtth som<
forms possibly contonuing onto th< <orly
Thorteenlh D)'naSty.
Th<compl<te bonl< and fragmonts
typologte:~Uy dated to the Twelflh
~nasty constitute lhe onl~ EI)'Pti.o.n
ompons found in lhe early phases oflhe
Middle Bronu Agel lA on lhis region. A
=~=.:::~Ea~~::~~~:
at
Ashkelon, but its context •s somewhat
later, having been a.sssgncd IO a more:
advanced phase of lhe Middle Bronze Age
IlA conesponding to lh< earl)' Thineenth
Dynury (~«no to). The small Middle
Kingdom ceronuc assemblage from
TelleJ.Ifshar is therefor< unoque in
lhe soulhorn Levant. Yet it has been
constdered by some scholors .as
suggeSU\'c of Significant trade conucts
betw<en EI)"Pt and soulhern Canaan on
the Twelfth D}"nasty. The fort that no
other Sll< in th< region )i<lded EI)'Ptian
tmpons ofthi5 p<nod hos been exploined
as possobly r<fl«ting a lock offamiltonty
wtth EI)'Ptoan Middle Kmgdom pottery
types. It hos lhorefore been proposed that
it<ms moy hove bee n 0\-.,rlooked, ond
that collaborouon betw<en a.rchaeologiSI<
worktng on Eg)'Pt and Israel moght
help •d<nufy such items at other sues.
IIII"'C\·er, 11 is chtfk ult to e.ploon "h)
EI)'Ptian and EI)'PU>n·<l)le potter} ,
l'.ho<h hu been d early distingwshed on
Eorly Bronze Age land L.lt< Bronze Age
cont<xts, would be 0\<rlooked on Moddle
Bronze Age IIA contexts. MoreO\'er, not
only IS Eg)'J'Uan Middlo K.tngdom potter')
extremely rore on Middle Bronze Age IIA
levels In soulhern Canaan, other Eg)option
Middi<Kingdom tmpons ore rare 35
well. The unoqu< finds from Tell el· lf,hor
con be explaonod by the goographica.l
loca.uon of the site, \\hk h allowed for
rh·cnne· m:lntime communiQuon, and
where trode "'"'probably • footure ofth<
sue's economy from a \~ry e2rly stage.
ThJJ is supponed by the occurrence of
lOme non hem Le\-anune poue.ry :at the
"te, which mat suggest that lhe osobted
Twelflh Dynasty EI)'Puan ponery arri\-.,d
there through trade wilh Byblos.
DBT
~ftten«t,•
Matcu<, l'or.oth, and I'>) ley J008; Moma <t oJ
lool, P.1) lt), Pon.th, and S11q:lit1' 191J:~
(5) Sarobs of rulers of Byblos
Among the hundreds ofMtddlc Kingdom
scor:tbs beanng names and titles of
officials, there IS a sm:lll group or rune
known <r.tmples bearing names ond utles
ofModdle Bronze Age rule~ of Byblos.
As noted :abo\e, the name5 and utlcs of
these rulers are insrnbed on Egypuan
hoerogi),M. Mon!O\·er, the scar:~bs'
features ondocatc that lhey\\ere produced
in the Middle Kongdom rt>)>l \\ort.shop
on E!tYJ't, "here mo>t rt>)-.l and pm.ce-
name <arab< oflh" penoJ ,..,. nude. (5o) Sarob of tho rulor of Byblos lnton (5bI Scarab of tho ruler of Byblo• lly
1\\oegmrJcs m the group. howt\er, lJte '-' <KI K·ngdo,. 1:•tr Oyna.t1 nedjem onkh(?)
tStn Q:n1ur, BCEJ t Gl~zed ~!trat.~o la!e ~4 da v r\Jn~~"' l;,tn~ty ~l81h
di<pl.ly f<atures in<licanng that lhev\\ere
t~gtazeworne'IJ l. 19cml'• 1.3cm century 9Cfl., G:.a.:od S!!!ltlte, the gt'-:e
nunuf.t<tured on !he local scarab worl<shor
>< 08tml~•'<tono<O!hma•KHI, ,.ornoH(L2cm '.'r 1 JcrnH OS emf
at Tell ei· Dab'>tn !he <astern Delta during
Fr.t)rtU•£.S"·'nnandiSil 1~.. 2ti ,',IJ. 6e<t•.,tof Oao Barag.Jorusal- . I
!he List rhaseot the \ltddle Kingdom The
2010 65 1687
rrunufac:ture of scarab\ hx rul<~ ofB} bios
at Tell ci·Dab • moght be expboned b)•lhc This scorab dosrJa)'S the most disunc:tl\e
The sar.t.b be;an the mscripuon " Ruler
f><t that Tell ei·Oab·a \\-:IS • m.11or Egypuan· fc.cures ofThtneenth 0) nasty rt>)OI·
ofB)blos" foiiO\\ed bylhesogns uy
Lc\'2ntult tradmg pon :n this time, \\hen the n:ame SC:ID bs ~nJ sc~nbs beanng names
and totl<s ofEb'\l'tlln ofhc:ials, indocaung ntdJ<m ankJJ, \\hich represent c1ther the
prim>'} Lennun< tra.long pon "''" B)illos.
nsler's name or his name \\1th .addilion:tl
thot 11 " '"most hkely produced in the
The •ccurate hoerogl)'J'h' and kilO\\ ledge
rt>)JI work.hop Thos ossupponed by the good·luck sogns. t oke the sorob oflnten
ofthc EI)'J'Uan longuJge attested on lhese
acCUr:ltCfom\S of the hocroglyphs. The dosrussed above, !his 5e3rab di•pl•l <
~cou·:~b~ argue for thetrproducuon under
n.ame ofche B)bhtc ruler anJCnbedon t)'Pical Thirte<nth O)n•111 features. It
lhe dOS< supcM<ion oft he late Moddlc
thiS scn.Jb,lnten, :also OCC\U"S on four abo bears well· executed hoerogi)'J'hS.
Kongdom rt>)-:ll workshopatthe stte.
other scarabs of rulers of B) bios, on • mdiating th>t u ..... prob.lbl)•produced
~ onginJ.l conte!\ts of the mnc
reheffound 01 B) bios, ond, ('OS<tbly, on on at the Middle Kingdom rt>)..l \\Orl.shop on
scarobs beanng names and utlcs ofrulet>
Egypt. The name of 1his ruler, h()\ll:e\-cr,
abbasccr \~.SC fr:Jgmcnt from one oflhc
of B) biOS •re unknown, but there is hnle \\ith oil or some of lhe signs follo..ing
ro)'ll combs at the sne. The \\'eSt ~mitic
doubt lhc1 " ere made for and belonged the 1'0)'31utle, is not ~tl(i;tcd c:lsc" heR!
on g•n ofthe n01me roints to the Can:t;anne
to the rulcrsofB)blos\\hOSC names
ong.•n of the ruler h ls undnr " helher and cannot be u.lenuficd \\1th ttn)· ot the
01nd utles they bcu T\\'Oo fthe n;uncs
the name lnten mcnuoncJ on 1h1s :and known Byblite rulers. MofCO\~r, this •s the
;anesced m che group, lbshemu and lntcn,
other scarabs ond on the rehcffound at onl)' """' of• B)·blue ruler be>nng • nJ me
are olso found on onsrnbed objects and that seems to be ES)'P'Un uopposed
8\ bios n:fe,.,. to the $30tc indl\'ldUJI, or
monuments fron1 Byblos, including icc.n1s co West Sc.mitic. Wh1le the comb1n;ation
"'hcthcr lntcn \\U :1 8) blue d)''IUStac
found m the f'O)';lllombs 211he 1Ue. ofsignSJ!) ntd1f11 ankh i> noc round tn
n~me ~h;~red b)· ~ number ot Nlcn.
DHT chc corpus of known Egyru1n pri\·Jte
names, thc nlme h)' tS well :alteited in the
R(fcrcnccs· M1ddlc Ktngdom, :md the si~ns nnlj(m.
lkn·Tor .tC')O]b; Mlirlln 1968, M:a.rtin 19y6.
M1ddte K1n&dom I 35
m<>nintt "Sweet," "PI<:asont." and IJJIJ:Jr,
muning • Ufe,• C'OU!d ho,-., b«n added
to thiS nam< on our scarab as good·luck
signs. Indeed, Middle Kingdom pri\..tc·
name seor.obs do o«astonolly indud<
good-luck sign$, such as nfr, "Good," and
ankh, "Ufo." which do not fonn p•n of
tho name. Yet since the sign ntd}l"'does
not>pp<ar as a good-luck sign on scarab$,
lh< posstbilit)' lhatll forms pan ofthis
ruler's nome should not be rul<d out.
The ~•eologicol and te<tual 0\ tdence
from B}blos strongl1 "'JJitS ag•inst the
possibihty that the seorob b<long<d 10 •n
Eg\-ptian rul<roflheol)· Ills more hkely
tha1 rhc ~of an Egypt1an no~me, or an
Egypuan version ofa \\'est St-mluc n~me,
was associ>tro ..ith lh< h•gh est<<m the
8~-blne rulers had for Eg\'Ptian ~!rural
tr.lits-.
(e) Scarab of the Royal S.olllevllt' Re
Tc· • 1 ·.t.~.u, La~(' V d a•e t'~r:~,dom. 13th
0;"'l.ttt1•th <.<~ntury BCEJ 1Glazod
!'C~t te. tho ctaze ~04'n o'! IL 2.3 em
11 1.7cmH·I I CIT' IAA't938·619
This scar.ob bean the inscnpuon; "Seol
ll<•rer ofth< King, Gr<atcst of~rs
(Priest), Re, Justified, Rep<21ing Life •
381
Dispb};ng t~ most distineli\~ f~•ru"'s
ofroyal·name and pn\,.lc·name sear.obs
ofth< Thin~nth Dyn>sty, it,.,.. most
hkcl)•produeed atlh~ 1'0),.1 \\orkshop
in Egypt. ThiS IS supponed b)• th< high
rank ofth< seor.ob's origm•l owner, who
wos gnnted two titles. Tho fir1t, "5<>1
8<ar<roflhe l.:ing," wos • pr<fuc title
lh>t idenufied oflici>ls r<SpoMiblc for
n>tionwid< alfairs. II wos followed b1
one or mor< titles descnbing the official's
ilaual function - in thlS asc, ..Gre.:.te~t
ofS<<rs.• Thos w..s one of EB}'J'l's htgh<st
priestly posnionJ, ossoc>ted with th<
cult of tho sun god Re at Hohopolis.
The offio;U's n.:tme, Re, ma\ have bee.n
rel•t<d to his rolotn Re's ~h. Following
the na.mo ar<two fun<r>')' <pilhots.
")ustifiod," tndtaunglhat lhe offioal had
b«n \-indicated in tho )udgm<nt ofth<
D<ad ce"'mony, >nd " Rep<>ting Life,"
mdtcaung he had bern gr.onted eternal
lifein lh< realm ofthe do>d These
epithets demoMtrate that the scarob was
originally a funer>r)• amulet.
The sc.arab was found m a
CanJannetomb at Tell <I·AJjulassigned
to the Middle Bronze Ago 118, whoch
corresponds to the Second lntermedoat<
Period tn Egypt In vtewofthe f•Cith>tlt
was probably • funorory amul<t producod
fot • high-tanking Middle Kin&dom
oflkial, it is dear lh>tlhe tomb •• Tell
ei·AJjul was a socond:uy context and hod
no association "ith the high offic••l,.ho
onginallyOW1led lhescar.ob.
DBT
Rcfcrmo:.L.
kn·Tor 199-tt Kcel199;, 4 .w-ss. no. IOJO,
Muun 1971, no. 111
[7] Scarab of the Estate Overseer lwfseneb
,._,,~rddo Ldht r·.l.d\ e r<r n~o~ . 13t
Oyna"y 11 tith c:entu'Y BCEII G!azod
LhJat.t.,. tne &taze """Ot'" cff JL Z 3 em
'N 1 SemH 11 em IAA II9J~ 538
The seorab be•rs the inscnpt10n· "Esute
0\-erstc'r, Accountant of l.i\ e~rock.
lwfsoneb: Uke the e.umpl< from Toll el·
AJJul discussed >ba\<, this seorabdt>pb)"i
the most disllneli\e f••= ol Thortc<nth
O)noSt) I'O)JJ·name 2nd priHtc·nom<
sca~bs, ind1a tJng lh:a1 it " JS most
prob>bl)•produced in th<I'0)-.1 workshop
on Eg)'pt. ln the Middle Ktngdom, th< utlc
" Estat< 0\'orscer ...., frcquontl) JOined
wolh titles referring to the rookoning of
agrt~ltural commodoues, such os gr.om,
li\'cstoclt, ond "'"n the work force. The
original ownerofthlS sc:tr:~.b \\"U an esutc
0\..,rs<c, respoMible for the reckoning of
ntde HIS status \\..SJt:.u P"'Sltgtous lh.o
lh•t ofthe otft<i>l n•med on the scorob
found 21 Teii<I·Anul.
SehobrlydisO\ISstoM of this scorob
includo >n<mpts to assign it to an Egypuan
offictal stationed at Megtddo during the
Middle Kongdom. ThiS theory IS based,
m pon, on tho discO\eryat M<giddo
ofa frogm<ntary Middle Kingdom
sr.uuctte be:uing the n:~me and utles
of!>jehu!) hotep,the go--.,morofth<
Fift<cnth U~r Eg}'J'lian nome, whose
rl•borote tomb ...., found •• O.trd·ll<rSha
tn Middle Egypt. One ofthe scenu m hiS
tomb deptru • h<rd of nnlc descnbed as
"Conic ofRetonu" - the tcnn used for the
reg10n ofC.no•n II hasthorcfor< been
sugge>ted !hot the original ownet of this
seorob ml)' h•\'e been ><soci>tcd \\ith the
tmport:nion oroule from ~na3n, \\hirh
rould Jccount for the 0\\1ler's prestncc at
\ltg~ddo.
N.--.,nholess. th< conte<t lh>t prided
lh< >G&r>b IS J C.uuarutetomboflhc
\ hJdlc llronu Ag< liB... hich ~
10th< Stcond lntermcdtat< r.,nod '" Ell)l"
MOO!O\tr, the fngmrnurl stJtucne of
O)c:hut)hot<r"astound'" >l..>te Bronz<
1\iC ronttxt, .ukl among tL< mscnpuon.s
.,,., th< \landW fun<r>') fonnul•. "hiCh
tnd.ato th.Jt the stJIUt was ongm:all)'
nus stonucttc bt.us the inscriroon: the runue's 0\\llCrdoserto the god and
pb<--.1 tn u, 01\ller's tomb or"'"' dedtnt<d
"Re,..,r<d b<forc (the God) l'uh-Sobr, on>bled him to pon.oke, <)-mbolicall), of
to • ,hnne ortemplctn Eg)'pt. The
Q\-ei'$CCrof\\'orkmen (Foreman), the opulent temple olfcnniJ$. The texu
rompletel>d. ofe\ tdence for the presence
Jloru(l) or KhontiukJ(>)." It b<lonp to• inscnbed on these statues fr<qUentlr
of[g)'fllian otfks~h u1 southern ~n.t3n
ponocul>r group ofr n\':tte •tatues nlled mclude funerar)' fonnuiJs sdcnucU co those
dunng the Mtddl< Kingdom funhcr Jrguts
block st•tues. 50 n•mcd b<nuse ofth<or as.socaJtcd \\ilh the funer:u')'cuh, whath
lh.n, as on the nse ofall other Middl<
\\tre meant to cruure da,ine protection
charoct<n>ttc block·hke sh>pc Statu<S of
Kingdom sc•r.obs ofoffici.lls found '" •nd an etemol supplyofotferiniJ$. Some
thos ll'P" derJCt the OW1l<r in a compressed
<OUlh<m Cana•n. th< tomb th>t )1eWed thos scholars >ttributed qmbolic mconmg to
sqwtrmg JJO)IUon, his kmoesdr.l\\ ll rowotrd
sa~b wn .t scrondM)' context :and h.ad no t.hc block·ltke fonn nself. H0\\0\"Cr, as the
hosbod)', .. tuch os, in tum,CO\"<red b) •
connecuon to the Eg)'J'lian offici.ll who was SQU3Ringposition lS :t commonsated
long clool, m•ung a schemotic blod
the sc::~~rab'sorigm.1l owner JlOSIIIOO in Etlll"'"" ort,IIIS more IW.Jo,
shape The ;tSso021100 ofbJoclt SUIU<S
D8T th3t the pos~uon wou mc:rnt to com-c)·the
wuh the func12ry cult is indonted b) th<
Iorge nwnb<rof<J<Jmplcs b<anngstJndard hwruliry ofthe statues ""~r b<fore th<
R.clert"f'K"C's;
lkn·Tor 199"•'"•no 1J, Mod '"'-171•1): flln<I2'Y •nscnruons N.--.rth<less.n
god '" ,.hose nnul b< woshed 10 pJ~t~<ipote.
~tartan ay:-t. no. 8J.
~~;at'S thJt hJock stoaiUCS \\'Cte r.l~l\' Blockmrues ''~n: nuu---produe'N
dunng the Middle Kingdom. " hen the)
pLteed 10 tomO.; "'"" enmplcs h;m: been
(8] Statuette of on official were dcdicJtcd at the cult ccntcDof
found'" temple rum>,tnd•cating th>t such
Te tt AJtul l ..•·ddlf' ....ngdom. l =th D)na5 ty ,-.nousgods. Ltke oth<rt)'ptsofpriut<
sculpcwn \\-en:,'" filet, moo commonl)·
(20th century BCEI I Solt hmolton.ll natues .anociJtcd \\lth the funcr.tr) cult,
dL'p<>oll~ in temple precinctS. The P"""nce
H 20.8 em IIAA 11.965'o block ADIUC:S bc:tr the n:~mH JnJ miC'S
of"' pm-;stc: 1tatur m01tcmrle an: a i.ll"t'w
M1ddte Kln1dom I 37

ofthoarownm- aiiTIOSI cxdusi\d)· mak
oftiaals m tho Eg)'J'IWI r<h8Jou. or ci\1l
oclmiJustratJOn
n... sutuenc ...., cbred ro rho carl1
Twelfth Oj'1Wt) on U)iutic grounds.
11 bears tho C'OIIUTIOn funcr:ary cpolhct
"Re\'Crcd/ Honor<d by (a panicubrgocl)" •
m lhi• ca<c tho Mcmphire tUncr:lt)•god
Puh-Solcar. Tho name and h~e ofthe
suruenc·s owntr are not mur~lydeu, but
,.ioelhcrhis name,.... Hor!a or Khcntiub,
ho ,..., """' probably an 0\'Cn<crofa tc;un
o( worlcmen. Hi• modtst SlaiUS is 5Upported
by the obJcct'•cru.Je wol'lamruhop. Tho
surumc \\'U found in a ~aarutc bun:al al
TeO el-Ajjul cbted 10 rho final phaJe of tho
Middle Bronze Age, CO=PC>nding 10 the
larc: Second lntermcdiatel'eriod or e•rl)'
EiJ!I!tc:enth O)"TWty in E£)-'J'I. Considering
tho cbte ofJ!<Oduction ofthis Sla~e
and rho onginal funchon ofsuch surues tn
f:sl'J'I, II IN)' be :wwned Uw the buri::rJ
in which thiuu- ,..., found at Tell
ei·AJjul,..., a J<COncbry conrc" that had no
conncetion 10 tho sutuene'• original owner
DBT
Rdn<ncn.
Pftric 19JO,I, pl. XXII; Sd1ulz 1991, JJ· J.<, 161,
pl. J6,no. an;w........ ,97<.s.·u
311
[i) F....,.entory sphinx of Arnenemh•t Ill
T•. . t"4dzo~ Late t.•l(ftJto KJf\ 'dOfT'I lZih
Dynast, I 19th century SCEJ I GrunodOO~<Ie 1
L.30cm H.l6Col1\'l 12cm)tAA)
1997-3313
This fr:agment•l)•Slatuene has a sphinx's
bod)'. Irs head and front paw• w·erc
deliber:atcly broken off on anhquil} Signs
of mutilaoon arc also '1sible on some areas
of the cheSI, ~~ parrsofthe lappets of the
n<m<t- lhe srripcd 10)-.1 headdress are
dearlymoble,as ostheupofthe ncrnn lao I
on the bac:lc. Stylized run. ofhoor belonging
10 the mane arc inrued in par:allellines
down the shoulders or the front and in
cur.... on the back oftho should<rs. Also
visible arc "'maons ofa brood collor
ncdbcc:eaned oround the neck between
the lappetS of tho""""· Thech«r bears the
rcmoinsofm inscriphon consuting oft he
throne name ofKingAmcmmharlllofrhe
Twelfth 0)1Wtj•, N)maarrc ("Bclon8Jng to
the Jurucc: ofRc"), endosed '"a carrouche
and filllmC>Unrc:d b)• the royal ti~e "l'erfCCI
Cod."
llo)at splunxes "ere produced'" BJ'Cat
numben during rho Middle Kmgdorn, but
Man)' ofthom Wtte usurped and rrin>Cribed
in latc:rperiods, ,.;,h only • few rctaontng
Asia his. h0\<e\1:r, morr hkel)•thaouwas
t-roughrto Hozorduring the H)i<sos Period,
considenng the number of Egyptian Middle
Kongdorn statues found on late Moddlc
Brorue Age conlc~ts tn thel.c\-.nt. Egypuan
New Kingdom =ords indtCJic th>tthe
phJroohs ofthos period onl1 c"Cchanged gtli<
' " th for<tgn rulers" hom ohcyconsldercd
to be thetr pohtocal peer>- namely, the
tndcpendenl rulers ofthe kingdoms of
Mounnt, Haui, and B.>b) Jon- 1101 the
thcirOri8JnOI tnscription>. The Sl}leand <ui>Jugated mtnor rukrsofCanaanote
on..rnpuon ol this <phiru indi<ate thatu \\aS C11)'5tates. Tho II~Lsos, bycontraSI, "ho
USUIJled MtdJle Kingdom ropl SUIUCS and
tn all probabilol) made durrng oho rrtgn or
Amenemhatlll,the laSI gr.,., ruler ollhe plundc...d Ell)'J'IIan oemplcs and tombs,
\\tre thcmsci'"CS of~n.unJteorigtn and
T\\elfih Oj1uU)·, durrng "'ho« 4S·\e>r-
moght tndced h»1: regarded Canaanite
long rctgn (ea. oll.p -1; 97 BCEJ the Moddle
rulors as their peer<, P"""ntmg them ""h
Kongdom rc.>che.l tLS<eonornoc peal<.
&~li< of<ranul) or dedicaung surun to
SWUJry and stone\"""'' beanng hi< naoru:
lheor oemple> Th" C'OUIJ account forth<
ha\'e be'Cn found at o number of Sties in
the northern Lc\-.nt. h ~ ho\,.,....,.,
hoghl) prrsenc'C of Moddle Kingdom IOI'JI and
pri\'Jte SIJIUeS tn btc Moddle Bronze Age
unhktl)•th:uthe 'J'hinx arri''Cd ar Hazer
contexu tn 1hc LC\'Jnl
dunng h" reign, considering the alose11<"C
Thcrr i< no doub< thoothe >phon.<
at the sue ofa 5Culcmcnt daung ro the
underwenodehber:are muoil:uion. The
Middle Bronze Age IIA, the ort:harologocal
reti10\'JIofthe hood ond forrpa" s osa
phase largd)•romspondong 10 the
rommon indJotoro(such mullbtion,
Middle Kingdom in Egypt The mmimal
occumng on other statues tound •rllazor
commercial and et1ltur.ll cont~ct bct\..-ccn
and., Sites throughout the AncienI N<ar
E£)-'J'I and tho 50Uthem Lc"""' during the
Eo>L Considmng the number of mutilaoed
Middle Kingdom olso makes it unhkel1•rh01
Slatues found Ill tho desuucuon lc\tloi Latc
the sutue anhcd in ll:tzornc;u-rhe umeof
Bronze Age llazor," is =sonable oo assume
its produrtron.
thai cbmagc " ... perpctnl<d b) '"""'
Tho fr:agmenr was found mosed a. •
r<>ponStble for tho final d..uuction of the
butldong block 111 an Iron Age wall erec1ed
Canaanitc: cil)•.
dorec1ly ohO\.., the fa...cou.rt of tho Late
DBT
Bronze Age palace, sup,gcsllng ohatthe
palace prcciner was tho sphinx's cont<xl
Rc:ferrn«.
prior 10 ILS muuJ.u ion. The sphinx nu)' lkn·Tor :oo6b, 6
ha\-e urivN at the site as a tnbute to a local
temple during the Late Bronze Age, when
~nun Wb pan oft.hc: Egyptian Empm: in
[10) S.alln&• footurln& lite Middle
KJncdom ocarab lmpra..lons
Therwo scahngs dtS<US>cd below belong
ro a group found at Ashkclon (see pp.
JZ·JJ). Like most ofthenems :usigned combinouon of signs posSibly refcmng
10 this group, they werr found 111 the ash 10 the god Osms, ruler ofthe realm of
linong ofthe moat auoaated \\1lh the early ohe dead. It """ used for four •dditional
ph:oscofrhe Mtddle Bronze Age iiA gote scahngs '" the Ashkclon group, all ofwhich
at the site - clearly • ..condary conoe.tt originollysecured boxes.
Anal)'SU of ohc undersodes ofthe Ashkclon
sealtngs rc\nled that some onginall)'
secured doors" hole others >ealed \-.rious
I}'J'<SOfconumers. The twoscalings
d~SCUS>Cd belo.. oriBJn•ll)• sealed boxe1,
anJ both we"' srompcd b)•scar:abs bcanng
l)l'IC.dlare Middle Kon~orn good-luck
luerottl)1'hs amnged on a S)mmetneal
pauem. DeSigns ofthis I}'J'< ore particularly
common on Eg)'J'Il>.n scarabs of the late
Mtddle Kmgdorn, oho most common signs
[lOb) SeaUn& bearln& &ood·luck
S)mboiWng .. Ltft,....Good,• ""ProttctJO~,"
"Stabdotr." "Pienl)•." •nd ohe hke. The stgns hlero&lyphs
lndaatr th:ll C\"en \\"hen sar.ab$ wert used ASh>elon I Moddle 8<0nzeA&eHAI161h
for the purpose of seahng, theor funct10n centurySCEl)CU.tll3 2cm\'•. 2.5cml
IAA I Reg•strat•on no 51116
"-.s pnmanlj antuleric (see PP· ; o-;o).
OUT
The sealing displ:l)S''"'0 :almost complete:
R.efttenca· scar:ab impressions. both made b)
lkn·Tor J:OO]J, tt;"- J:I; lkn·Tor.a.nJ ~~~
the same SOlr:ab. The sc;ar:~b rea turN
flmhc:oming.
a S)mmctneal destgn of good-luck
(10o) Seolln& beorln& &ood·luek hierottl)1'hs "'P"'senring •uch concepts
:a.s -urc," ..f orc.most... ..fortun.att,•
hleroclyphs
Ash·,, "-'ddl BronzeAg.IIA,18th ..Gold." :md .. Pe;a«... No othtr sc.:ahngJ
sumpcd b)·thos KOr:ab ,..,.. found among
.,.ntury BCE.I Clot I L 2 5 em 1\ 2 em I
the Ashktlon group
1A.AIRr"'·U4h~r'W' 5>1826
Tho scaling beor> an almost compleoe
scal'llb tmpression. The Kar:ab fuourrd
a svmmctncal deSign of good-lucl
hoerogl\1'hs rcpreuntmg such conccpos ·~
"'GOOIJ,• · r rotection,· " l.J(e,·· "'foremost,
"'Gold," ~!nd ..fortun.lte," as wdl:~.s :a
Middle Kfn&dom I 39

(11) Early Canunlte ocarabl
The three: sanbsdi<awcd below
rq>reKnt the th= most dutinct"~ n,es
of..rt)· C.tnuni~ ><a~bs. en., was
found in a Middle Bronu Ag< 118 bum)
cistern at Tel Hazor, anothn in • Middle
llnlnle Age: 118 ccrndery out>~de RUhon
1..=)1'0!1, ond the thin! tn a Middle 8ronz.c
Age: II 8 CCrnd<:ry neor Ginosor.
DBT
(11a) Early Canunl1a acarab
Tl't H.tllC'f' Eurty ~'·dd:"' Brt.,..1oA€·:' 8(17tn
«WWtu')' Stell Gl4lod r.:oat•t< 1M glaze
M>rnclt, L.1.7cm w 11emH:O.G~eml
IAA I 19?3·14~
The sca~b hu a d=r;atcd back, a
1}-pical ftiliUn! ofearly Canaani1e
sanbs. The dcco~tion con>asu of a
aouhatching ~ttem, poo51bly inspU,d
by the hcdgehog-Wpcd E8)-pti•n dwgn
unulru ofthe Middle Kingdom. The
oc:vab also h.. •n hOWJlass·wped
bud, clwoctcrut~e of the ..rt1es~ group
of <>rly Canaanite ICir.lbs. l.lkc most
oc:anbs auigncd 10 1his group, the baoc:
fcatwn a combination of good-luck
him>glyplu and p<eudo-hicroglyphs.
401
Rdcrenc.t$:
kn·Tor ::!:00;1., rl. fl~, pl6;7; Krcl lOI},
!11·19, no. tr,TufncU 19&4•.<7. fii. •ToJ•·
(11b) Earlytanaanl1a ac:arab
G n~r Earl,•l/ ao. eron.;;._IA ·. '907th
cwnt~... ry BCt.i 1 Glazed $t4attto. tne glaz:e
, ,ornolf!L 1.9cm."lt.3cmH.O.Bcml
IAA t~9·25
The oc:a ..b has a lined back decorated
With lotus fl<M~rs and a t~pczoid head,
a characteristic ofanother eorly group
ofCanaanue scuubs. Sc:u•bs :aSsigned
to this group fr<quently dispiJI'• be<id<"S
combinononsof good·luck hitrogl}l>hs
and p<eudo-hierogl)'Phs, figur.ti\t
moufs inspm,d primoril)·, though not
CJ<CIIW'o~ly, by EI!}"Ptian •n. The most
common figur.ti\-. designs= EI!)'Ph3n·
Sl}ie human fi~s. The Egyptian·SI)Ie
male fi~ dcptctcd on the present sca,.b
stands on a lund ofpodium . a Canaarute
innovation. He holds a Sl}iiZCd fto..crand
is flanked by poeudo-hicrogl),hs.
Rdcrcncn:
:n-ToriOO]a,rl6J: 4,pi. ]O:.J,CI\-l9] 1l,
• no. ;, fi:g..4J.~. krd tOIJ.-491 -9 J,no. S.
[11 c) Early Canaanite scarab
R nL..l rYJ "' r diy M·d~ Brt>...,"e A(.It
liB l1i ·~ unho't BCE>IG;alod t.tootJt•
l 1.8cm•'•: ' 2Scm H.O 7 em 1it.A 1
Reet!.trAt•Ot'UIO G 9':992.317ti
The <a~b has a decorotcd bark (in th t<
ease,~ p>llem of <puols) a.nd a round
hcod, both fe>tures choroctcnstic of
the thml motn group of <arl)· CJJ1oanue
soo~b> The base bca~ •n addition
10 the U<U>l rombmotion of good-luck
hterogl)'phs •nd p•cudo-hterogl)l>hs, •
shrine·hke mouf .. anothe r C~ naanitc
an no\ iUio n On th~ pJrtiaJiar sc;u ab the
mouf ends With Ur.:t.CI.
Rcfcrtncr ·
Ben· Tor 100;o1, rt S8:3.
The Hyksos: Canaanite Rule in Egypt
The Gr«k term ll)ksOs is based on the wnungsofth<thtrd· the l>lc Middle Kingdom (ca. 1800 BCE), ond th., • highl~
ccntul'} BCE E8)1'tian hJSton•n Man<tho. which \\ere prcscned Egwtioruzed Canaan lie Mtddle Bronze culture hod dew lopcd
mthe work> of f10\1US josephus •nd eorly CbnSii•n hi>torians. there throughout the S«ond lntermcdl•« Ptnod (a 17G0-15<10
M•nctho·s acrount oftheli)i<sos dcscnbcs the appcorancc of BCE) The rem••• • Cllt:I\Oicd at Tell el·D• b"a h.--. conmbutcd
..men ofobscure race" \\hoa.me from the eJ.St, conqucred Eg)-"JM, ••sn•fiuntly to the hts10rin l reconstruction of the S«ond
bum<d us ciucs, dtsiTO)cd liS temples, and treotcd liS people lntermcd••te Period m E8)pt, <"SpCCi•lly With rcprds 10 the
rcbuons bc!\\ttn Egypt and Canaan. In addition to esubli>hing
\\i th Nlhk's cruel!}·· They appo~ntcd as lung a man named
S.hus, csut>li>hcd th<tr cop11al, A•ans (the Greek rendtuon ofthe the corrupond~ng hJStorical/•rchacologicol phases of both
f:gypuan H"l·\\arct),tn the Delta, and \\ere C\-.ntu.U)' dcfutcd rcg;ons, they helped darify the dlffercnccs bc!\\ccn E8)-plion·
tn banlc and forced out ofEI!}'I'l by kings from thecuyofThebcs. Can.unnc rcl•uons dunng the Mtddle Kingdom and those during
the Second lntormcdt>le Pcnod, while Egypt matnta.incd dose
The ~bncthom1n tr.adnion hsts ~i.'( 11)-ksos kings, Y~ho consutute
cont>cts wtth nonhcm Canaan dunng the Mtddle Kingdom, Its
the Ftntenth D)11lSI}·Ofph•roomc hJSlOI'}, )'CI thetrname!SUI'}
fDC\15 shtlicd 10 southern Cana•n during the Second lntenncdio<e
1n the ~htrcrentl1ter \"CI'Sion.s ofManetho's text and~~~ dtu t)·
Pcnod
Greek aJ•pt•uon>of the ongm•l names
Sigmfican• dt\clopmcnlS cotncidtng " i th the nse ofthe
An urlter and more reliable sourec for the d)n•stl of
Hyksosalsooccu=d tn othcrpansofthtca<ICm Dclto, among
f~rcign rukr< 1n EI!}"Pt IS a dom•gcd p•pyrus nlled the Ropl
these, the founding ofoddition•l Canaanttc-populotcd <itcs,
Canon of the Tunn Museum, or >imply the Tunn Canon, which
such :as T~ll eJ.\":thudir~ and Tell ei· M:1111khuua, ,,-here CXC2\"::tions
1\>Ytomptlcd in thelhtn ccnth century UCF.. The Tunn Canon
re\ealcd o ccnmi<rcpcnotrc idenua lto thot ofTell d ·D•b·• ·
lists the names of the k~ngs of E8)'Pt in chronologtul order, the
Texmol soun:csofthis period point to H~i<sos cont rol of Lower
lengths o fthetr re tgns. and the lengths of coch d)'l'l><tt . ThiS
E~'\'Pt all the w:t)' IO Cusae in Mtddle E8)1'1
record rc(er-5 to the fore1gn rulers 3.S Mq.ru kJI,wu, me;tmng
Yet the ~hsnnct Ego,-pt•an·C:ln:unue mJieriil eulturc IS
" Ruler< of Fordgn l..:lnds." the troduionaltcrm used'" Egypt
for the ruler> ofCannnite city states, which become "ll)·l..sos·
found only in the eaSiem Dclt•, defining the •=
of• macd
EI!}"PII.ln·C.•••nile popuL>uon. Else\\ here '" Egypt the
in Creek. Like the tob nrthoruln tradalion, tM Turin C:Jnon lists
• reh•cologinl remains ore cnnrtl)• Egyption, ~ncludtng in the
<tJ< kings. but only the laSI ofthCSIX n•mcs Kh>mudt · h..
ncub)• Lo..-er Egyptian tcrritol'} ruled by the H) ksos from"' ans.
sun i \·cd. This name is 11()( found in anyocherrecord. nor does 11
Very fe\\· monumenutl fO)"Oll msaiptions and othr rofficul
rcscmblc anyofthe names prcscn·<d in the Greek '"""'"' of the
rccords h.-e suni•-.d from tbc H11<sos Period. Jnd thus the
~bnethonian tr.ad tuon.
brgc numbcrorcont<mporol'}' oc:orobs from Eg\'l'tand Can•an
The origin of these nders and thetocauon ofthetr c:opi1>l,
IS panicubrf)' impononl. The I'O)'Ol·n•mc oc:orabs of this pcnod
1M sub1tcts of much del»te. were rttcntl)' det~rmined on the
are, m r~n, tht uclush"e source oftnronn~tion on m~n) of
ba•isof•n:hacolog>cale• tdencc unc•n hed >t Tell el-Dab·•
these forc•gn rulers Likt ropl·namc sarabs of corfier •nd b~<r
in the cutem Deltl. The e\i dentt sho\,cd rondusi\-e:l)" that
pcnods, the "'""'bs of the foreign rulers dt<pl•) both the kings'
the ll)ksos \\'ere ofC3nat~nnc ongtn :and that thdrcapit;~l,
binh names 1nd thear throne n;amesi the Nrth names are nl(Xtl\
A\~ris, had be:en located at th:u site It further re,~;aled th;u
of \\'est Scmuic origm. whale 1he throne n;ameJ an! El\'-ptian.
Canumu~s h:ad gnduall)' intihr.ued the site beganning in
l4t

inspired by the aiSIOt!WV throne ownes of nati,.., Egyptian
rulersandpomtingtotheadoptionofEgypti:lllcon,~tions. The
onl1· n:unes attributable to the H)itsos kn0\\11 from hierogi)'Phic
monuments a., S.kirhar (fig. 6}, Khyan, and Apepi. Apepi is
usual!)· id<ntified ,..;,h the name ApophisfDWid in the c...,.k
M:IMthonian Inclition, but attempts to link the othtr names, u
well as those appearing on scarabs, to the Cfffk names of the
H)itsos ha'"' ~n incondU5ive.
As the number of1'0)'01 names arpearing on the scarabs
ofthis period~ the six H)itsos names mentionai in the
Manethonian tradition and the Turin king list, it is generally
as511med that mo., than one foreign d)11asly Nled nonhern
Eg't'Jll during the Second Intermediate Period. Thtre may ha>-e
<v<n ~n a pre-H)i<sos d)'IWiy ol~naanite origin identified
with Manetho's Fourteenth Dynasty. In rho swvi>ing ..rsions
ofManetho'stext the H)·k.osa"' said to ha.. ruled berw.en 250
and Sll )'<us, a range un"'alistic in terms of the arclueological
and textual ovidenee. 1he Turin Canon, hO\\"'VVr, usigns the
foreign rultrs • ...,ignof108 )'<ars (ca. t6SD-1S40 BCE), a far more
..,...,..able range that :o:cords with the other forms ofe>idence.
References:
Arnold 20JOi Bitulc l996; Bituk l99Ti aiC!'t~ lOlOi.Boumt\1 tOOOi
R.dfonlt970: R.dfonlt991, 91-m:R.dfonl >991•; R)iloh , , Tell el-Yo!tudiy.a, whe..., it w.. first identified, Tell
4o-j9.94-1.4&. 997
Egyptian-Canaanite Relations during the
Hyksos Period
Thescamtyofwrinensources from the Hf"-Period makes it
diffieultto derermine the <net nature ofthe relations between
Eg)'Jll and ~naan at that time, and our knowledge is almost
exchW..ty based on Ol'chaeological e>idence from both regioou.
Thise>idenc:e inclicares that the rise ofthe Hyksos was assoaa<ed
with the growth and del'<lopment oflhe IOUthern ~naanite
Middle Bronu Agetitystates, findingup..,ssion in the .,alms of
eultun: and commera:-
lhe sites excavated in the eastern Delta, particuJorty T<ll
ei-Oab'a, exhibited a wide range of ~naanite cultural featwes,
from archirectur.ol forms to burial C\151oms, and yitlded imported
~nunite weapons and pottery, .. well u local imitations o(
impotted types. One oftheclutincth'C Canaanite burial customs
421
I
I
at these sites was the inttrmtntofa p>irofdonke)'S
at the enlranccto individltal humon tombs. This
'lr·
:
i their destgns. Howe,..,r, these scarabs abo diSPlay ~vantine
custom iJ known from a number ofsites in southem
and northtm ~naan, where it wu undoubtedly
U$0Ciated with the imporuncr oflhedonkty as a
regular vehicle for overland trade. Its •doption in the
ustem Delta is ottested •lre•dy in the eorly phase of
C.naanitc settlement at Tell ci·Dab'•·
Evidence for ICitvt, albett unofficw, ovoertand
traderoutesoperatingbetween Egypt and southern
~naan during the Hyksos Period was discove...,d
in northern Sinai and Wadi Tumilat, while intcnsi..
m.tritime tnde ;, home out by the lat:ge number of
~anile jars (estimated at more than two million),
used for tr.2nsponing such <emmodities as wine •nd
oil by se•, that came to light at Tell ei·Dab'a,
One ofthe most characterisuc pottery I)-pes
olthisperiod, which is found in both En'Jll•nd
~naan, is the dillincth.,.Tellei·Yahudiy.a ware.
1he 1)-pe originated in ~naan, but w•• produced in
&"'at quantities in the eastern Delta u well.ln fact,
thetypewunamedafterthecastern Delta site of
ei·Yahudty.a ware consists mainlyofjuglctoof ~rious
shapes and sixes, jugs, and zoomorphic vessels. It
hos come to lighc primarily in burials, and, although
its ~na.tnite ongin is indiSPutoble, the patest
..rietyolformsoomes from Tell el-D•b'a, whe..., both
imporu and locallyproducrd vouels ...-.refound.
Chemical analysis suggests that the Tcllei·Yahudiy.a
....e1, held unguents of mixed "<Sctablc and animal
fat, most pn>bably aronwic Oils or medicines (see pp.
( H)·ksos Period Eg)oplian inscripuort! in """hem C.naan ltrongly
-43-46)• .
The Egyptian cultural inftuencr on CanaM~
during the Hyksos Period is indicated almost
eJtCiusively by late ~nunite scarabs: in their
b'B"~e ptoductioo in southern ~tuan, in their
common use as funerary amulets in~nunite tombs, ._[_ _ __.
and in the suong Egypuan inftuencr, including the
adopuon ol•peeilic motifs, on the iconography of
(Foe. 5) The narn. . olthel!ykaca rule< S.kim.r
inacribed on a doar jlmb from Tett et·Dib'•
motifs, S«nes, an.! figures pcrfonning gostwn inspired by Syri>n
cylinder sc•ls, whkh h.-.., no meaning in the Eg)]>ti•n relisious
srfte...,, Also, the scenes n:ftecting Eg)'Jllian religious beliefs that
~on Eg't'Jlli•n Middle KingdomscarabsmconSJlicuously
absent on the C.naantte scarabs. These facts argue again11 the
adoption of Egyptian religion tn ~naan, suggesting insteod
the imitation ofEg)'Ptian fonns an.! their integration into the
~n.unitc cultural SPh=.
Suth Can unite sc•rabs wtre imported in gn:ot numbers
into [g)'Jll during the 11\'ksos Period, when:•• sc•rab rrocluction
in £&~"PI is onl)' annted in the ..stem Delta. The Eg)-ptian
IIC2rabs dispby IO)'Oinamn, names and cities ofofficials,
and designs imitating ~naanite Mid~le BniiU'e Age scarabs,
suggesting th.c chey"''""rrodueed atTellel·Dab'a,most
probabl)· by •rtisan• of~naanue origin. As mentioned abo\'C,
the fo""iJPl identity of the kill!:' whose nameuppear on these
scarabs io in<licated b., their btrth n:unn, olwest Se.miticongin.
Th., corpus of EJ!ll'lian scarabs o( the Second lnttrmedi>te
Period is much smollerthan that ofthe Canaanite scarabs of this
period. They hO\'C been found a1 a number ofSilOS in 10\lthern
~nun, but an: almosl completely absent in IIOrthem ~n.
In sum. the e>idr:nce docs notpointtoauniform "H1·ksos
culture" extending from thecas.tem Delta into southern ~na.~n
or ..,ftecting ll)·ksos control ovn this region. \Vhtlcthe pottery
found in sites in the eastern Delta dating 10 this period reflects
I mixture olEg't'Jllian, Canaanite, ond ~naanite-11)-le wa"'
of E~rt'Jlli•n INnufaet=, Canaanite ware p...,dominates at all
southern ~naamte sites. M"""'"'r, the complete absence of
arpes ag:ainst £g)"Piiiln domination lhtr'f, in mntr.aA to the .
situation during the New Kin~om, when monwmnts found Ill
~naanitc L1te Bronu Agec:ont..ts anest dearly 10 an E(ll-plian
Empire in Asia. Nc..rthdess,the e>iden« for wong culrural.
ond commercial ues between Eg'tpt and southern ~n•an dunng
the Hf"- Period is rich and •bundont, ond it is dear that close
n:btions cxisred benoftn the twO rqions.
~'I"" c!':mon
biconic-al, orqiindric:al shape), but is also found on bO\\U. kra.cctS,
jugs, Z<J<>morphic (fish. and btnl·shaped) ond anlhroro_morphic
..,..Is, jugl<ts decot>ted ,.;th mo.Jcled he•ds, and frwt'iltaped
>..ucis. The deconU\'C ll)ie ofTeUei·Yahudi)'O pott<ry imparts
Tell el-Yahudiya Ware I Anal Collen-Weinberger
Tellei·Yahudiya "'""' refcroto • distinct srouP ofpotttry named
•flerthesiteofTcUei·Yahucliyainthe Ee>¢anNileVollty. The
JI"I'UP. whtdtwas fiBt identified bySirWillwn Flinders Petrie, and
wltich he called "b!><k incised pott<ryof foreign type," aroused the
curiosityofscholars aln:ady at the arne ofits disc:ol"')' in Ei)-pt
in the !are nineteenth o;rntury and continues to be the focw of
sc:hoUrty rnearc11 t.odoy. The distribution olTdl ei·Yahudi)'l pott<ry
is'" Ee>-pt ftn the northe:u~em Delta, along the Nile and the Red Sea
coa.!l, in the D>khleh Casu, and in the northern Si.W P<nin.sula), in
northems..dan .. farsouthas ~nna,and in braei,Syria, ~banon,
Jon1an, and C),....lt fiBt apPealed in the late Middle Bronze Age
UA (ca.t8oo BCE), mochin1ape•kin the MtdJie 8tonu Age 118
(t68o-tjJO BCEI and disappcanns. eu.pr for ltmited ocatrrenca,
in the eotly L.>le Bronu Age. These periodJ are pmllel to the
EB)l'lian Middle Kingdom, the Second lntrnnedi:ue iH)itsoo")
l'<riod, and the early New Kingdom, mp«ti\'Oiy.
Tell el·Yahudi)'2 ware io distinguished by iu speaal dceorative
trchnique. The lkcor.arion was produeed bypricking the surface
,.....,Is
o( the with a mulri·toothed comb or, Jess prevalently, with
an •wl, toc:rntedeJ>"'SSlons. The d<pn:SSIOI1Swere then filled
with a ,.·hue subounc< (cokium c:arbonote), sull presen'Cd on
many o(the _..,Is, pn>ducing an inteMting contraSt between
the ,.....,Is' cl.trl< surfxes and tho light filler. The decorauw
motifs,......, usually inNed befon: being filled with the pricked
depre>SIOIUo whidt wete arrang..-.1 tnside the motifs in stratghtand
diaptal ..,..., in herringbone panens, orrandomly.lhe motifs
themscl\.. ,....., USU>IIy Ol'ranged in horiaontal bands (fri<u>)
delineated by incised lines, but other decor.oti\'0 sc:hcmcs "'"re also
empiO)'Cd,suchaslounge pauerns. The plain =as and bands
.,..,.., ......Uy burnished. 1he most rommon motifs are geometrica~
omong these, lriangles. rquatcS, tnpezoids, and lozenges. Thete
are also tn2.CerpOK"CS featuring natur.llistic motifs, sudlasllora,
fauna, and human fipra. The ,.....Is are 00\'0ml,.ith a blade,
Jtey, red, b,.n,oryeUa..ish slip. The char.Kteristic:Tellei-
Yaltudi deconrion """""mainly on j~m belonging toth.,
~~ddlc Bronu
during the 0\'2~
Age (ol piriform.
 t\ . ~tlt..-1;\lJlg to I he roner1 lremendetus
tn\-cstmcn•. C'\ en \CC d~e•r dforu as ;an :mcmrc 10
:1d ~><come commcmalll• rt<'Oglltublc.
:.c- \'n.\tl~ Jrt 1 re:ft«uonofthe cuhure
"~'"''J '"''· accomromcd b)· rt<:lp~•l
•cJ l>co"ccn E~"'l'l arul ohe I.e\ ani Thus.
forc.amrk ' <Is. •t~<h •• l01usbuJ<orul bords,arrcar
h, ' ' " " ·~ ohe "runnong'J'Iral" an.! dolphons.
~=l•ncmp<> hJ\c 1'-<cn made 10 produce
• t)I'CI~ ol oheTdlci·\Jhudi\.. JU!llcuandoo
dJt< the •rr<:arance ol the dJifercnt 1\VC<
"'"'"dong oo i!':<>,:rarh"' rcgoon In
the l.c\·am, nl<XI ot lhe~ JU{:Icl<
\\~re tou.nd 1n 1ombs usN for
multo pic buruls 0\er long pcnod>,
thu> schotm ha'e been harJ
prC~'lotd 10 rt'C'OOSiruct d~e1r
t}rol<>,:ocal de<"Jcrme"' 0\'tf
umc. E.lc-.1\JilOOS ot the AustnJn
expcdouon 10 Tell ci·Dob'a on
1hc c:a~tl!m OdLJ, the SIIC
odenuficd "oth the H) k<a>
CJpll.ll A\"lriS, l"e\'eillcd
•mrrt\SI\C quilnlnie> o(Tdl
el·\'ahudorotugleu Most
of these 1uglru were ol<O
found on oombs. buo on •
dur str.augnphic scquen«,
"hodo rontnbuoeJ grcath
lircoeruoin!i<OI:C:OP~ic;>lrc~on• for insunce,
l'lleslini.ln t)l'CS.ond t}l'CSCh:IT.JCten.<tic
the northern l.c\'2ntinc coast, rc"fe~ 10 as Lc\'J.nto-
F.g)l"ion t)l'C.. The><." t)'J'<' e\\ll\ed 0\'Crll m<Ond ohuscon be u~
for dotong ouembbges and reconstructing cultur.d on.! commercul
IF•& 7} Tt ll t i·Yahudiya JUI II tl from o pottery westor pit owcevo1ted
lnAfulo IAA
uc~ bct'o\ccn the datrcre.nt .1rea~ a.n v.tuc:h thq· were dlStnbutC'd
along a diochrono< :UJ<,oncludong. of c:ot1t1e. ue< bel\\em EB)l'l
•nd the Le•ont
Theongonofthef\lllko t)'J'<'ti<'dcepin the Canaonne
~laddie Broruc: Age tradauon._ for this reilson, 1udt \·essels v.tre
alrc•d) a<s<>el.lled \\llh tho H)'kso> on tho pK!necnng studocs
on Tell cl·\ahudo).. conducted b)· Petne, who rt<'Ogllozed ohot
the ongmsofthis ...,. I•> ou11ode Ell\1'1 Petne's obs<n.,tK!n,
hooe\<r, dod not pm"Cnl othcrsehob" from pbcong theongon of
ohos ponof) on Ell)l't ot 'uboo, porucubrl1 on'"" of'" \\-..l<Sprt-ad
•rrc.ran«!'" Eg\1'1·
Some tlmt ago. .1 srud\· rmrlo)'\Jlg neutron :acu,~uon anal\'51'
dctemt:ncd that TeU cl·\'ahudop ,......, ""' fir<t produced in Eg)'pc.
os "ere the flr<t <p<..:unens to arpc2r in the l.c\;tnL Rtten~).
hO\•'C\<r, .uound a cenltlr) at1cr ohe JUCO\'tt}. oithts uruque cb.ss
ol \cs~l<, ohe pr<><."nt outhc>rcondUCied • comprehe!UI\e, sute-
ol·thc-•n pctrographoc •tui)'SlS WI pouned to the l.c\..,unc
onl!'n of th•!l""'r The sruJ) idenuned numerous production
sues fot the ~roup throughout EG>l" •nd thel.c\anL The urlx:<t
\~I' ,,ere tNnufact\lf"r'd m the Le\"3.11t 1n tht Luc ~hdd.J~ Sronze
Aj:c: IlA (Thoncenth D\mSI)) •nd ocoched Eg)l" :>long""" the
Can03011e popubnon wo seo~ed on ohe Delu >t the ume Slx>rtly
thcreJflcr. roucrs opt'r.lling m Eg)"Pt ~ am1tJting tlus "~"'•
producong n from loc:>.ll'ole wr IV'odcspreoJ production ofTcU
ci·Yohudo)" w>n: on Ell)l'l onl) began on the S<con.llntonncdo•t•
rcnOO, :mel 011 the same: umc nl!\\ (Eit)"J'UM') forms.. unknO\m m
the U\"illll, bqpn to emerge The Eb'Ypu.a.n rrrr.s \\t'.rt' domanJnt
an Eiot')-r« and to some extent e\-cn pcnctr.ned Canaan, both as
loc:>ll) m•nuf>C1Urtd produru ond as E~nl'lun ompons. The
productoon of tU£l<ts oi the El!)l"Wl "1'< on Canoon aC<OrdJ \\llh
oJJnoocul dJoo wo potnl 10 •n onm:;mng Eg)l'lion onflucnce on
CanJOn dunng the ScronJ lntermedoote Period. 0\\lng IO Asl>IIC
scttJen1cnt in dle t'J.Sh:m Delta~
Among ohe hoghlighl! ofTeU el-\ahudo).. 1\-.re do><O\'CreJ
on lsr:acl•re a he>J-sh•rcd \'csscl dcpocung• be.uded male from
J<ncho on the Judeon ~n (fig to), olish·sharcd ,-....I hom
Polq: on the Sharon !'bon (tog. S), •nd • f•lron·sh•red ''CSSCI from
Ashl<lon., ohe southern Coo<l>.l Reg>on (fig 9). ln oJdouon,
on t9!0 • unoquo oSS<mbbge ofTell ci·Yahudo).. l\llllru w;u
,.,...led on Afub on the ,......_., \'.lller (fi~. 7) The asscmbbge
w;u doSCO\'Cred in • roo w oh>d been filled" ith the ondusuul
w~slc ofa IOC'.ll roucr OC' roners. andaaung th~ this h.1d b.!cn "
The Hykoo• l •s

(Fil 8) Fosh·ahopod -HI. Ttllti·Yalludoya ware. IAA. 68 32 1SO (Fos. 9) Falcon· ahopod veu el, Ttllel-~ahudoya wort.
IAA 2015· 1343
workshop Besides a rn:h Kb:uon of compl"1e, tim! JUI!ICI'. the
J'll olso}'iclded untirrd lrogmeniS of Tell ci·YJhudJy3 1uglc" •nJ
other types. The arpcoronccomongll~t Tell d -\'>hud113 JU~Ict<ol
~ ronge ofdilferrnt nnu, decorou•e st)ics, and sacs 1s J"'n iCUbrl)
mt<rrsung, as lhe C'\1dencc suggc•t• lh>taU the Jugl« s " ""'
produced \\ithin uhon penod oflime To dJtc, 1h1> IS the onll
mstanee •n wh1ch Tell cl·\>hud•r• Juglcls h"'" been IO..nJ m 1
du"C'ct relauon to the v.oOOhop m whlCh the) were m.Inul.11..1:urcJ.
Th«•rly dale of the juglciS (Middle Bronze Age JJA), ~"''""
to C.naan as the fir~t producer ol thiSgroup of,..,_,.,,,, Tim
concluSion accords wnh the petrognphl< analrsosofthe JU~Icl' JnJ
ofthe e•rl•c:st jugleiS from the e.= \Otlon> Jt Tell ei· D•b·• ·
Can Scarabs Argue for the Origin of t he Hyksos?
The euct pbcc ofongon of the C.nunue J'OPUIJtiOn'" the eastern
(Fos. 101HIOd ·ahopod veuel, Ttllti·Yalludi)O wort
IAA.1832· 1368 Del~ during the Second Intermediate l'eriod "still the sub,ect of
debJtc. Chem•aland geologoalanal)-.es of the cerom•e unports
°"'
roco\'<:rrd from thiS regoon lncondUSI\'<: wh•le the fanner
poent.s to an ongin m southern C..naan, the l;mcr argue$ for the
non hem Le\·ont. The rndenee from Tellei·Dab'o and other
eastern lkltu iites suggests th;u there \\iU more than one influx
ofC.noanite SCItiers, and thus, the J'O'Siblhty of more than one
48)
place of on~tm •hnu!d no1 b< ruleJ out. N.-·enhelcss, mo<t of the
Jrc:hacolo!:~<•l <I-..:Ifrom rllll" and the Le\Jnl, e1pe0ally
the mformouon r<"'lil<d b) -.:Jrabs from both rq:•ons. 1a1ors
southern C.nJJn ., Ihe rnmJf) rl•ce of on~:~n.
Commen .tl conLl~o.'"b hcmc.:n El!)l"\ ;md southern Clna.t.n
were rc•umeJ in Ihe llnJI rh>-< ol the M1ddlc Km~tdom, alter •
mtllenntum 01 nunanulmt~.;rJ~o.1•on t'Ctwtcn t~ t\\O rq:wn<, 111
the \\J~ ott he"' nlan ntlll JI.Jq:( CmJJnlh! ropui.Juon ~~Tell
CI·Oab·.l h hJ\ thl.'r ~l" t...~n C.UJ4,~\h.~ thlt It \\ JStht C;inJOIOitfS
. _,f the t:J,ttrn l)chJ \\ho en1U.lh.-d tht ~~umruon ol tiCS. ,,,,h thctr
l.ulJ ot on.,em. r hu" rx.ht\l&"~n '' \urront.-d b) the tJC1th;u the
tnlttJI, IJfi:C'~J.Jc ~.rn:P r roJucuon m wuthcm Can.un Of.:C\IIT'td
\OOn .Jrtcr chc CJn..uruh: uk~o.'"O\crol the u'tcm ~ha. su~~ung
c~ nm1JU\ JnJ C\lltQr.al mt('r.lr..·uon }\(n\ccn the rno rq!JOO'
\turCO\cr, C.an.uiUk":;.("JrJ~rroJu""tlc.'lt\ 1n the \ 11ddle Broruc Age
"onI) Jtt<'t<-.l Jt Td l <~ llJ~ JJnd on 'IOUthern C.nJan, •mplpng
culturJiond "'"'' lokh I.Jn>h•r tl<\ bctMen the '""~"'~""•"""'"
There 1\ non tdCI\l."t' hlf c.cu.1b J'f'Oducuon m northern ~n.un
dunng the .\ ltJJk Brooz, Aj:e S.miiJrl). tJr>" uh hJnd~ mmpeJ
h)· \a_raM (J \Ollth~m Dnunnccu~om) \\Cte •mroncd mto the
U \ tc m lkh.ll, ku ""\UdlJ-1" h.l\e nlfne to hght mthe nonhcm
I.e\ ant. The bf\:< numbcrol """""' proJuccd on wu1hcrn Corwn
that""" 1mp<>rteJ '"''' Elt)fl dunng1he ll)kSO' !'<nod fnnhcr
anJacJtc\ \tronlo! ..:tlmmcrri.al :and cuhuml rontJt..'ti bttwccn th~
n'giOn> 31 thJIIIm<, ond the \t)luti< r rofil< oft he Ell)fll>n Second
Jntem1C\11Jtc Penod SC:.lr.li:K, ancludang those N:;mntt f'O)'"oll n.1mcs.
\\J,deJrlpnsp~reJ b) C.noanitc Moddle Hronze A!!<ocar.cl>s The
\0\lthem ColnJJnUc ongm ofth~ forelb'll poruiJuon an the clstcm
Delta IHISO •upponcJ b) the numbcr ofSecvnd lnteroneJIOt<
Period royol·nJm< sar.obs IOunJ m southern C3no•n and lh<lf
com("'ctc a~ncc m the non hem l..c\-ant, anJte;atang Uutthc N'onh
hod mon•m•l eontXI "1th E~t~l" dunng thiS penod
R.c(~r~n('~\..
Bcn·T« zoo.a; lkn·Tor :Ckl9.1kn·T« :oao.
The Expuls1on of t he Hyksos
Conlrontotion between the lonl)iofThcbes'" southern Ell!l" ond
the ll)ksosln nonhem Elll'P' beg;rndunnglhe rc:•l!fUOI thc bst
two kings ofthe Thch.1n Sc\·cntecnth 1>)11.JSty, Scqcncnr~ ;~nd
K.lmose. tiO\\C\Cr,lt WJ'onl)1 Undcr Ah.mosc, brothcroft-.amosc
ond founder of the Eighteenth D)na>t)'.lhot the fort~gn rulcr<
\\cre finall1 1-anqwshed after at l=t thrcc dc.odes of struggle
ond E!l)l't \\OS reunited, 1nouguraung the penod l.no\.n uthe
~c~ KangJom. Under Ahmose, C2Jllp;ugns tntosouthcm (Aru;,n
began A b10groph•al msenpuon of on arm) offiCer from El·l.ob
on Upper Eil'P'•" ho had cak<n pon on Ahmosc's bJnlc>again>!
lhc ll)ksos, desen~s the <iege ond cap1urc of A•-oris and the
foiiO\\lllg thrct·)U r Siege and eopture ofSharuhen, pos<ibl) 1hc
l:ut fl) l.$o> <tronghold, often odenulied "11h Tell ci·Anul near
Cozo ThiS sneiJ)' at thecostem end of the so-coiled Ways of
Horus, the route from the eastern Celt> through nonhem Sin.11 to
rhe \1C10il)' ofG.~n more thJn zoo km. The \\'.1n of Horus wu
the mo<t 1mponant bnd route bel\\een Ei)'P' and C.na•n ond
"u eonnnuoll) u.-d lar both mrlll>r) and commercial J'Ufl'OSd
b) the El!)l'UJns throughout the Ne" JWrgdom E' " " bcfon: the
cart= ofA• ans. Ahmose eonqucr<d the H j bas stronghold at
Tdl llebouo, "h~eh controlled onc:ofth<m>m pomiSof entf) into
theeostem Delto from nonhem 5•= The <11< w:u I'CJ'Cli'Ubted
\\lth El!)l'llon>JnJ mtensely fonllied to " -.rd o1Tpocenual
10\<Jdtn..
E•-,nts at A•-ons follo\\1ng the end ofHrl.sos rule a"' not
t nUrd) d eJt Acconitng to the \'e:NlOO ofM:tnctho rrcsentd
b)· jo>ephus, the Theban k•ng besiel!cd Avans 1111h a Iorge
arm). tr)1ng to force the H) ksos to surrender ll•sclfons pf0\-..1
unsuccct.iful, anJ he \\""J.S uhim:uel\• forced to s1gn ~ trtJt)
with thc l11l.sos. Jllowmg lh<m to lea'" Eg)l>t unharn>ed. The
orc:hoeolog•eal e•1drnee ac Tell d-O.b'a tends to suppon thiS
trJdmon, ;n atmJJCJIC'S th:u tM city wu rc;ace;abl) J~ndoned
~tlhc c!nd ofthe' 11)-ksos: ~riod, :and nosignsofdcstNC11on \\C.~
lounJ. In some rJru of the site settlement conunued on ;a li.m&tcd.
s.:ole. JnJ the contmwt)' ofpottery 11-pes suggests that some of
thr 11)-kso< P<riod population may hJ•-. "'moin<d It the srte
~10\\C\""Ct, ~ dur cu1tun l btcJk lS ;antSC:cd btl\\ecn the Lut I h l.ws
oco.-upauon lc\'<:l and the new settlement of the eorl1 Eighteenth
0)1USI) Short!\ 1herc:Jftcr. thc site beame the m•lu•rJ b3K from
"hl<h the E1gh1eenth D)nasty lonp bw>dred their eamJ"'Ij,'llS
1010 CJ;niiJO.
Rcicf"t"ftt."'t'':
U.tU.l. ZOIO; c .mJUX"r 1916; Gonhck •9&6; H.aNdu 19:"'!; 1bnq '""''
J.lmt'119So, Mumme t9;-S; R.cdfM<i 19\17.1.
Tho Hyk~<>ol47

(12] Royal-name .cam of tho Hykaoo
klft1Yaqubhat
ShiQmona 'St-cond lntcrmech•tt PeriOd
!17th-16th centu<y 8CEJ IG!aJ.ed steat,re. still hod) debated.
thoglale hO<no'f iL21cr-•'• 1 Semi< l cm l DBT
1AA I1981 ·1 191
n.. sc:anb's bole dispbru saollbor<k-r
mdosing the utk "Son or~; the lang's
birth name, \'>qublw, .tnd the sttnchtd
1'0)-.1 <pitb<t "Ci'"" Ufe."itu gmmll~
agrm1 w t \'> qublw is • theophoric nome
of West Semi,X,ongin, probably me•ning
"(The Cod) Hu Pmcecu." Tho Semitic
tcnnNu, muruna ..mountam," figumm a
numberofSemiticnomesofthosperiodos•
di\ine element and has been mterpreted as
possiblyu.tndingforthe gener.1i tenn "Cod.•
It is bcil<\l!d W t l'•qubh>r was one of the
siA H)i<sosrulcn in M•netho's Flfi..nth
Dyrwt)·. He is attested only on sar.~bs,
someofw1uc1t boor hu Senuuc binh n•me,
l'aqubhor, .tnd others hos Egypti>n th,_
nome,~kruserrc. "Suongisthe Lo\l!of(thc
Sun Cod)~·; a <ong)e enrnpk bears both
ownes.
Tho sarab .,.as found on a Middle
B<onu Age us tomb •• ShtQmOn.J neor u..r.
in northern Israel. It come to Iicht along
with c::eramoc asscmbloges <Om>pondJng to
thooe found on coecuporion I<\'tis asligned
to the earl)' H)bas Period at TeU ei·D>b'a
Ac<ordinsfl•, Kmg bqubhor must h>\'e been
one ofthe Uri)· H)boo rulcn.
48 )
It is ,..,.,.,.nyagr<ed wt the sanbs. These figures m genu :oll) J<rt!d
componcnt"\'>qub" ofthe iJng's n• me is the tortprt!SOiltaCanurut<gcdd«• n
" 01 these on the
eqwul<nt ofthe biblialnome ")3cob." It hos ai'J'<'Jran<'< on Ml<ldle BI'Oill< A!!' ><
d truonl) b)
"'" "been >Uggested Wt the name on this 1\';lS UISJ'Irt!d b) the godd«s'• dcpo.. Old II'IU~-.: beiJno
ponoculu sarub rt!fers to • Can»note ruler, S)'nan qiondtrseals.l'e~unhkthe n J,r
as opposed to the H) ksos lung \'aqubhar, and seals, on" hieh the godd«• ,. f"N'IIU: ~othm
m>) be •ssooated 1\i th the bobloa l story of t)'J"cal LO\·:onune seencs, the drpoct n
)>cob. HOI,..,.er, this suggesuon w•s based Cano•nue Moddle Bronze Age <c.lr.>b> n Rdcrcn..--n
on the erroneous d•ting of the tomb in whoch show Ell)'JIIJ.lll m<pu:otoon E.umrJ.. ~~ )..td l~ib 11"' :o;
the sarab \\'2S found and on prt!sumptions ln"J''r..tion ondudc the 50-<:llkd Ibt~
rcprdmg the chronological setung of the hoir<l)i< and the Eg)'ptun·>l) I<J'\\rum 'Wid
blbloal stories ofth<!'ltriarchs, a topic that 15 on •orne eumplcs, as \\'c Uos the oJJ:t
ofloocroG>ll>lu nnt tothc riltUJ"or uru, liS
feet, um the~ofthaS<Jra~ Thoma>;
mt<mttng Elt)f'lloll1 onflu<11<.-,, hOI' c".,.· t>
lld'tr<nen:
the figuris dt'I'R'I'«tionalll' l.atj:< w s, 1\h>.:fo
lkn·TorMdl!onfil :oo:. ~"oh199~. p.oo 10.
l;mopuo.ti 193.1- OC'CUI'on mom eurtl('b. ondud:n~ the one
dt~he"' 1\'hilcthee;mracmtol<hum.on
on<S, the) ..... moot rrtibabl) tn'!'lml l') the 114)su..tobeannaaConoanito
brge""' ·\<>rsl)l"Qlol the l g\f11J11 pl.jc-•
H•thor, ~<ho 1$ f~ntl) tq'f'<'CIIIN J» ctl\\ ..
varlolion olt11o Hlthor oymbol
~
'"
m EIJ)'I'tl>n an(~ r. l.jl!). lt "undcu 1\h<thtr .)..!1.."'00 ••,.:n:tJ.:r.ot;ttt.ro
the introductoon ofthL' ILlthon< futur< '"''' 1., 1 '3cmH 07~cm
the 1m.1ge of the Can>anue gcdJ~• m<Jn>
WI theCan>anote go.J.Iess ""' oJ..nwoc:J \\l th
llathor.l ctconsklenngthe mlcol llathorJ>
pouonessofeMttoc Goods unponed Irom the
[13] Scarab bearing tholmoce ole
L0\'2nt .tnd the opcaalstotu., Wt she cn101l!d
Conoantto nude &odde11
rnthe L<\'2nt (seop.149),thcpossobtlol) >houkl
l.'odo:08tonzoA;!o t B:t 7th 161h'*'MY8CEl
not be ruled out Tho !dcntolic:onon of the nuJe
G~e<h!ea· ~ t: l.hegtalewornu! L 2 tern
goddess >11th H•thoron Canoanuc SOr.lb< is
•'• 1cm t.'J. The t.Dus a"'d Cetmtn\',~~.
f'unhc:rmdoc:~ted b) thestnlong,.,.mbl.'lr!tt,
CaUect.on, G.h c' Sus..., :..af'5C:h,a;'( Robtttson
on m>nyeumpks, of the goddess's f.~« to
end Hope l'lat1CioaN LDo ~ toArlt<ou•
the tr.Jdouon.U EI!I'JIIIJ.n S)mbol ofH:othor,
Fr'4!0o:lsoltho .....,., ''.r'!<om l 21l13 52 21~
~<hich "'"' inoot.ued on a signofic:ont numberot
Can>.not<searabsofdusperiod (see no. 4 ).
Tho sarab's base be•rs • fronw inuge or a
lh<lntq,:r.ouonofthc ll•thorS)mboland the
nude female holding. blanch in each lwxJ.
flgurt! of the nude goddessos on ouuundong
Tho Et!l'JIIim hierosl!'!'h onJ:Jo, meoning
ex:unplt of• Can>.nue ad;orut.ion ofan
" Lit'e." appears on enhtrsicle ofthe figurt!'s
Ell)f'll.ll1 moorand the wmul:uion of this
legs. Fronw "'P"'><nt>tions ofnude ftrn>les,
motof onto the Canaanote cul1w:ol splo<rc.
frt!CjUently llanlced by branches, m c:ommon
Sembsdupl>ying the figurt! of the nude
imageson bte Can>.nite Middle Bronze Age
goddess ha\'e been found :tlmost e>dusi\'el)'
Tho Hykooo)49
 The Egyptian Empire in Canaan
Theoxpulsion of the Hybosmarks the b.ginningofthe New
Kingdom, "ilen ancitont E&}l'lian civl1iz.ation rnch<d its military,
«onomic.andculnnl peU. Thiswasaperioclofconquest and
exparuion into Nubia in the south and C. nun in 1M north,
resulting in the fonnation ofan empire lh>t was to last some
350 year&. To maintain control overCanun, a military and
administnli"" Egyptian presence "'Uestablish<d the,.,, which
~d to a•it!•ifianr EI!\''J><ian impact on Canun and, conversely, an
unp...cedr:nted Canaanite impact on EI!\''J>I .. ...,u.
The Late Bronze~ in Canaan, ,.n;ch a>msponds roughly
Similarly, there is no evidence (or campaigns led by Ahl'f'IO<e'•
son and suc=sor, Arnenho<op 1, in Canaan, though block. from
a dismanlkd temple at IW!uk, assigned by SOIM schol.us to
this king's "'ign, dcpictoll'<ring boarers from non h<m Canun,
implying that there may have boon some Egyptian military olCtivity
in nonhem Canaan at this time. The third king or the Eighteenth
Oynuty, Thutmose I, was a military man who~ uno tho
roy.U family. His "'ign was marked by a ..,rinofeamp~igns
ag~inst Mitanni, a kingdom situ.ated oast of the Euphratos in
condushe "''dcrn:< t'or l:!l}'('tian ampaigns in Canaan durins a.fcrmcuo
herreign.lt,.,·»only ai'!rrhcrdcath, inThutmoselll's~ luritc 1010"HotftM'it't !,S9: Hotr'mcitrt99t; Mcmn ZOOj, 17-6di;
ltrdford. •~l.US·••o; Rtodford 1!19ib, Sht.a197P:Wttrutean a,Sit •·to;
)"arofindcpcnJ<n< rule (his twenty·thinl YH< ifC<lWillng from WeUutrin 199L
hisco-n:genq ..;,h ll.ll>he)>'Ut), thatthe kingi1Ul1ateda..,ries~
campaigns in Canoon th.JI "''OUld establi>h the E~l'IIJJI Emplf't.,
thel..e\'artl. Thutmose Ill and the Founding of the
The question of whether the campaigns ofthe early Egyptian Empire in Canaan
E.1 ht nth D\N<t}'"" "'mrc>nsiblcforth<,.>dcspreacl
8 ..,
destntcuon of. <it<> tn wuthem Canaan 01 ' "L-
" e
ndofthoMid&
, Thanb 10 his ouutanding mil1wy xhle<'emmrs, Thutmose Ill
Bronzo Age,. he••·ilj•dclo.red . .\t l<aSI """ntysitn ift southom ~.. boon limd "the Jo;a~ o(ancient Eg>'Jll.• Dwi~alw lint
Canaan"""' \iolrn<l)' dut!Ol·ed or abandoned at tho <nd of .,.enty years as so~ ruler he conducted 17 compatgns m ""CStem
the Mtcldlr Bronz< A~<. among the.. Telloi·Ajrul, Tellel·Faroh Asia. The firS! and most crucial ba!~o took place at Mqpddo ~ca.
(South), Lachish,Jericho, Sh«hem,and Ashkelllll. ~sslhan · d'U«ted•gainstac:ooltuonof
LIS7 BCE.Ilwaspanofacampatgn .
. ~ ._the ruler of Kadeslt, 1 tO>\'ft ntuated on the
ed in dcta~
halfof tho... cities ,.·e•• n-built in th< succeedmg pennd, and
C.naarute rulers vr . .
a ~tlcment gap of K\'er;al d<ndcs is notable m the towns OrontnRi\..,.in"'CSlcmSyria. Thisampatgnllrecord
that were eventuall)' n:butlt.ll is now generoU~ ag~d that the in the so-called annals of'J'hu~ Ill, which were mgn•ed on

=
10 tho New Kingdom in ~')ll,isoneofCanaan's best docummted
nonhem Syria. Mitanni was a major political power at that time, tho walls ofone of the sanCltlarin in the grcattemplt ofthe god•
destiUC1ionofthe MiJdlc Bronze Age~n..ru~«t~· =~
"ilich oftm med~ in tho local afl'airsofw Canunitoctty Amun 01 Kanulr and which rommemcnte year by >.nr the king 1
penods, thanlcs to the 11=1 number of Egyptian SOIU<leS dealing d bot\O·ccn the ti'"" of Ahmosc scamp:atgn m
with cWI'ermr asperu oftho ~"Ptian Empire in tho Le\oont, stares and threatoned Eg)'j>tian intern~S in the region. While
thorc is no evidence for nlilitary activity in southern Can.un
pi•'Oial ban~ofThut-111 :at Megid~
(«< bolow). .
campaigns m
Canaan. A.ccon!ing lo this n:cord, dunn& 'l1tvtTt>c>x
1 rul r the niler of Kadeslt took ad\'alt!age of
The sequence ofpolitial...,.ts in the rqpo. is well rea>rded, . . '"'" lh.r the Eg~'J>tions, In Wll' att<mpt to lll'sfirSI)'Oai'OSSOe e' . . resand
and this his!onC2linfomwion issupp!em<nted byconsidero& dwingThutm-l'sreign, it is clear that his victoriow campaigns This u'""'l'l" sugg 'k 1 sponStble for
tr.odi<ate H)·ksoutrongholds, ""re most h : ;"' donee for an
rpolilic:al chaos among lh< Can.wute C1ty su
against MiUnni, which arecommomoroted on royal and priv.re lhuu.teo . . . lhecityofMqiddo,
ard!aeologial evidr:noe.ln fact, 1M number ofobjeas ldlecting the desaruction. This is >upponrd by tho lac . ""' cl . C assembled ala~ c:ool1aon ofiOC>l pnnces'"
Eg)'J>IiarK:anaanite "'lationsduring the lime oftho ~ monuments, laid 1M 8">Wldworl< for the Egyptian Emrm in tho . . . prttt:ncc lft ~an unn .
lhrcateruns Eg)')lllaR
. ~in the'"Ji= Thedctatled
• . . • whtcb im""-..1
Levant. EI!\''J>Iianmilitaryoradmlrustr.am"' • of Cau lnaddiuon,
Empino in Canaan is gn:orer than that from any of the periods description ofThulm050 lllnx:t<lnOU> campatgn, . .
thisphaK,elcept, probably, m lhen:glllll .t..citiesinthe
pm'iowjycWcu.sed. Consequen~y, mosc of tho obj<ets Jl"'S<nted in Only one campaign in Canaan is recorded for the son and allhis time the ""'tq;i<ally important Canaaru. . - --"
lh si<ge of Mcgiddo, includn a topogr.tphial hst of
coast y.~re ~1thernd18,IlhtvRU
I SC'I'tl1·mon
hund~of<itesmCanaan.Thll
. lisl ·llg<nerally considrrcd
. to
tho txlubttion and this catalogue elatefrom lh>1 time. SU<a:uorof'l'hutmosc I, Thutm-11, who foughtagainsr the nonh and ;dong' .
tho Medtterr.tnean
The following subch.plm, based on hiaorial and Sh..u,agroupofsemi-nomadictribos living on the (ring<' of IUifercd insignilicant damage, a e r ~r<eordofboththesitnr:uded by tho Eg)')lllaR anny
be a ,.., •• . This assumption
bytheEg}'J>ltansor . ofthoMiddleBronzeAge
~ 50Um!s lS60cialed with the E&}optian Empino in the settled population in Canun and Sinai. The Shasu were nd dsitnlohowaconunUJUon and those that provisioned the E&}'J>IWIIJODps.
\1 amag<" • ha boon suggcoted that the • su bythof.tctthattho listdoesnouncludethen~of
~~ready ~lqpddo
Canaan, relate tho lleq\l<nce of...,nts that took plue in the "'£ion a f'OCIUTent monace lo the Canunitociry states, threatoning, culture. FonU of lh01t reasons, II • i
from thetimeofthe limc:ampaignsoftho Eighteenth Dynasty to the throughout the period oftho New Kingdom, tra""lersand • ,.....,...of the early Eighr<enlh Dynasrycampa gns clnlnl)-.d or abandoned prior to the
t.vavans as well u the Egyp<ian imperUistruclur<! in Can.un. pnm•ry P- r--- E 'o bonlcrs. These . . these we"' no longer a th,..,atto the Eg)'pllln anny
period of tho fall ofthe empi,.,uw.U u thepolilic:aland c:ulrur.J . them Canaan wasto secu,.., ~1'1 camra1gn, as . The ntofMrgiddois
impactof!hese-on both Canaan and E&}')ll. But roy>! inscriptiOnS ofThutmo~e II claim that clurins his rcign, m sou
offeruiveswe,.., followed byampa1gns
. to .... n the EIYJ>Itan
he iratM>nso(
or capable ofptO'IKIIns "'!'Plies. conqu thousand towN,•
the roads were safe all the way lo northern Canaan. They also . hem Canaan and ch•llengc t asp described in the annals as"the aprunng ofa
mention Ol!Otic sifts bostowed by Canaanite rulen on Ell\''PI rn
presenco tn non at probably meanllo secure E 'svictoryOYel'tcnitoryprevtOUSiy held by the
Mitanniinth<regton;lheywere "' ted h"""""r,that rdecung gyp! . . . Canun feU uru!er
The Early Campaigns of the Eighteenth tributo to tholaner's presrig~ous role in the region. n:b<Uiouscitystotcs. FollOWUiglhisVtCtory, .
profitable tnde routes. It ha> been '"l.l8e• l;tary activttin in . ronuvo -~ ancl I'ts rulers beame vassals or tho Eg)')lllaR
Dynasty Thutm010 U hadonlyoneson, Thutrncnem, who was born Eg}opll:ln
the ocamty of Egyptian texu ,.,femnJ t~ ml """"''n role
of a rrunorwi/'e and was 11ula ~child when Thutmooe II . rgucsogatnSI •n Ee• r -
SOII!hem Canaan at thll ' ' '""a . • sofsouthern ktnc· '---tly
. hiuua:uaThutntoselllwasu-.,.... .. fcm:ed
There is no evidence that Ahmooe led campaigns in southern died. Hatshepsut, tho oistor and pnncipal Wife ofThutmose II, fth 1 M ddle Bronze Ag<' cme
a~ as "'8•nt for the young king, but borore his ..,..,nth regnal
in the dewuc:tion ° • , lh< destruction of
• ..: ellpl:llnauons .or
Oc:>plle . in northern Canun to subduuepeated loal
C.nun al\erthe airge and coptUrc ofSharuhen, bull stela or Canaan. Thus .altern•U' roposcd ouch •• to lead campatgns . challenge or Mitanni. Yet
his r...,nry·seccnd year .mntions Yictories among the f'enkhu, YQrohe USUtped his position and dedated herselfking. Jn this lh 'fddleBrorueAgecitiuh•wbeenp • L . tton rebellioru and confront the con~uous . . tian-c.anunire:
a tcnn u.uaUyrcfemng to inltabi<antsofthe i.d>aneoeooast. apacity Hatshepsur 5ponsorec1 miningcapediQons to Sinai and ese p ' conRaC'f,
internal • • •
m1Jr2110n, na
rural disast~, «a cont\l•na tho victory 11 Mq;iddo wasa rummg pout!'" EJD~ . .
,..,lations, as it inaugurated •long-mnding Eg)'p!WI Emporc "'
tr.ading Ol!pediliotu to L<:banon, Punt, and Lybi.a, but thon: io no ofnuses.

SOl
ESYplla" Empi,.l51
 contc\l'fla r 1g1101 Thutma<c: Ill, \\hlchundoubtcdl) 1n<crprc<cd :L< a delll'<:r.ate poi1C)· ofthe [8)-pti:tn court, "hich on
~nc:~" •ch :oo\ltop bcmccn the nc\\l) e,rabloV.cd \'ICW of the malliJf') W~lcneuot t}\c CJnunuc: city 5Utei Jtlh.Jt
emrm: .mJ r.'ll.J!If\.~I~J in IOCTCJ\.Inlt tr.tc.l\; tome, NUld control the rcgoon \\ oth a hmucd number of mili!.V)
lhc;~J "<tent "' <Jt>l"hcd b) Thurmose Ill m Jnd ;aJmlnl~lr.UI\~ttntcrs 3.nd onl)· t~ occuiorul m1hUf')
ClnJ.ml.l t compJtgn. h h>HI-o been ~Sled that the ab.enct of£1!11'uan·
hunJn.·d •c- r <l)k l>uoiJong> 1n C>nJ>n during thi< reriod potniS to the Eg)"J>U>n
U\4! of C:mJlnne compounds tor the1r 0\\1\ gam.son J'O"'{l-
Rdcrcn.. Theonl\- \Itt tn \OUthc:m Dnun '"here slgmticant
1 S :ltct \1urrune IY"'I; l\..1 .un~n IQICl,
Jn.h>eologt<al C\1dcn<e ho< been found loron £8)l'llan prc«:nC'<
, \\"ctmrc,n ay)tl. HH<
in the mtJ·li~recnoh Dynast)' is the port col) ofJ•ff•. The
"'l •1'1""" on the ropogroph:ral hst ofThutmosc Ill, and the
The Cultural Impact of Egypt on Canaan after .u,haeoi.,I..:.JI C\iJen.x .:11 the sate ~ts Wt it bcamc: an
the Megtddo Campaign E~')l""n fortre<' ""'"alter the McgiJdocomro1gn and the
IOundmg of the emporc h Thut~ Ill. ThiS is <uJ'IIOflcd b)
··~rtwn r«i'rd tl..Jurq:Jrom rht· rcmalmOJ:)CV'\OiThuuno\C Ill an 4:ll"•an Jucr.ll\· SOUI<'C, "<he C.p<urc of Joppa." "hiclu;
anJ the JC'q:l'l' ,,.h.t, t"il 'u"..:t:'""'- Amcnhl.lecr II anJ Thuuno\C' .->O<tJ!cd \\lth rhr rcogn ofThutmo>e Ill and dcscnbes the
I\ (".a t.t!i IJQO ~lJ, •nJ''·'''" th.Jt the:~ LJn~'"-onJuctai ,.,..rtureoftheet<\ b) the Egjl"""Saftero rdxlhonol thelo<>l
C'.amr.ulr-~' Ul (. ;.an,.un IR Clf'Jtr 10 rn:ser'\r I~ .Jt..h.Jc\~mtnl't ofth~ popuLium. The SlOt) drsrnbcs the runrung ""''"'I\ used Ill the
\IC."~:iJJ.,, J"'!'JI!:JI JnJ rr.•l«! l~l"IJn s<ron~oiJ, from loc.tl Eg\rttaru ro enter the <tty Ill ludong two hundred men in bo<l.cts.
rcbcii1C"on' .anJ &he con.'t.lnt thn:Jt or Mn.;anm. Tlk! d\!~NctKX1 cJIIong<o m1nd rheLiterstol)·oirheCC>ttq~J<>tofTn>). Whether
.anJ l-..:~o:·urJuun t:JI" JttnNh:J to the umc ot the cJrl\ EJght«nth otno<usdcr;ulurc a<>."ur.>t<,the s<Ol) isgencr.all) regarded au
[Ft&- 11) Atlltf from the templtof Amun at Karnak howl r<llcctoon ofthe n:-ronqucst ofthe orr by a genenl ofThutmo<c
I "I Thutmostlllamtt.nl hta Canaan~tt enem~et 0)n.l't\ ".amr.a•i!JhJrc not .mr~to.S .;after the C'"it.:lbllShmcnt of
thC' lJOJlttJn Lmr•rt- mC.lnJ.ln- on thecontr.tl') , lt wu 1n tht Ill on the 1\-.ke oia loc.tl rc~Jhon.
Cana•~ that ~ended from non hem Sonoo to the borders of the }\c,t mtcn:" ,,I the: t::gypciJn rulcn to ~fq;:uJni the "r.ttq;ttJII)'
Remaons of a monument31 Egyptian gate rcctnrl)· d1«0\-.n:d
1, bo<h <hc Eg)"pttons <rauoncd on the
that enabled them 10 supp)
an JaJb pf0\-1dl!' clcar·cut r\1dtncr oftht t~'<tenswc Egyp[l;ln
Mnonno Emporc on northern S)no. Thutmose Ill set up mihtory \ltUJtcJ ClnJ.:1nnc ..:me"'-, as the IJ.ttcr IUrPhtd the El;)lltun
stronJthoi.U and odministr.ati\e ctn<ers throughout the newly reg~~n and~~ pusing through on m&l&t;sty or Jdm&nastr.at&\e rrc«ncc on the cityJunng the mtd-Etght«nth D)naSI)· This
ml$SIOM. t.'. (llomJI .;admmtottr:mon wuh JOoJ ami other nc«SStlltS.
conquered areas, and, roguor.antee theiO)":t!tyofhis \ assols he ptc<urc IS corrol>or.>ted by the large qu:onuucs ofEro,wn and
l::ft\J'I(lolll f( fo."Ords :11'10 !..'OOlJIO amrlc e\lJCnCC' .:!IIC\IIIli! tO
on<roductd a policyofrolong theonons and intended heors ~~ Ell)"P<ion royal uucnpuons tnd_udc detaoled informJtton
the 1n•tai!Juon oiiOrls. b'3mson hc•dquJrter<. hJ.rbordepotS. ond
Eg>l'llln-t!}lc pottel)·from this reriod thot came !0 hght in the
aboutthe booty taken dunng rompatgns'" Canaan, ond offiet>l
be eduared at the E8)"P<i•n coun. This str.ucgy helped ensure Ctt). ln fact, the poltel) finds from Jalfa compnsc th< earl1c<t and
uon:houscs 10 CanlJn. Thas 1nformJuon, hO\\C\Cr, 11K.lrt'Cl\
the allegJOn<e ofthe future ,..uals ro E8)"Pt and pn>vtded the con-cspondence bel>\ccn the Egypttan coun ond C.naarurc rulers largest E~'\l"ian-s!)l< ccr.amic :uscmbiJg< m >OU<hcm Canun
oonotoor.ned b) the lliChJcologJcol r<eonl on C.nam, • su~~o~roon
E8)1'bans With ulu.ble hosugcs. ~u~ ~o the economic benefit to [8)1" oft!s rule Tnbute and l!tO\\lt to dare; a smJJier corpus of Egyru:on·<t)"lc pottel)· of thiS
ctut hl' perpl~cd schol<~n cOr some t~, pJrticubrty rn \ICW ot
Thutmosc Ill diVIded the
Wgc dwricts with h ad
=• controlled o.. E
u' 8ll't tn<o three
81 u rom the loc•l rulers include.! nl bl
., precious metals, gla "
.
u:t e commodt!tes, such the rdamc obund>nce ofar<h.tcolog~<Jl C\idencr r<Littng to the
renod wa.s >!so loond 1n Beth Sheon The EJI)"ptian-st) le "-,re
ott<>t> ro the local production oi Eg)-pti:tn rcronur forms U>tng
. e quarters at Gau in southern Canun -•· . '>. cood, manuf•cturcd goods cattle and Egjl'ttan prc>Crt<eln C.naandunrtjl. the l'onctccnth ond carl)
Kwnidttn the IA:b.nc<c Bequ Vol! . and S - • ""''"S. which \\ere rob.bl
Cl"- stat rul p
• •
y scntto [8)1"_ In oddmon, the ,;usa! T\\cnucrh I>)"N>IIC>. It "gen<rul) a<"<cptcd that the number of
Egjl"IJn rcehnoqucs.lt pnnunl) mduJcsuti11tonan ,.....,[>
S . E - C), umuronsouthem
)n>. 8l"J'IL1n records from the period su.._. rho h
Olle>ofG and - - tl eC02SUJ
.,
COl\
* .
e erswerc t<SponSlbl r
\\"Oflt, wht<h ,...s carried
e •Or PlOYldong mJnpG\\-.r for
h
El)l'tlln' 1n md1UI) .1nd cwili.Jnopxsucs thJt were "il<ltiOOC."d
o>SOO.llcd ""h the productton and oon>umpuon of food," hldl
"ere used b) 1hc EgypuJn g-u rison at the Site.
nonh au . joll'o, and prob.bly also ll)blos or Ullua 10 the and rh our'" 1 e E8)1"tan gamson towns m Can•an dunng the umc oithe m1J-Eigh1ctnth l>)nJ>t) 1\-.s
•• Uof" hteh hod tmporunr h..... ..~ . t&r sunou.ndmg art;as One oftht most mfonnall\~ 50UJ"CCSOn £gypn.:1n·
nuli ~ uun,
IV)' b.sn thor pm.:nrcd unouthorizcd
"'"= OS Egyptw!
Thetmpao of the rcogn ofThutmose Ill o E
conSid<r.abl)' •mallcrthan rhJ< ofthe Noncr«nth and CJrl)
CJ;nJamlc rtl~uions ln the mid·Eaghtccnth 0)--nJ.st)'ln: the
tcm<Ol)· on ean..n from >ccas to the E8)1"ian ~naamte mttrco . . - n gypu;m· Twcnttcth DpoaSitc>. ThtSIS>UPI"'rtcd b) the rrlam-.ly smJII
'('2r:Jbi: found Jt southern C3nuniu: sa1cs \\1thm ~rdtatdogical
the sc•; and an E8)1"tOn Mronghold nn«~oons&S also ondtroted b) on:haeolno;c:d amount of EJnl"ian and Ell)"pttan-st) Jc pon<rv on an:ho<ologtCOI
cvtd enrcfrom the rcgoo ronrc~u corresrondmg to the nud·Eightccnth 0)11Jit) 1n EJ)l't
alsosctupatllcthSheon, ,.hieh"•uitwtedon rhe .
route thor linked M
,...,
m•JOreor.aY:lJl
ofphor.a n °fthe -..-
<II)• of Memphis, the first c~pual l;a\-ers :u..s•gncd to thlS l,ft.}sc in com().:lri!tOil \\1th the large
(Ute Bronte Age 18), in these conce.\ U, the~ is a dr.amJtic
onor Egypt •nd the mO>t impon.nt ""-":tl d .
csorot•moo and S)n> " ' rlt southern Ca ccmenn northern . ·-, a mmtstr.lii\'C qwnuue> or such portcl)' in an:hocologtcal Ll)-.ndatcd to the
The E8)1"t>n strongholds. naan. Egypt. Srudoes ofrhe ponery found or the site mcrc;u.c m the numtw:rofimportcd Egrpuan K:arabs. 'fhjs
'"Canun hod ample "or.age fociUucs Nmcu:cnth and carl)' T\otcnuech 0)'1\l Stt<s. The snuauon h;as been
pomt out~ dr.amatac: •ncrea.se in tht numberofCamanuc: jars m

521
dt\..,lopment tS ~rtJ<ularly noteworthy conSidering the almost
complete alK<..., ofomponed early Eoghteenth D}1135ty
scarabs on artbaeolog;cal contexts of the p=ious stage (L.ote
Bronze Age lA), which mainl)•)ielded loc:olly mode Middle
Bronze Agel)-pe scarabs. Thus, while loc:U Can..note Middle
Bronze Age SC>rabs conunued to be produced and used during
the period comsponding to the e•rl)• Eighteenth Dyna5t)', the
situation changed suddenl\' on the penod com spondong to the
mid· Eoghteenth 0) nosty. The initial, larg•·sc:oJe imporution of
Egyptian scarabs. which occurs simultan<>Ousl) \\i th the end of
the production ofloc:UI)•made SC>rabs, undoubtedly reftects the
im~ct of the foundongohhe Eg)-ption Emptre b) Thutmose Ill.
The scarabs imponed from Eg)-pt on the mod-Eighteenth
Dynasty dtSplay the typical d<>sogns of this period, includong
royal and di-.ine nam.s and omages, good-luck symbols and
formulas. and decorati\"e motifs (figs. U · IJ). Of the royal·n• me
scarabs. the great maJOnl) bear the throne name ofThutmos.
Ill. As in the ease ofscarabs from Moddle Bronze Age contexts,
the scarabs from Late Bronze Age 18 conturs on southern
Canaan "ere maonly found on Cannnite tombs, where they
(Fil 12] Scarab from loU ei·Auut show-n& Thutmose Ill u asphmx
trampl•ncan enemy lAA 32· 1808
(Ftl 13) Sc.atab from Tellei·Auut thowtnc Amenhotep II as a bull
trampt•n& an enemy. 1M . 32· 1878
541
were placod as burial]llfts HO\\e\er, Lhedesogns and hol
qualil)•of many of them suggest th>l ther were produceJ
I'O):tl and temple workshops on Eg}-ptand "ere thus pro~.
inotially imponed to southern Canaan by Eg)-ptions Slot><•
there MoreO\..,r, 11 has been suggested thot the large numl
of scarabs bearing royal n• mcs and imJges during thos peri J
ondocotes th>t the)• \\t oe used for poliucal propagonda on f. 1'1
as ""'" " in the regoons under Ell)-pUan control. The foct th.o
most scarabs of this penod that hO\·crome to hght on C•n•
we~ une:anhed in bun:ds d1spb),ng loc31 C;an;a.Jnitc funcrMl
<ustoms points to the wodespread use of•corabs ~ the lo..·•l
populauon.
Evidenco for "hat w;os on all hkehhood JOint Elt}T'Il•n·
Can•anue productoon and use ofscarobs on southem Canaan
at the ume of the mod·Eoghtcenth D)nasty os pi0\1deJ ~
scarabs apparently manufactured on thetemple·atfihateJ \II~<. Jt<
wookshop ot Beth She•n. Thossmall group ofcrude, moiJeJ.
glued-composition scarabs dospla\"S hoghlr unusu•l feature>,
mdicatmg th:tt the Kar.lbs " ere mccndcd co be rcpiK;u o t
ondovodual Eoghtcenth D)nasty scarabs. All the kn0\\11 • ·• •mplcs
ofthos group ha\·e come to hght on south<m Can•on, atte>ton¥
to the f•ct th• t they were produced there. The largest number
ofscarab< ofthos 1)-pe comes from Beth Sheon, where the) hrst
oppe:u- on the archaeologoeollc\cl comspondong to the mod·
Eighteenth Dynasty (Lc•el l>-1- the period short!) after Beth
Sheon became an Egyptoon stronghold Taking theorront<.O<
into ::attount::and considering the cv•dcnce for Late Bronze Agt'
.stlu:atc manufacture a t Beth ShcJn, these SC'Uilbs lu\e bt-cn
labeled the " Beth Sheon Lc\el iX Croup" (fig. 4).
The omp•a of the Egyptian pre>ence on the soliratc
industry at Beth Shean h as been demonstrated through the
an:ol~-sos ofots produc", whoch sho..s the adoption of tnduoon:ol
Eg)-pti;;~n glrung tcchmques and the cxclusi\"C m.1nufacturc of
such small Elt}-puon·St)·le ObJects os scarabs and omulet.s. The
produetoon ofE81--puan·sl)le aotJfaets on the temple at Beth
Shun suggests a comb.ncd En-pti:an-Canaanite c:ult at the
sote. The Beth Shean Lc,·eitX scarabs indicate thot thiS <uluc
fusoon began soon afler the E8)-ptian Empore w•u cstobloshcd by
Thutmoselll
One of th e ea rliest •nd1a1ions of the \\Orsh1p of Egyptian
dciucs en late Bronze Age CAnaan may also be assigned 10 th&s
period: bone onlays decorating loe•lly made Egypuon-style
(F'C- ,,.; Sca,.-~b' c• , ,.,. "Beth Shel" L..,el IX Gioup" Ptrva le
cotlect ,on cf Othm•r JI.Hl, Fr•bour& SK2004 4 2004 e
~'c' JnJ dcrh:lln~t ~c. nes ot ::adonuon bcfo~ the S)lni'OI
lltthe J:g\"]'l~>n GoJJc.- lbohor. T"osurh bo.\C> h.-e been
puhh>h<J, one lounJ at fluor (sec no 6z) ond one ol unknO\m
P"" cn•n.:e The e•rl~ Eighteenth O)'n>"Y dote of these bo•«
"ha\cod on'') IIUICglounds (on tht s•gnlfic<lncc of the goddeu
tf;uhor m C.uuan, see pp. 1-48-49)
The Am arna Period
The late Eighteenth Dpusrpn EJ)l't, "hoch comsponJsto
the L:otc Bronze Age IIA on Can»n, opens \\1th the pe•reful
and tlounshong era of Amenhotep Ill. No m:lot>rycomr••~•
m Can:~.&n "ere conducttJ dunng thiS long.) retgn, asp<;~
b) h redercssor Thuomose IV.
"1th Mll.lnnl wu JChiC\"Cd • IS p ' . r«tdentcd
The long reogn of Amcnhotep Ill W35 • penod ol unp
" e;llth ;and arhsllc achac\·ement In Egypt, "hich had .llso
n:;ached liS P<~k In remu ofmrcmat•ono~l JlO\'er. The prosperous
.:and pe;a.cdul Situation m Eg)-pt also Mnefited the ~n;utn&tc
cronom), "hirh hod impro\"cd ronsideroblyunder EII)"Ptian
control, as auested b)•t\'idenre fortrade not on!) V.lth Eg\-pt but
•lso 1\llh C)T'NS and the M)"Cen>ean world.
It 1s, howe\er, the period foiiO\,ing the reign of Amenhooep
Ill that OJ p>rbetd>rl~ rcle\"antto thetopoc ofEK)l'tt>n·
C:lnaannc rel:uion\ m the l.:atc E1g.htccn D)"R3.SI}' Th1s penod
I\ ~encr.lll)' refcm:d to J:S th~: Am:~rn3 Period, alicr the mode_ m
nome of the •itc in MoJdle Elt}-pt that yoe!Jed the arehacoiO]Ilcol
endcnce from the reign of the son and succcqorof Amcnhotcp
Ill · Amenhorcp IV - also known as Akhcn;~ttn. This «Centric
ph>rooh l>unrhcd the most radocal rehg>ous ,.,"Oiuuon on
E&nptoan hostory ~· oncorporating the 1r.1douonal sol•rthcoiDg)
of phuaonK' rchgton inro ~ monothclSUc concept tlut focused
on the \Un d1\k Itself... the ""Aten.. -\\hlch \\Utlt\-:ttc:d to
the posouon ofsole god The long rhangcJ hos name from
Amcnhotep ("Amun is Plcosed"') toAl<henaten ("EI!"erll\-e for
Aoen -1and mO\eJ htS coun from Thebes oo a new npll>l he
nlleJ ALhcuten ("The Horizon of Ateni, buolt to celebrate
the cult olthe Aten ot the <itc of present-do)" Tell <I·Amom>.
Tnduion.d rehg~on wu offici~ll)· boanned, :md con\-cnrion;~l
.ln J.l\C w;Jy co :a nc" Stlle, which cmphJsiu-d. the sun·s d~il\·
I'<'Cre-anon of the '~"'rld 3nd focused on e\"tl)·d:a~ life .ulhe coun
The ..AmJ.m:a rt\olution.. d•d not Sut\t\·e Akhcn:atcn's ~•gn,
:and shortly :after his death the ne'~ c.lpu;~l wu :abJndoned and
tr.Jdluon;al Egrr•i~n n:lig•on w;as restored.
Ever soncc the discoveo; ofTellei·Amama b)•
an:h:u!ologlst.s tn the IJt~ runct«nth cencur)', the reLigious .
re\"'luuon of AkhenJtcn has been 3 source ofgn:;at fucmatton.
In llddiUOn to the cxccption31monuments th3t h;a,·e SUJ'\1\ 't'd
from thl.s Icing's re•gn, 3 rem;~rlo.;~ble 1'0)-;al :archl\·<" h:a.s C'OrtlC
10 loght The ortbo\"e 1\U found b) El!}"]'ltan penonIS at Tell
ci·Amam3'" 1&87, before the site "-:as fonn;~ll)' etC.l\-:ttcd.
It comrnses dose to four hundred documents mscribtd on
runeofonn tb) tobkts in Al<ludoan .. the diplomotic l>ngu>ge
of the ume. ThedO(Umcnts d;~te from the bst )"CUJ~f
Amenhotep Ill and the teign.s of Akhen;uen :md ht.s ammedi:ate
s:ucccssors More than thrtt hundred of them ue d•pl~;~oc
corrc-sponJen«, m;~inl)•leners wntt.en b) '' tstem As:a:auc
nllc:rs to the Egyptian coun, '"'·uh mort th:an one hundred and
fifi)• ofthe~ origm.lung In sou them CJnnn. \"er)· few of the
leucn dlSCO\en:d in the ;udu\"~ \\Cr"r \~wT1tlen by members oft he
EJn'Pu 3n admm1.srr.1tion.
Eaypt •an Em pire I 55
 The Amama a.rc!U~ is the primary souru ofinfonnation
on the history ofCanaan during the Late Bronze Age.lt is
especially informative about the ec:onomic and military
systems established by the Egrptian Empire in the rq:ion.
The Canaanite city stata were subj«t to the authority ofthe
pharaoh, yet they enjO)-ed autonomy in conducting their internal
affairs. The letters dating from the reign of Akhenaten paint a
picture of much trouble and upheaval in the region at that time,
the result ofincreasing disputes between the local rulers, as
well as neglect ond comtption on the patt of the IDC2l Egyptian
bureaucracy. Moreover, the d0\\11fall of the empire of Mitanni
relati,..,lyearly in Akhenaten's reign ended the cordial relation.t
between Eg)-pt ond Syria and led to Egypt's lOS$ of territory
in S)na to the rising Hittite kingdom. However, the evidence
provided by the Amama letters i1 inconclusive with rq:ard to
whether Eg)-ptian control m1:r the Levant indeed weakened
during the reign ofAkhenaten. Some scholars ha.'O considered
the problems documented in the letters .. indicati\'0 of the
king's neglect offoreign affairs due to his preocatpation with
his new religious revolution. Others, however, ha\1: suggested
that these problems were not uclusi"' to the Am:una Pc:riod,
but mther reflect the normal state ofaffairs in Late Bronze
Age Cana:on. The archaeological remains from Canaan do not
provide evidence for sigmlicant decline ofE~n-ptian control
during the Amama Period, and a varietyoftutual sources of
the period suggest that Eg)-pt maintained most ofthe imperial
infrastructure establiohed byThutrnose 111. Still, a break in
Eg}l'tian mining ~cti\-ity al the turquoise mines in weJ~em Sinai
from the reign of Akhenaten through the end ofthe Eighteenth
0)11asty suggesu a decline in the Eg)-ptian ability to conduct
distant upeditions during thiS period.
The Amamaleners mention groups of people called Apiru,
describing them as major troublemakers in the region under
Eg)-ptian dominotion. Kn0\\11also as Habiru, these people
:ore mentioned in various Near Eastern record. throughout
the second millennium BCE. They are generally described u
nomadic or semi·nomadic groups ofoulc.asu or outlaws tNt
were occasionally employed as meraonaries and that often
r:uded and otherwise disturbed the senled population. Egj-pllan
records of the New Kingdom indic::11c that these groups W<R!
active throughout the Levant during the Late Bronze Age,
often causing trouble for both the Canaanite c:ity st•tcs and the
561
Emtion forces stationed in the region. It isgenerallf O!(T•O<d
thot theApiruhad nocommonethnicatliliation but were
rather an inferiorsocialcloss living on the fringes of the seH!ed
society. Anumberofletterssent byc.tnaonite rulers toth,
Eg)l'tian cowt during the Amama Period include comp!Ji:::s
to the pharaoh obout attack$ by armed groups ofApiru thdl
were willing to join any side during IDC2l disputes in return fi>r
provisions and accommodations.
The resembl•nce between the tenn Apiru and the bil>li.:JI
term Ibri (Hebrew) bas generated scholarly d1scuuion reg•rJ&ng
a possible assoc:iotion between them. Mony h••-e argued thJt
since the Apiru are portrayed as a social group with no ethnic
otliliation, in contrasttothe Hebrews, who are described as
a clearly ethnic: group, association between the rwo ;, highl)·
unlikely. It hao, however, been suggested that a possible
correlation should noc be ruled out, as the term ma)· ha\'0
aC<jUired an ethnic meaning in tbeloter biblicolcext.
a.r...."""'
Gotm. f'"tn~blcm., and Na'~n JOO•i Monn 1991; ,_lonis .zous.
111-.JIOi N.t'aman 1986i Na'mun1992t Na·~m.an lOOOi \V~,n~('1n 1981,
•S-•7·
The Labayu Affair in the Am arna Letters
EranArie
Ofall the ciry •tates and rulers ofLate Bronze Age Canaan
mentioned in the Amamaletters, Shedlem and its ruler,
L.abayu, stand out prominently. Laba)\1 is one of the most
famous figurn in the archive; he may well also be the most
notorious. This dubious title appears to have been based on his
terrirarial aspi~tions, which came, natunlly. at his neighbors'
expense. It seems that his ombition and accomplishments
threa1en~ Egyptian interesu in Canaan, uhim;u~ly leading to
his tragic end. His remark in one of his letters (EA 154), "Who
am I that the king should lose his land on account of me~·
dearly indicate that he hod been a<eused by Egypt ofattempting
to incrt'aoe his territory. Such an accusation is unparalkled in
the entire archive..
From the Amama lenen it eml!rges 1hat ofthe
appro.,matdy 1S city states in southern Canun, only three had
extensi~ t~rrih1'1 : .... Thcothcrscontroll~d arras olhmned sizes
consisling oft.hr ..:1:-y '' ~ <"!(, \\h~re therulrr hJd his stat, and its
attricultural hi·u::1 l .1:~-J. Tht thr~e e.r.ceptionswerc.all siluarrd
inmountainou~ ro.:~ -~r:·.,.: Huor.v.-hichdominalrd thrGalil~
and pan ofthe Cr<): .,~.,. ~:-..e~~em, \\·bichconuolle:d theS-.lmarian
Hillo, ond J<ru ~Jh'm. " aich ruled the Jude an Hills. It thus
appears th~t in thr:- A1r...arn.J l'<:rioJ, Sbcchcm ruled thee:nliu~
area from the Jc ""d l'.llicpo Bethel and from the Jordan kh"r
to the Sh.uon pJ,.r.. T1~c P<JttOII:ll mhucnt in this vut ttgton,
combined With Lli'-..1\ U\ ambili~R 1 1Cd 10 lh~ d<!'•elopmtniS
described below.
It is ~3.soruNc U'l 3~~um~ th.n the cir,· states ofa:ntDI
Canaan we~ m\-ol\C'J to som~ d~.-:rec or anolher in tht
Laba)"U atf;Jif or "ere o~cti\~ in the politia13lliancrs that were
..ublished in thecontext of this alf•ir. The eoolition under
the k•dcrshirofSh«:hcm inclu.Jed the citiesofGeur. Gath-
c.trmel (Tell Jatt '"the Shnon Plain), Yokne'om, Shimon (Tel
Shimron tn the JeUttl \'allcv), Anaharath (Tel Rchesh in the
W..'Or Galilee), Pchel (!'ell• in Jordan, not far from Beth She•n),
and Ashtaroth (,O..J,tara in the lla>han), while thelugue chat
fought Shedlem consisted o(Jcrusalem, Mcgtddo, Rehov (in
the Beth Shean Valley), Akko, Achshaph (Td K1san in the AUo
Volley), and po.,ihly Hazor. In additton, it seems thot Yashdota's
<ity (apporently Taanach, south ofMcgiddo), ma."d over to
Shechem's side after Ya•hdata wa• deposed, and, similarly,
Gath (Tel Zafit 1n tbefude•n Lowlands), wh1ch initiallyorpol<d
Shechem, sh1fted s.ides in the woke ofdisputes with ns ntighbor
ferus.>lem.
The picture emerging from the lrntrs is f.ucinauna.
Lab•)" eommen<ed his cxpan>ionist program by opcraungon
all fronts, the diplomatic as ,...,u
••the mihtary. At the hc•ght
of the pro<ess the eoolition over which he P"''ided dominated
the area from the Gilead and sou them B•shan in the northeast
to the Coastol Plain and theJude•n Lowl•nd• in the southwest.
It also controlled S<gmenuofthe nujormadsconnecting
Mesopotom12IO E!nl"• separating the oppD5ing coalition
(Jerusalem in the oouth, Megiddo, Rehm-, AIW>, and Ach~•ph
in the north). Eg)l>t had reoson to fur that itl stronghold'" Beth
Shean was in danger ofbeingeut otl'from Jalfa and Gua, and
it i• therefore no surprise th•• it lent it~ support to the league of
Canaanite cities that fought L.aboyu.
Jt is ml~resting to examine tht means Labayu. u.sed 1n his
antmpts to ronquer thefezreel Valley. On the one hood, be
surroundtd the forces of Megtddo and R<hov, while entering
into trcaliet Wll.h Yokne'am, Shimon, and Anaharath, 2nd,
on the othor hand, he dtrectly attacked c:itics in the southern
and e.,tern parts of the valley in an anempt to extriate them
from the hands of Megiddo and Rehov. These moves dearly
olonned E~n-pt, which feared for its land. in the fertile Jeueel
Vall<y,the breadbosketofthe Eg)-ptian for<es. The Egj-ptians
"''ponded \\ith an un<quivoc:d demond to arrest laN)U and
hiJ cohortsOJid bring them befo"' the Egyptian king. Laba)\1
wos caught and handed O\'Or by the ruler ofMegiddo to the Nler
of Akko, whowouuppooed to OOR\'OY lumby ship to £g)l'L
Somehow, uba)U monaged to escape and beaded offin the
direction ofShechem, but he n....,r reached his dcstinotion; he
,..., murde!N by citizens ofGina fTeU Jenin)whileCT051ing
thesouthcmjezm:IValley. Hiseseapemaywell hn'O been
planned by the rulers ofMegidJo and Akko.lt is rcasonobleco
assume that cheirroneem that Lal>o)'U might be pardoned by
the Egyptian Icing led them co "relcase"lum, and he fled straight
into the arms ofhis assassins..
This complicated affair did nocend with thedeath of
L.aboyu. His dasappearanee from the poliuc•l aren• did noc alter
thes.icuation in Can••• forhis110-osons-oneofwhom ruled
Shechem and the other Pehol -conrinued their father's struggle
md e'\1:n met with 1 measure ofsucttss. \Ve do not know bow
the Ell)-ptians ulumatdy managed to suppress the coalition
under the leadership ofShechem. At some point l.al>o)-u's son•
d..appeor from the archi''<• and their allies in Gezer and Gath
ore defeated ond deposed.
ll<f<~
finkd.Metlund. Na'am&nl00$;Coren. Finkcls.tttA, .and N1'mun lOO.Jt
z6:·6J; Momt 1991. JOJ-L

(11) SphlnxofThutmoMlll
t;. " K>nr :l<lm. 18th [)yna>ly q 5th century
9CE) I Oudf!I1te 1L 34 6 em w 11.-t em
H. 23.3 em I The MctroPQI•tan ~.'.Jseumof
Art N••,vori<,R.,...sFund l 1110808 202.8
In Egypcjan an, the amage of the sphm.x,
a mythia.l bemg Wlth the body ofa hon
and;~ human heo~d, tn·uconvenuon:all)
used to represenuhe pharaoh The most
famous eumple is the great sphiru
as.sociated "'ith the l')nm&d of Kma
Chephren 01 Ciu
The rebu•-.ly small sphinx sho\Oo,
hen: rq>rnc:niJ Thutmose Ill He .,ears
the nnn<r headdress usually os.soci.ced
\Ooith !"O)">lsphmxes, with the ur.teus - the
n:aring coin n:p~nting the king's
di\1M po¥.·trs .. ::It hi.s brow. The Sl:ti UC
exhibiu workmanshrp ofthe highest
qu11ity, induding • remarkably hne
sat
surface finish, 1nd•c::aung that the sutuc
"'"'produced on the !"O)'ill workshop
durong the king's rergn. The front paws
of the sphinx ~nd its nose \\l!rc broken m
antiquil)•, proboblr deliberatel)•
The front of the body is inscribed
Wlth the throne name of the kmg
cncl~ in a unouchc, with the tide
"PerfettCod"aboveand theeptthct
• &10\·ed of(the Cod) Amun• below
The name of the god Amun w.u almost
ro":pletely obliterated, undoubted!)·
durong the Amol111a Period, \Oohen
it was S)'Stcmaucall)' crucd from
monuments throughout Egypt. Some of
the monuments dest!"O)-.d dunng the
Amama Period were rescored after lhc
dc:ath ofAlc.hcn:ucn, but lhu )phanx w.n
appJ.rcndynor one of them.The context
'"\Oohteh the sphtnx origmally stood is
unknown, but constdering the muulauon
(17) Bust ofT' •trr.oso Ill
:an Jnah, 1.&1 r\J) ;J llCd en "1tll.a i'Jnd.
Onl\ th<l~ff'lrlofthe ue\m..:nt.:J
t...d. ptll•rh.n<Ut\ It ""''"rom
(~)f\Uin... tbt: tdcanJ crcruni! \\'t'>nl-.vl the
~•ng' llonn tumt ""II""" ""'""t !lull •
'•n..:e ~ q"Slh\"1.'-tr.:mJ tbD'"t"'"''' the
,t.JnJJ.rJ OJ~11U'Ig(-.flhc- Jk-N' fUnk'"\~
•ln!O'>t •lithe '"" ~""rJunc>h" 11
<•noo< \Cf\C MiJcnl:l\ the lJn):J'Oflr>).,.j
hcn.... Tlk-,nlcotthest.nuc.~l\\C'\-eJ,
4h'f'IJ\...,Ihf: J.N..ol'ktru!' \.'b.Jr.k.,COSlk.~of
f"""tt';lll\ol Thutm.>< lll•nJ tn.lt<.ltCS
of ns body Jnd the c:usmg 0 1 the n;am~ cle.trllthot the""" n.'fi\"'<Cni' htm. The
nu,e,tK, ,ciiJll(":f""-•UI,lhutrl'lO'kiC
of Amun, IllS hkel\ th.u 11 hJd ~en on
pubhc di>pla) tn the temple complc\ ot \" lc c\cmrhlicd l"\ th1c; busc alw hod~
(,.' \ri'\',~OiliOJ"'nr.uLc;utlhutn'kXC Ill's
Amun at 1\J.mak.
DBT ""O·n.t:.ent. QJ.u.~n
. IIJt,hc~n ..mJ thctr
tmrm.•,.hJtc: rrt"'c«,'IOfS ;mJ \1.1\.'Ctsc;ors..
Rcfc:rtnct\ , The <p<et•l qu.dlltc:\ of the ThutiTIO>tJe
lf~)'r" 19S9.1U,hg 61, 54!apcl19ql.4.& 4 ~. <l)ic mJJc 11 popul.lr\Ootth btcr ~·•
no. Is.
"ell Thcpromonenccofthemonumentsof
Thutmo>< Ill, ~11 m the bri:c temple
rompI~ of the god Amun ot Kom•l.. m>\
ho\0 also msptred IJt.:r lungs to emul.ue the
SI)Jcol htHIJtll<'l•nJdepiCt ti>errueh-..tn
hi.Sim.lg.:"-
MOO! lhan t6o ~1-aruc:s or tr.~grnenu
of MJNC1 oflhutm()\C Ill hJ\'1: come down
to U> from htSionJreign. anJ ltlc other
Eml".. n 1"0)~1 st•tu<'<o the 1:1"" moroni)'
ofthem ong~tulll stood tn temples It
t> JilftcUit todctemune the pose oft he
romploe 101'31 stotuc to"hich thiS bu;t,
u
"luch on11 a fr:tgment, belonJ:ed.
110\'•"'<r, ba,.,d on the slt¢ttl) fon.-.rJ
r<Nttonolthearm<, 11 ho•bcen>tt£1:«1ed
thot the \1.3tuc deptetN the lutg stondtng tn
odOr:tttOn hefon: the ~od tn \\ho<e temple
the \l:ltUCYtUdcdJc,Ucd
The rombtnouonot )'OUthtw ph\"<ICII
le.Jtun:s Yt1th 2 found~ uruhng mouth
n:motned the rde11 repn:"'nmJOn ot
Thutmo.e Ill thmugltout ht< long r<tgJI
S.mctltc:l<',dC\clormcnt ""hon hu
<tJIU.ll) ho\ be.:n ot...ned Thi> bu<t ho>
l><"<nJatedon snit<lK ground tosom<Ume
bemeen the IUn!:'• I>\en<) ·«<and and
t<JI"I)~onJ rq!Nil'<'>n..lt therefon:
'"""'l"'"'h to the pcrioJ ol the kong'
tnJepenJcnt r<tgn follo...ang the Jcoth 01
u.t>hep<ut. Junng -.iueh the ~.mg kJ the
'lCI<>nOUS r:tmp3Jgn5 WI estaNI!hal the
EJ:IT'IIJn Emptr< tn the ~'ilnt
DBT
Rttn~n..l"
l..lboul")t99..... ~. l..lbout) :Q09.
Mu.~"nu.nn .1:001, ~•rtl199:. no. Lt
[ 18) Statue of Akhonaton
~· ,r .. ~ .,;J 1 •hO, trtt.:.thctntuf)
~E:.._ 'f-.; WA t(Ja"'I h I)J Qctn."o 17 2CI"'\
0 JScm l \'o~s~JuV'u.r• P3ttSIN8J'
This stJIUe \\JSonguull) pan of• seoted
patrdepo.1111g the lang and htSquetn, but
all wt lw sunl\c.l ofthe queen's ronr:ttt
tS her leO ornt, "tuch tS "TJI'f'Od around
the l.tng"s \Oo">JSt The lun1 tS seatc.l on •
cusiuoned throne, 31\T"' orreanng tn
Amoun> ;an tn reh<f> depicbng th<I'0\">1
couple. lte holds the 101•1 uuignu- the
fl•tlond the crool<- tn htS nght lunJ and
Ius lctl hond rt'Sil on Ius thr¢1. On Ius
hood he"""' the nmtt1 he:tddress mth a
uraeus at the front, and on hts 10\\-.r bod1·
a short plnted kilt \\llh an atudted hull's
"'~-.standard 101..1tnsij;lua -tlt31 dongles
bcn\een hts I~ It hos been suggested wt
the rompltte st•tue repn:sented the kong
ondqueenascultreetJ'Ients.prob3bll tn •
tempi<.
Alt~ the stotuedoes not bcoran
uucnption, ttsst)lt>W."det:tils. such as the
hulg>ng bcllv and""""'" f•oal featureS,
orgu< for atittetn the Late Amamo ~
The lung h» been iJenuried as Alhenotcn,
but in'""' ofthe rtfined ond """"'IIC2ted
Late Am3r3 Penod SI}Y, the posstbtlil}· Wt
the SUtue depiCtS On< of the trnmedute
su«eS>>n ofAIJtenoten >hould noc be
ruled ow. Th.u satd, the fXI Wt the SUtue
""'ong>n>lh pan ofa worltderi<tmg•
101o;ol couple orgucs m f.-or ofAIJtenatcn,
"ho was often ponr:t\-.d en~ging m cuiII<."
actt\11) together "'th Ius queen m Amam3
•n
"The onguul C'OI\lt\1 ofthe: SIJtUC lS
unknO\m It was Iilli pun:lu;ed tn Eg)l"
on bch11fofHcnl) 5.llt, the Bnush consul
mCmo an the art)' runct«nth century,
long bcfon: thedt><0\'<1) and t.\c:l\"3tion
ot Tcllei·ArtwTU. ThtS~ts that Tdl
ei·Am31lU ...,. not the mtue's onguul
ron text. It IS"""" lil.cly thlt tt ong>noted
in the tq;JOO ofThebcsor \lemphts. "her<
111051 ofthe ob,.ru tn the s,Jt Collo:tton
were ocqwred.
DBT
Rt_(('~
.Wred t9' J. 4&. till- :9; S..boltn :oo;, no. :6.
Frt'C'J, ~br~itz.anJ O'Auru.al~ l9Q9, :JO.
no Ss;Uill:Ol!.

[ltJCyiJM.- I nAicbdiMin
- " " " " ecrlpt
~lhShean l l.aieBronzo t.ae A
l14ihcen!ury BCEl iCiayl H· 2 4cm
lof '""'' pt.on·• cmiiAA 11997·3310
Of!he VUI corretpOnCience rebling 10
the Laboyu &Ifair, a leuer •muen on a
lUI)' c:by <ylindn, which was dJscmered
by chance in 1993 in thec:owu ofihe
mnovaJ ofdebris from ihe fOOl ofTel
Beth Shean, 11 ofspecial note. II is one
ofonly IWO doc:uments belonging 10
thc Amama archi,.., ihai ha•·e come 10
liaht an lsrul (thc second was found ••
TeDei·Hes~ in the Judean Lowlands a
cenllii'Y earJO,r, in •89>). The holc:s on
1M qiinder's ends indU:a1e !hat u may
lwle be...n worn lik<! a pendant around •
tne~Kt~F''sneck. Thebnefinscription
it bears reads, "To Labayu Ill)' lord speak:
Mnsaac ofTap: to the tuna my lord 1
--·
1\a>-e listened carefully to )'OUr mw!Ve 10
well~
The names Labayu and Tap are
rrom the Amarna k nen. The
ldentilicalion ofl.abayu in thc cylinder
u the rulerofShechem io uncontested;
Tap, however, could eiiher be the
ruler ofGadt-Cannel, Laboyu'sally,
or a hogh·ranking ofliaal al Shechem,
who happe.ned 10 ha\0 the ~me name
as Gaih·C.nnel's ruler h should be
mentioned thJt a mmeralog.c:al an~\"SIS
ofiheqionder's day showed that ihc
obJ<CI was produced m ihe >1cinlt)' of
preseni·dl)' Nablus (Shechem) and
nol, as we would hne expected, nu..r
Gaih.Carmcl'" the Sharon Plaon, oflhe
Tag~ menuoned in the letter\\<:IS indeed
iha1 aty's ruler. In view of the dofficuli)'
on idenu fymg !his figure, ihe following
ahemauves have been proposed:
1 . The lenerw.u written to Labayu,
rulerofShechcm, byT:ogi, ruler of
Galh·Carmel T•gi quotes a leuer he had
\\Tilten to the Egyptian long. The teu
of that letter u not enurcly prcsen:cd,
but it begons wiih ihe statemenl ih21
he Cl'agi) had r<ctl\..,d a mess.\ge from
ihe Egyptian bng. The quemon of why
thc rulerofGalh·C.rmel would ha,..,
..Ued hos ally labayu "m)•lord .. may be
explained by ihe lancr'• status as leader
ofthc coaliuon. lflhis interpretaoion of
thc kner is correct, i1 would omply ih01
the Canaanite rulers communic;ucd \\1Ch
one anc:Mher on an ongoang bui.s an order
to coordinate their posiuons \."'.N i •\.11 the
authontanan EI)1Jti.tn government.
1. The lener was wnnen 1 ,,'\I,
ruler ofShechem, b) one oflh<
hogh officools, • man by the nJr· fJgJ
T:ogi on forms his lord Labor u th.
hod rccel'-cd ihe me.sage thJi I " .. lion-hunc scuiJbs,.. one from Ueh1sh
had sen1 hom. Thos onlerprctlll•
e<ploin why the leu or""' foun.!
Belh Shean (as opposed 10 Shed-
or Gath·C.rmel) · for Togo <oul.l
been sta)ing !here " hen Loba\1J h d
sent his mtssive out from Shc~h~,.,
"x
Even !hough ihe AmamJ k ucr>
mentioning a figure nJmcd T .1)!1 ..urtr'cr
to Tago of Galh·Carmcl. sonce T•~• " J
common nil me m Anoent l"car I utcm
mscripuons, 111s not inconcel\ at-Ic 1hat
th11 q ·hnder refers 10 1nother C.JnJ~mte
personage b)•the nome ofla~t•· "lw""'
a hogh official m Shechcm under l.a~J)1J '<
command
\Vhale\er the case m.Jy he,ll
i1ppe.trs th.Jt 1h1s uny C)·hnder 1\ c\·1Jcncc
for the poliucal fem1en1surround ong 1he
Lobayu olfaor, whoch gencr:ned much
tunnoil in Canaan in the m1d·founecnth
<eniury UCE
EA
Rctcren~·
Goren, f'lnkcb.lcm, anJ Na'~nun :.oo~.1s9;
IIO~lUI996.
(20)"GIIukhopa scarab" of Amenhot op Ill
; ) .,
\', twcm ~i 2 7tf'"'
KongAmcnhoocr Ill, IJ ihcrof Akhenoocn.
1\ ,uc:J h\C ~ ne' of large ~.;u:ab) r.anglng
in length trom ~ . , , em .1nd bcanng lontt
10,~.:npuon) ol M 16linc:~ These SC<lr.tbs
are gener:all) ~ lied commcmor.atl\e
\Or.Jb"' ilS they des.cnbe e\c:nts ahat the
king \\oshcd oo commemorale publicalh
The:sc c\·cnls .tn: dilted b)· ahe ln.scriruons
on 1hc sa nbs bel\\CCn the klng'-s hrsl
;~nd ele\cnlh rC'gnal )'C'3B llowc\-cr, 11 l.i
uncle~r '"'·he1her 1hc s.c:ar.:abs \\'Crc :tctuall)·
ISSUed 1R group~,ac:cordmg IOC"\'COl - or
all ot once. lndocd,the unofonnot\' oflh<
group ha. been token by >Ome .chobn 10
meoan th:u these sar:abs \\t!~ produccd
I t the same ttme, tn ahe long'scleventh
regn.lll )"C:Jror b u:r.
Among 1he senes of
commemor:all\'c SCilr.lbS arc the
.. milrno~ge SCilr.Jbs," so c..Jlltd because
the) J"<SUmabl) commcmoraoethc
llntt'i mamJr.e IO ht> pnnc1pJIqueen,
To). These ..-onl>s bear the n>m« and
utles ort.hc ling ;and queen, the nilmcs
of her p•rcniS, and o desrnruon of the
borJ er< oflhc l.ong'ol>'l\e cmrue The
otherscncs are the "lton·hunt scJnbs..
Jnd ohe · ,.old bull-hun! scorat>s,"
,,h,ch extol the k.mg'scoungc.-ous
hunting 'prccs, "'lake sonbs," ''hlch
commcmor.a tc the conn rucuon :md
mJugur.auon of an ..Jrttha;all;~ke in
honor of Queen To). ond ohr "Golukhepo
scJrabs.• " hoch drsrnbe ohe am,ol of
r nnecss Golukher•· 1he dJughoerof
Tushraioll, Kon~ o ( Muonno, cscone<l b)
an entoun gc of P7 (cm.alc altrndanu...
\lore !han owo hund~<'d
commcmor.lU\"C Sf::lrJbs of Amt:nhotcp
Ill h..J\C comcdO\\-n to us; quanuun
l'ln~c from more lh..Jn IJO eJ.Jillf'kS
of the .. bon~ hunt )("Jr.tbs'" to a mere
foureumrlcsofthc "wild bull·hunl
bs." ltt.Sunl.nO\,, \\he~ mostot
sc.ar:a
lhe u .amrlcs ,.. ere found, .t~n (,om t c
fJ<I thai ih<l were rcporie<llydoscO\'Cred
m Eg)"J't. w1th a fe\..- eurnple.scomjng
from Nubaa and the l..t'\-ant. f1\e, 10 f~ct,
were exa ,oaled 1n southern ~nJan
1\\ 0 ""marriage sc.trabs,.. one from Beth
Shcmc5h :md 1he other from Cezeri two
the o1her from Jaffa: •nd one "Gilukhcpa
scar:tb," found m Beth Shean. All 1hc,.
umc 10 Iogluon an:hocologocalle\Ois
\\ hose: daung 1.5 e1therundcaror litter
than ihe rcogn of Amenhotcp Ill. The
dou cs :and circwnstancc.s ofthear am\'21
tn C3nJil11 a~ unkncno.-n.
The funcuon of the commcmor.:au\-e
scorabs ofAmcnhotcp Ilion Egypt ...
well as in Lhc l.n-""Jnt lS unttrtJm, ma1nl)
b«~ust theirarc:hacologal contc.xt.s are:
unknown .Some scholon suggffl they
were used as means of f'O\JI pror;~pnd:a.
.,lui< oihenconoider ihcm smoll prcsuge
oblccts dtsmbuicd 10 members of1he
c!Jtc, or amulets cndO\\cd \\1 th the
protect"" powers ofthe pharaoh
The "Gilukhcpo scor:tbs: of\\hoth
onl) su C\amples :u'l! known, btar ;&ten
hnc ~nscnpuon~
Lme o: oaoe (the 1cnth )·r arofthr
lang's n:1gn)
Lanes 1_4 The fi\'1! olficia.l names of
Amcnhotep IlL
Lines s-6: The title and name of the
pnno~l queen, Ti)". ;tnd the n;~mcs of
hcrr~nts..
Lanes7 _10 : Account ofthe arri\-al
ofGduiJoepo, doughocrofthc ruler of
Mit.lnni. and hc.r J;a.l\.~ femil.lc entoun.ge.
The rc1gn of Amcnhocc:p Ill ":115
a period oft,tR;U C('OI10mic rrwpcnt)
and subilit) (sec p ss). dun ng " hoch
Egypl enjo)-ed peaceful relauont " " h
h the northern kingdom of ~hi.Jnm. h I(
lhercforc nol surpnsmg that during this
eaypttonemp•r• l es
period, a polihCai~~~UNF was arnngcd
~1M kina and a daughter of 1M
Mowuu ndcr. The "Gijulchepo scarab"
from Beth Shnn was disco\'Ofed in
alnd dated 101M early ,....,nM!h
Dynasty. Whether it ..... sent to""'
aovemorofBeth~:m or broiJaht
thne by an E8YJ>tW1 olliaalremains
1IIII'<SOI\-ed.
DBT
[21) .... -..tlle_of~
Tell ei·Aijull New K•f18dom, 18th Dynast~
ll 4thcentu~BCEIIGoldtBezetl 2cm,
w·u cmliAAit933· 1708
'Ibis &Old ring bean the throne name
ofTutankhamun, whose spectacu~u
tomb iD w Volley ofw Kinp was
dasco.oered by Howanl Caner in l!IU.
'l'lllanldwnun was raised in Akhenatcn 's
coun at Amama, but his r<'IJI saw the
revmaJ ofAkbenatcn's r<YOiu&ioowy
-. iacladina w mumofw coun 10
11lcbea and w tatora1ion ofw cult or
•I
the god Amun Inscriptions m th< tomb
ofTutankhamun's commnndcr-in·chu~f,
Horemh•b (who would btromc the last
phorooh oftht Eoghtttnth Dp>Jsty),
ougest thot Tutankhamun moy ha\"<' led
military ompoigns to Canun, but thor<
is no condu.si\e evidence for thts.
lltavy surrup rings, cast m solid
gold, sih-er, clec:uum, or bronu, first
•PI"'•rtd in Egypt in the Eighteenth
1>}11Uty. Theor populonty ptaktd on
the lat< Eoght<<nth Dynuty, duri ng the
reigns of Amtnhotcp Ill :md Akhenotcn,
when they.,..,,.. oca<Jonolly also used
u ..,als. In addiuon, &lnoc dunng the
Amama Penod royal-name scar:sbs were
no longer being produced (probably
bttaust the sc:arob rcp.....,nted the god
Khcpri, who had bttn banned along
with the other mdotional gods), such
rings bttame the most common typt of
roy.a.l-name amulet, rem.ttning 1n use
throughout the reign of Tuunkhomun.
The nng wu found at Tell ci-Aitul
on a large, elaborott tomb with muluplc
burials and thrte archacologocallevtls,
anes:ting to iu .succcssi\-e use 0\"tr a
p<nod ofume. lt yicldt d • wtolth of
remains,oncluding a mixed as..,mblage
of lotol and imported objec1s dating from
the fourtttnth to thin ttnth contury BCE,
typool of Canumt< tombs oftlus p<nod.
Since it was the most imposing tomb 1n
1M <<metcry, the excavators believed tt
to bt the tomb of the Egyptoan governor
at the lite.
This ring is 1M only uem from
southern Canaan bearing the name
ofTutankhamun. Based on the onotial
identiliotion of the tomb as the
bunal place of 1M El)'ptlan gD\'emor,
the possibility that 1M nng was the
go•"<'mor's p<rsonolstol was ron !<red
However, the Canaamtc char.~etcr• uc~
of the tomb argue against such on
idenufication. Moreover, the rin~
cannot be assoaaaed wuhan)· "n. lc
bun;ll \\-ithm the tomb; u as thu' ur •ar
whether 11 arrived in Col noun dunn he
reign ofTutankhomun or l3ter. \ '•l1 at-Ic
obtects were regulorl) reused both an
Eg}-pt and on ohe 1.<:•-.nt, and thu' ol.c
possabihty that the rong " "' dcp<N teJ an
ahe lomb as lote J S the thorteenth ccntul')·
BCE should not bt ruled out
DBT
Rcrcrencrs;
~cell997ol9 2-9J. no. ~sS; Pctnc 1911. <. rl'
7•8
The Streng n ng of Egypt1an Control over
Canaan
The Amom• I. u r hcJ hghl on the tlc"bolity of the
Egyptr:m amr- IiiI'\ t man C.1nun dunng chc lime o( the
Eighteenlh ll\ nasn: v.hl·n. O\\lnp: to the hmncd EG)pti.Jn
presence m ch...• rt{;.tOn, mihtJr)' troops and offictals
hequentl) haJ co~~ h11tcJ ~ 1\\ ccn 1roublc arc.u, where
the) rem ;am< J [i r .., lon~t .1~ thc1r \Cn aces wen~ rcquarcd.
Tht\ \UU.ttl''" changed m the c.t rl) Nmctccnlh D) n.ut),
when J"''hlh.~.ll dcHI rmcnl\ nc..:cVoll.liCd the rcant'orccmcnt
of 1hc EgyruJn nuhtJf) J nd admmast~ti\C: rrescnce an the
regton.
The tt.c~:-ann1ng ot the Nme1eenth Drnut) ~w
mcrC.J\In(! .Jih.·mrh ~\ the IIIIUICS tOtJkc: 0\·cr puiSofS) n:a
th.u ''ere und.:r li!) ru~n control It alw s;~w the conunu:auon
of dnpule~ •mong the local rulcn ofCJnJ:annc CU) st;~.tes
and dtstur~J~n~o: e' t'l) non-urbJn group>, such u 01bou~~:·
menuoncJ Aparu <•ec r 16) ond ahe Sh><u · r•storal nom>ds
of Sc:muic ong1n "ho, hl-.c: the Arnru. " ere J thteOltlo the
\cttlcd J")pul>taon 1nd the fg) ptaon forces an ConJon. The
1mpcn01lmfr,l\tructure oft he l:.ightccnth D) n.ut)', wh1ch
h•d bten a~lc oo e'plon the <II) stJtes eronomacoll) and
roluic~ll)' \\llh J nunam:JI EJ)pUOln prcticncc, WJS no longer
\ufficicnt To reg;ain control ofthc1r nonhem terntories.
the Nanetecnth·D)·nouty k•ngs Scul, Ramc:sse.s II, :and
\1emcpt3h conducted milit:H)" c.1n1p.1igns in CJn:a:an, "hich
arc recorded on \ictor)" stein Jnd rclu:fs in C:an;u.n :and tn
Eg) pt (see nos. :: :J). ofsptcaolantcrcst as • •ictor) stela
dedoc>~cd by Mernepo•h to the temple of Amun at Kornok,
which IS the e:athest record of che n:amc .. lsr.~cl" -ldcntaficd
as an ethnic group 1n souchcrn Cannn (seer j6). The
Nineoeeth Dynast) ph:u-aohJ olso considtrably anercoJed ohc
number of miln;~ry and 01dm10i~tnttiVC pcrsonnclstJuoncd
an the regaon ond founded new Eg)'ptl2n strongholds 01
such silcs u Tell d-Farah (South}, Tellel-tlesi, Deorel·
B;~bh, Tc:l Sent, Tc:l Mor, Aphek, Atihlielon, and Cezer. Thc
Strong Egyptian control oft:anun conttnued throughout
the Nmcteenth Dyn;tSt) and C\Cn mcrns~d an some .un.s
10 the early Twentieth D) nJSt), probabl) unullhc rcdgn of
Ramcu es VI, chc IJSI R:amcssldc ph;~~oh auesred 10 ~n:~an
hce no. s7l-
The archaeologacal rcmoaMofthe Eg)-ption strongholds
1n Cana:an daung to the Nmcteenth :and e01rl)•T\\cnticth
O)·nastaes 10clude dtsuncth·e Eg} pU3n and Eg)'Ptian~
St)·lc archttccturc. inscnptions, ccnmu:, stone, and
r~tcncc \'CSJels, ,ewell')•, amulets, and scarabs. Eg\ pli<ln
admtntstnii\C pr;~ct1ccs are :also e\idenccd, :as well as
Eg) ru;~n·stl le funcr:ary ru.stoms. Further tesumon\ to the
E~aruan presence 10 ~naan during thlS pcnod IS a relief
of Sen l3t K;m:aL. whtch records the names u " ·ell :as
allustraooons often lorulied sarongholds along the Wo)'S of
Horus, the mthtar) route in northern Stn:ulr:adang lrom the
C;t\tem Dehllo )OUihwcstern Cana;~n. The fonificauon of
thas route was intensified in the c:arly Nmetcenth Dptast),
Jnd the :arch;u:ologic:al e\idencc sho\\S conttnuous u.sc of
the strongholds 1n nonhcm Sinai throughout the l'inctecnth
o:~~nd uri)•T\\cnucth O)'T1:l.Stics Morc()\.'cr, studacs of cenmtc
:~ssemblagcs :u Mempht.s 1n El)'pt hnc sho\\-n 3 dr.tm.lliC
1ncreuc 10 the number of Canaanite JUS in deposit.s dotted to
the rctgn of Ramcuc..s II, suppontng a ptcnm: of ancreuing
Eg\ puotn 1n•ooh·cmcnt in CJna;~n dunng this pcnod. Thc
Nanccccnth D\n3.sty :~lso uw :1 s1gnilicosnt mcrcue in the:
numbe1 of tmported scar.abs in southcrn Can:aan, cspcct:all)
dunng the reagn of Romesses II \lon)· of these scarabs
dospl•> royal and dl\ one names and ,·or imoges (lig< 15·16),
ond the qu•ht)' ofthear workmonshap suggests th•t the)
"ere produced in fO)'.ll :and temple \~o:orkshops m Egypt and,
probabl)·· am ported b)' Eg}-pt12ns stationed in Co noon. It hos
also been norcd th011 the number of R:amcs.side CO)'Jl and
pn\·JtC 1nscnp11ons 1n southern ~nil.JR is unp.~rallcled 1n :an)
other period.
It is gl!ncr.tlh• Jgrccd that the EgypuaniJ:auon of
the matcrial Cllhurc ofCanun dunng thc Ramesstdc
Per~od (t.metcenth and T"·cnticth Drn:asnes} reflects the
strcngthcning of the Eg)l)ti;an hold o\·er the region HO\\e\-er,
11 has also bccn suggested that the stru:ation ancstcd 1n the
:arch:~col()£ic:ill record prim:ani)' reflects thc emulauon of
Egypuotn culture b) the loc31elite u a means off:1tning
prcsuge and :auchont)·. Such cmul:uion undoubted I.)· .
e'utcd '" CJnnn dunng the New Kmgdom, cspec1JII)· tn
the R:amessidc Period. Th1.s is mdic;sted b)• the locotl usc of
Eg)·pti:~n sacabs, nmulets, stone vct.sels. jc\\eh)', o1nd ot~rr
prcsuge uems 1 which do not ncccs.u.nly retlec:t an Etn pu;~n

pr6C'n« and mo"' likel)• show the local adoption ofEgypti3n
customs. Newrthdess, considenng the archocologtcol and
textual evidence an Canaan, northern Sinai, ilnd Etp'Pt, elne
emulation ts not likely to ha\'e been the pnnut) fJctor for
the increasing El)-ptian influence in C.n»n tn the Ramcsstde
Penod.
Rd'...-
H~zooo, lloll"macrandMaoluer:atJ, Hoefmcocrand
Abel ci·MU>oud ZOOJ. Mams!OOj,)4J-~G.I· 691-7<0; Ol'<n !oo6,
Sincer 19&1; Wcinttt&n 191•, •7-!li "tun:o •986.
Egyptian Strongholds in Canaan
EJYpoan military and admutistt2ti\'e strongholds in Canaon
from the time of the Nirteteenth and early Twentieth Oyna$ues
haw been cbscoveted at sites along the mom mthtary and tr.zde
I'OUleS and II pbces "itete tcnSIOM v.e"' liable to erupc Octr
eJ.Jialah, AJhkelon, Ashdod, Tel Mor, Gezer, Aphek, Jaffa,
TeU ei·Farah (South), Tel Sen, Tel Masos, Tellei·Hesi, and
Beth Shean. It has been noted that like the border fons along
the Wa)'S of Horus in northern Stna•, these Egyptian bases
were siDZaled about a day's journey apart. Thetr archuectur.d
IUUCtUtn included foruesscs. admirusmti'"' buildings, and
Egyptian-.tyle "'sxlences ruembling New Kingdom domesuc
ardtitectu"' in EJIYPC. The Iauer, which are gener.tll~ identified
utheseatsofEJYpoanolliaals, have been termed "GO\'emor's
Residences." The Egyptian bases .,,.,.. usually built ..i thin
emung senlements, and JOme we"' JUSI small garnJOns. ln
contnsz to the fontfied border towns of non hem Stnot, the
Egyptian bases in C.n»n we"' uwally not walled, probably
beeause the tqion was JO ughtly eonuolled by Egypt The
IF.. 151 ScMab from T.U oi·Ajjul oltowtn& RamM... II tn hlo char10t
tnmplln&an anemy.IAA. 32· 3031
ee l
Egypuan tc:xts of the penod mdicac. that Gua sef\·ed " f"'l t'•
pnmary base in Can3.Jn :u th:et time, but the prectse locau{ f
this bJse has not )et been located due to modem habll3uon
The Egyptian Stronghold siR C.naan ofthiS ume hJ\<
) telded E~·pttan·Sl) le archuecturJielements, such as door
j:smbs, hotels, columns, and c;apu~ls, 3S well as official
hieroglyphic mscripuons, pnvate stel•e deptcung Egypuan•
\\ormtpmg C.naonne or Egypuon de111es, E~l'uan·<t) le
onthropotd collins, and Egypuan and E~ptian·style bunal ~111 ,
amulets, tcwclry, ;and scone \'c:sscls. Ostraca mscnbt-d tn hu:ro~t ,
ond which record produce t3Xes hove been found Jl Tel S.:r>,
uchish, Telllaror, Octr ei·BoiJh, ond Tell el-FJrah (South!,
clearly reftectmg E~l'ti•n odmtnii trati.e practKO\. ~hxeJ
assemblages ofEgypu3n and Can330ite pone') h;a\.; .1l\O com("
10 light. The large quantiues ofE8)1'tl3n·<t)k dome<tic pone!')
unearthed 31 all the Eg)l'llon bases of this penoJ on c<t clearl1
to the presence ofE8)'J'tiansatthese locauons (we pp. 69 -•J
The fact thot C.naJnlle pottery \\OS alJO dt..:O\·ereJ >UI!J><SI'
that either both Eg)l'tian ond C.noanite \ essels \'iere U\Cd b)
the Eg)l'tions, or that • mtxed populouon of E~l'tians and
Canaamu:s mhabhed theR sues. Cons1denng the enure s<opc
ofthe archoeologicol "'idenee from the Ell)ol'tiJn \lronghold> m
C.nu n, II may be concluded that Eg)"PUaM formed thellrcoatrr
pan of the popu13uon ot these bases, butthe"'"'" al\0 a local
component, most probably m Eg)•pt13n empiO)'.
Rc(rrentts..
Dottun 1987: Goldwu \orr 19&-l• Gold~~r ~ Wtm~r 19Y9, P.rnt:1o
and \lcCorm 199~ ~lilur 2011, Morm zoo.s.so4~1 1 , 740~""81, Of(n
1976, Orc:n 19K-4
(F•&- 16) Scareb from Ttll t i·Ferah (South) ahowm& Ramtstea ll ln
adoretJon before t h11un god Ra IAA 1- 10373
Egyptian-Type P o ttery I ManoA. s Manm
' r tNunomes to the Eg)l'lun ' etA
One of the I~' '•
Bronte A~e C.n.,n,. J'Oll<l) ot Egypuan
Ktn~dom pnz-.. c I
ltl(Wtlu\poltel\ pro\1JnU, \\lth much
l)-pe Oc'f"l<ll .i;
ins.ighcfut d.lt:a. f, t n.:~.:, ""'the nJt~ofEit)l'ltln tmvl\cmt"nt
tn the region onJ on the fl<''"' chronol<~g~ ofcon;un Jn:h>c:ologt<:tl
eonte\1< Thqxlll<f\ I><J I\kkdtnto two grour< tmpcrt•-.1
Egyptl3n ,.,.,.,,ODJ' .,n, tn f-~o'll'luntonnth.u """ rrodu<ed tn
C:an.un. TheUc1cr&i: ti'N thc:\J" m:a,OC"U}'OfiMcnmtC'Ofl"US
•nd anz !l"n<rJII) referred to J' lpruan ''II< J'Oll<l)
E~-rtun unrt ru ..~ fTh.l'C ~o.'tlmnwn m contc\ tsofdtt
R.t~e r.n..J 1' IIICttenth .1nd T\\Cnllcth 0)1\>slle<), "h<n
thn mouth uke the tonn ot crc.m -'•ppo.-.i•nd t>unmh<d "'ret
(EgypttJn ·~IJrlll" or • ""'J d.l) i . I..11J:Crlr3nsrort coot.lln<r$
lrC ntO'\t promtncnt,lhc'lr rrcf"'ndcrJnC'C Jt co.tSt2J )1\C) S~CStS
du t l'g)"J'liJn ('(1fllm<"JIIM!' ... \\hk:h \\Crt \hlf't'd 10 !tUdt \(\.~.ciS. \\Crt
l">rou!tht m 1>\ <hlp to l><tnJeJ on the C..nunu< matl.ct•nd to
suppl) Ei:~l"••n ~..., tnlonJ. ~nullet\nl<l;, such'" >mJII-hJndled
cur> thJt nu(tht hJ\c <"OOIJtned hon<v. hm: •lsorom< to hght
l ll' ru.>n·'" lc p<~lel) mdudcs mJtnly '''" "'· ntm·prodU<eJ
household "J"''- Amon~ th<m. <tmplc "'"'"8
OO..Is rorutuut< th<
0\c,..h<lm'"g pen-ental". "htlc cl.xed tonns, m.11nl) handleless
prs, ue r.a.rer The m...~t chuJctenstK'dos.N form lS the '"bceq:ar,..
exhJb111n~ 3 tbt-houomcJ shJpc ,,;th 01n ung,:atnl) 3pfi'CJr.IIK"C.
md udtng • heJ\11)' nbb<d bod) anJ hn~cr tmpnnts around th<
bJ.. that the poll<r dtd not both< no oblucratt . B«q.tn onen had
perforated ba..s, •rgu>bl)· piJ\lng • role tn the beer product"'"
P"""'"· Notcwonh)'t> the \lrtU31JbsenccofEg\l'llan·l)-pecoolang
,..,..,ts (sec belo">·
Ell)l"••n->1)1< aSS<:mbl•gcsofeonstder.tbk <tze and
$hope ,-,nel)' ha\c onl) been rctr>O\..d from Sites thJI ha\e hccn
tnterpreted as Eg)-ptl3n ••ronghold< .1nd acbnmiSltatl\ecc:ntcn.
v. here :l s trong EI)T'tiJn mRucnct as f"CC"()gTliLlblc mother clcmenc.s
3 S \I. ell, such ilS :arthttectu~ These sues ntaml)' include Btth ShcJ.n,
Teii.-·S.' idi)"h (Jonbn), Aph<k, J•tf•, Tel Mor. Ashl.<lon, Tell .
ei·Airul. D<trei·B.llzh, Tel Sero, and Tell eHaroh ISouth). Eg\"pttJn-
styte: pc>Uti)'IS most rronuncnt :It Beth SMJn U'l thr north :uld ~t
Dctrci-Babh 10 the south, "here it a«<untsformore thln hJ.Ifof
10
the locol ccromte assemblage tn cc:r1.11n pcnods (fig 17l· Up •
thtrd of the"" l)-p<Swere n:conlcd 31 Aphek, Tel Mor, Ashkelon. and
Tel Sera.
The tempor.tl dtunbution ofthe Egyption·Sl)ic: ccr.zmtc
c:ollecuons reft«ts the m••n ht"onal st•SC'of E8)1"••n
10\"0I\emcnt tn Dtnun. V1rtlWI)' :Ibscnt until the umc ofThutm~
Ill (found<rofthe Ell)"pttan Emptrcm \\eStemAm),dunng the
Etghtcc:nth Oj"IUSl)· (ute Bronze Agel· IIA),suchc:ollectioru
•ppnr onl) m • small number of>11«. tn 'mallqu;>nllll<i. and in •
hmucd "•net)· nus corrobor.ucs the nouon tlut lMre w1s no b rge-
scale, permonentph)>ICJI Eg)"ptl.ln pn:sencc mC.nun dunng
thtSnrly penod 1\uh the bcginnmgofthc Nmeteenth Oj"IUSl)
(l..lte Bronze Age UBI. • marked dl.lnge()CCIIIl'Cd; the wcmbUgcs
uenO'\\ much IJrgcr .1nJ ~~:u mon: tltes-onen fonn1ng
~1gn1fiC.1nt sh;an:s ofthe loal cer.tm1c :usembbgc-:anJ 111 a much
gre:atcr rcpcno1rt: than be(~ Tlus 1ncre:a.sc mtnon the more
awcw'e Asutic relic) ofth< Eg~-pwnsot thtSume; u confirms
a sccn•oo accordmg 10 \\htdt tncornparably larger Eg>l"l.ln
COOIIflbCOlSOf mllllJ.I) 11nd admUUS1r.ltJ\'C personnel \\C~ SA:n t tO
~nun dun before and on3 more pennJncnt b351s.
The mass·productton ofEg~-pwn·Sl) I<\'CSS<ls in C.naon
ronunues \\cU tnto the T\\enucth D-,mSl) (Iron Age lA), n:m.llRIRg
undtnun..hed or n"n htgh<r than be for< Ag,zm, thts goes hand
m hand ""h the h11toncol ptctUr<: " htle the Eg~-pturu seem to
ha\C lost PJ" ofth<trC.na•rut< poss<S$10RS to the tn\acbn~Se•
Peoples, the adnunt<traoon tn the n:m;urung regions m )ed m!Xl,
onJ Eg~"ptlan garruon penonnel connnued to be stationed m the
count') II ..ems that Jtle•st dunng the n:tgn oflbmc<<eslll the
Ego,-ruJ.n gnr - whcrr,-cr tnJtntnned "-.uC'\~n nghtcr lh3n befo re
(IOr~nmpl~, therr 1.s C'ldcno! fortn:ation). Howc---er,cotnciding
"'th the end ofEil)-pti>n ~monl'"'"' CJn;unsorncttm< in
th< second half orthe t\\Cifth a:ncun neE<~•.lbmeSSCS vn. the
C't'f3mic e"\ adCOO! ch:a.n~'C'S dcctSI\d~, \\i th the rrOOuetton Of loc.:all)'"
m.>de Ell)-pt~>n household l)"pe>CC:aStng abrupd)' otJII thc sll<i.
The combmed n-.Jencc su·on&() ~that the Eil)]'li.tn-
st)l< pouer), appe•nng nuss·produ<ed and in , cons>derabk
\ JnCI) ofl\-p<S. as Jll<Sicd in the Romesside r.riod. 15 • ,-,ltd
cthnicmorkcr, rotnllng 10 a ph)>tt:ll Egyptun presence: of
aJ nunislnm-e ;and m1h1;1') pcrson~l :11 the :abo\"C'-mcnuoncd sues
'" C.nJ.tiL It <:In be o.u cncd that not onl1· the UO<r> butJI>O the
creatorsof tlus pottel)' ""'" Eg\-pt••ru. brought mto the counlr)
b)•th< Eg>J'II.lll•dmtntslr.ttton:otth<\"<1) leut, the)"\\CrtiO<-als
tf3ancd b)• Egypt1an potccrs Qlnd thus int•matelv flmatiu \\lth
Egyruan modCJ of potter)' production. ThiS is supported b)•th<
fJct that the lo<:ill)•produced Ell)1"13n household l)-p<Stmtl31e
E&yptlln Emp~tel19
!heir !';de \';1}1 R.>mnuJe !'<nod don not ~nh >ne« to a =ble rln=l
rcchnolo!t••J Fe-'J'Il>nprtscnce i.Lrm rule), but mJ) r•nh Jl<ah< the
l.ugt.lmOWH
n:\uh ot ,) Jc...rr (lt the ~UOJ1C ClltC' for thmgs E[npll.lO r clue
t<chniquc-. J cmulauon;. Th11 IN\ .ll.-counllor the appt.lr.an« ot cnum
etl J ~,.,Jitur.ll sccnlno ;at the\ ulou~ J"(")l~ ~\, \Ui.:h 3S ~o;~r.IM. m1ulc1~ ,cv.dr'), .md taone \o~!,.,
For lh..- rr
at L\ \ign1hantth;,t ioc':al, south· or rrm IJc Jn upb~uon tor ~tcs ~~ \\ h.Kh the \igns of Ell)l'l!ln
Emuan~. rn
le )'<>tiel\ " "'"lw•1~ found together U1\Uh'tmcnt J~ ~~.. rronounc:ed U0\'11.."\Cr.n t~mph bcgg.u'\ the
IITUgtnJIIOn th3t m.l«·produ<eJ EJli'J'tl.ln"'!ie hous<hoiJ rott<l)
mtheu.mc ..
\\,h m.t.n\lf~ m a putel't C:ln.Unlte: :~mt.lcfke As~~te:J \\llh
\\ere mh.Jro·~..J
11t"•\ loOI.:UI prC'trgt,\.UCh\\.trei\\tn:umrl) ROC bltf\ tobcdc(JJ'lbiC
C'NTironcnt,
nem' IOC' lt-..U Dn.unne e:LIC\- \IOf'CO\<er, .u mentioned .abo\ c. ahc
IOund m the -..
the t\\OCUit11
J'l"l""""' 1Jo..-.!lj mJde Eg\')'Wn torm>enJcd >brurtll '"th the
endue !he Eg\'J'Il>" hq:cmoo1 CMt<:.tnun lfC..Wntt<J'C"t~hJJ
anJccJ h<cn tmubMil EI!''J'Il>" )'Oitcr. 1vr th<lf eutC\o thq "ouJJ
f'klt hJ,~ t~ J~J~n(t ..o suJdcnl~ Jttathc Eg\'J'tllns rrtrt.uN

R.t·l('ft'n..M
\\' rlJ. \\hllt lhc l:.i!\fllJOS {l,lUOf\C\1 at
It ~m J:OOO }l.)kt'-~ !IJ\J~ \IJnut :on, \luaan. .tooO
th< lllll""'" <tf0111\hold<
must hJ>< b<cn m>tnll'
nule Olc.lmam\1DlorJ
Egypt tan Stone Vessels 1n Canaan dunng the
and <OI.lt<r1. CouiJ the
contc~\tu.tl associJuon of
Late Bronze Age I Andrea Squ•u•rt
C:mnmte and Eg)-pti>n
1\'h<nC...OJJn<>m<unJ<r Ejl\'J"Ulld""""""' tn til< I.Jte Bronze
J'OI"'l forms tn the $3nte
Af<, JIJrg< qumtttl ot <tone """'I> rro.Juccd tn EJ!:Il""'" "~
house tn general •nd
rc.k.ilcJ ~ ~1on \lost ''en= nud:cot cJkdt,.l tOrmoft.:;l)aum
the c\ tJcncc <"I>ted 10
clrtw'of~Jtc, "hue to\cllcr."' 1n C'Clloc, tnruJu..:.:nt JnJ ottr:n tt:~nJt."\J, JnJ
cooktng tn p;~rucul.11
1.()m<UIT\C\ n:tcMJ to tn htcrJC"Un .l) E~'J'(Im Jl.lb.l"'tl"f«tr.I\Cm.tl(
point to a SCt'n:mo
In E!!\rt·the•bundm<•ol'~>l >OUI'Cnl0.. thamllcn.>IJloo;:
.c:conltng IO "hich
th< '~c st1mubted the uucnsc rroJucuonor nk11c ,e,ioel\ WkC
Eg)-ptt>n pe110nncl
the tll1l<ol.the !'ml)m<ll< PmoJ. Sud> \NCb Mr< u<cd tn • \\...Je
b•cd under the .:tmc
\Jntt) of rontclti..sudt btcm('l~rn,Jtctom~Jnd r\7\~ bwuJ'-
rooftnm>rrt4'<
\\lth ~nllOilC
TI>< El!'l'flJO ""il'" ofthccJlcue ,.,._,ds toond tn C>zwn"
tnlcn"<d frum thelfWJ'CS- t><nuscthc-<=~h p=llck-dbl
WOil\CO,

ltha>b<cn
,..,,.,JsdtSo."<>'~rtd tn EJlll" If"""'"'·
u hJsb<cn "'{:!.'<>IN t!IJt
<:..INJnUc \\OfiJ.hors nu\. tu\'C' proJU4."'t'd \f..'lfflC ofWC'lk1tc \C"S<l~
·~>tcdb)• SC'"<r;d
lound tn C>nun In SUJ'I'O" oftha in'J'O'h<u>. u 1> "onh mcnt""""!l
><hol.lt11h31 the
~ l't\."t•nc dJ)('O\CC'\ or J aku~ d~'l""'u ncll )c~cm It 1s noc de;u,
unrrcccJentcd
ho\\'0\er. \\h<thct tlusd<)'O>tt \\>sc'<rl<ntcJ dunn~ th< Lite Bronte
qu>nUIICJOfEg)-ptl3n
AI:< \IOf<O'<r. u should h< noccd thJt, ;!)thouGh u "')'l»<t~lc th3t
•nd £jl\-pti>n-<l)k- CJnunur \\'OO..shor5 rcphattd ~ Ell)'J'lW1 nk,tc \~ucl~ tht\
.utd01C1S ~ppt~nng
rNJucnon Joe< 00C S«nl tO hJ\"<Jcll duttt >rchJCoiO!li<>l t\IJCn«,
10 Clnal n dunng the
(>oc. Gn>l/pOI ECYP'>"n·tyPO pottory lrom OO.rol· B.ll>h. t'U G.ltol Laurence ond 1\otmo T<td\ ~ewYork.
171
purd\OIOfO o1 tht Doyon CollectlOft
 •ho:J uenu. Then:(on:, bos<J on tothtonlcllOfthto.lgh the )cncd \:.llc).•nJ >t8tth%e>n,an
CU11"eOt C\1Jcn.. t •"'< that the bull. of thealctte Er.f"Uln milat.lr) OU'J"=""'.lltcrlhutmow' Ill \NnqUC~'
J am\C trom Es\'1'1- f'he ~t~ \Cucl,coulJ lu\~ rrJ,htJ Dru~n m ''M10US "'1)'\.
\'<"Cis found tn
l'hea1"1t1..
"-""< \t\\th m•• hJ,. been the rer!ONI ro<><UIOniC•t Eft'"PP=
IOIJ~tn.cma.Yn~ Jnd otfll.;.ulo.. Y.hoh~J b«n ~nt Ll> C&.ru1n .lt
conte:.xu comrn
flw« tonm •Pre" on EIDl't du' llf'1'W o~r-.J ¥.hotct11ned lhcsrculrunl tutnt\co"'crtUngthe
Age, such a< th<
U"C c.t tht~ 1tcm' H\l\\'C'\Cr. the \\iJcJt,tnNtlOn 01 Eg\'fUM1
dunn¥ the \h,!.l , Mtunuc ur unul thc mid·
rt::nel•~I(Jl trend o...'C\lt'S 10 the ,e..-....-1., throu~hout the ~tpon .anJ thctr o~u~uuon tn ioe\Cr:al ""f'C"S
Ei[llltecnth l>\n
,,.o:J at Tdld·Anulon thel.>te ot C001C\t,~mduJtn~ tcmr!~ tcltlcnh:nt...,and tomM lcJ.ds to the
U\.ant, ~,lh the
II \\ ltn< ...\C'd ~drarmucl.I'\CttJ.SC ccndUMOn t~>t the ioo:>I!"''"'IJIKA1 m.1 h>•e u<cd the<tobi«ts.too.
BromtA~t<l lh
rtrhJ!'>.KqW<ll\j;thtm\U •comrncrcoJitnJcn<t""rl..ltiSOO:Jt-lt
tn the qu.utlll\ l'ff \ ..an.un 1n C"Omr~nwn \\ith the
t!utonh onc ... 2t... :c\~1 tng:rncntbcoll\"ft~IO\llms-.-npaontlrom
J>miOU>I"'noJ~ reoun<< ot n<\\ >h•r<'· Thb
l.tatt 1\lna.\n trom~m C,n.un~tthJ'-urnt.1l>orrosed
phtnomtt~on rJr Ill '"onquco;;ts m thc Lc\01nt
oom.n• a:tt<ooed uo tht northern I.<\ ant loreumrlt,Jtll\bto.
ot C.Jn,lJn m the Eg)ftlln
and an be ••rll
Ql'll
.1nJ l ~Jntl. "tu..:h m.J' lnJI"Jrc th.u E~f'LlO ,c,~l~ nrcul;att\1
.1J nuru.)tr.lll\( n ..t ... u1 ( .1.n.1Jn mJLnl\- out~ Jc W mon: 1""".11 JnJ otriCUI ncn,oO...
tilt tl't\l fClCJOil!ro. \ thc-rch.n:, thc'oo..umrtJcnOI f.~fUll1\ti.Ml' .nCmJ:an ~J
l!l)J'IO•" I not!'<' <Of IUitd onh 10 the rn:«"'" ~·~ oll!!)l"Un re11011ntl, but
cJ m l .UlJJO The 11\0\l common ronns J rc
""'on' M be ~n oltht ~>Jcr rht,.,.,....,. ~ong the Jllfuwn
tuz.~;.. J'lli.....,.. tiJU...<M•J ,.,,, ooooo:J ~'"' •mrhonc,
'o E~r<••nrr><"''"'""""'~th<lo.>ir< r<J•uorunJthe>dort-
and JU&!ru on1 ut"lj: ( 'l'"'~ N\C·nng"~"' (tig 1SI ,,.l~l't .an or l~rtJ.ln.aztnl:metLI\In the nutcrulcul~. ~dtu
0\~r.all.tht\C \O'C'Iio r.1n~e m 'uc trom sm~ll rortJble: oah:lutr..:~.anJ ... rJh~ loJC\.'"\1. E~rc.un \tOOC\C"..Cl~~tuJ .1
ucm.... rertur'u"'c.-d lllf'\,.,...mct~rcrf~ordl)· IJf¥< omr•• t on the s-'J'<Uf11 ,.,.,.,, "~' lo..,lcJ on tht Jonl•n
good;.. to b~j:<·.Uf\.,-n, l"""bll u<cJ .asonlwoy \aUc.. """ilaJ"f"edm.m £pl"»n•.!ur<> It J ,UZZJ<),.Jarnnl
hqtnJ \OCHlli\CI'\ kJt \\1th r.u1tt.'"UlJ.rl) JCSthttu:
thcmtOi&."-"211tJ.\It:"'
•rre•rJoK<I o.,..,...,cd fonn> eomspondong to Tlu: Ute Bronte A~c II \\1~Jflt'l~rcnod t.:trth.:J.tt-..cn«ot
the l tc)-pt•.an t}"'f"!' an: o~1so :utc\trd tn C.uu..m [f:\ ruo~.nc-.JI...11C \'C"st:h m CJn.un. klt ""h
the rue olthr Eg\TU.m
Eumrlo< ond ude " ""'' w11h duck·he>J r"cntu:th l)t.n;a-.r, 10 thtcMh l\\(llthl':ltf11W\ SC£, the rtumlxrot
h..wk> onmh r.onted urre1 boditi and U\(1,(\c-.....d\J~dnnulk.Jlh ThctC\\ thlt\\c~ihs.:o'\C'rt'Jtn
n<ds. such ., one: ii:orunng roomed peub ~o.OI'IIC\h c•t thl' rctWJ ;at Udu~. \I~·JJ(\ .tnd Beth She.Jn ~Llng
th., am< to bght 1n MtgldJo. 101\I"".Un:aJ, rn:«"t U1 the<OWIIJ\ kt-h>nJ anJ m.>\ be
Eil}'J'Wn ......b tan bt found ht1rloom< lr""' the rre'lOUHtntur'\ Tht rn>Jr">O\( MJI.tnonganJ
throughout C.n>1n, <spt•:ull) on the tlrtJI t\."mun..JtK"nOI the [~l"WldomU\kmU1Caru;an b) thecnJot
Q>JstJI Pb on and Jude an Holl<. Tht "'" tht t\\clllh .cntW'\ BCEC\odcod) Jo\t\IJ'(N tht tnJc n<f\\or\. I')
thot h3\e )1cldcd the m>t""t}' ol thenu~ Tell \\ht~o.hC.anJ.tn \\.U rorrltt.'\J ot (IOOt\tUt:l\ II \\J.Sonl) m the Wtr:
ti·Ajjul, l.ocho>h, Mrgoddo, and Btth shtan Tdl Irun A):..: ;and the I'I:N.Jn r.:noJ th.tt .10\.'lthcr Llrt.~ mrtu\ ot )1ont
IJrgc:>t number dunn& the Lot< Bronze ,c,<w:l, tn~l Lg\rt rcnctrJtr.J the wutMm l('\J nt, but thl.) ume
th:u J CthJt urn.: 11 rl!)'ed an 1mpon01nt role tn t.hc \\tthln .1 \'Cf\ dllftf'(OC J""}}ttkJ.IIr.l11lC\\Ofl.
~·\l!»C"l tr.ldc;ho\\'C\t:r, lt KCO\~ hl hJ\'1: ~s,i\~1)
loot thu ro1t dunng the L>t< BroiUC' Age II in f.-orofl.>thi!h. " hoch
t.&o,Bcn·lM'19-I~
Mch.'n::(ll.'t'-
is indicab\t of the r rofound Eg) J'(OJn Jnflu<n« on tht IJtttr to) the< \.;Jl'f'll'W4 1)1""10._ tkun:oo- I+&,FI'UI11LI.n
cu1 :'H~,..._lunm.anJ~m:ll() ,,-.L1h~I.IN~6.L.ou.l1~!t..
tJmt Another l>rsc concentrotion of,...,.,, <Jn be'""">< ~ttglddo, h~' ~61!'1,\1 \l.~t..lh\.1Ct1~1J.('I .:....l,,to.:ht•t~.lnJ\h.Jil'!~.~ "'"',
llnttpcally io<otcd on tht tr:~d< rouoeronnecung the \lcdllcrnntan 1\:'UIC 1.,\1. rh !\ Jl !b.llo 'J"•.Ifl\ 190i6. '1'-'ff,.\ :OO\. 'J'IIls!OO'".:::-o

,nJo,: ...
(F•&· 18) Group of Egypt1an c.alc1t e velltll from aouthorn canean.
IMJ, The Lou• • and Carmen worschoW Colloctton, G•h of Sus;An
Wan chew Robertaon end Hopo warachow. LOt AnJelet. to
.,..._nc:an Fnends of the ls,.ol Museum

(22) Stela ("Firwt Stoia") of Sot! I
B<thSI>-an Earty1Jth..,ntury 8CEI
Baso:trH 246cml'l 80cmO·JOcml
IAA IS 884
Tlus round-topped acb oonunanon.tcs
a successfW Ea'J'U>n miliwyopcroll011
apinaa snull group of rebellious
Canunote ""',.in thc \'ICUUtyofllcth
Shcan dwmg thc "'iiP' ofKingSeti I (u94-
t179 BCE) in the early Ni,....nth D)''!WI)'.
Thcstcb OJoneoftwo(com'<ntionaUy
,..f.mdtoasthc"rtntStcla" and "Sea>nd
Steb")at\'«i b) Eg)'J'IWlartis>ns, woriang
m C.O.>n, oflocal b;Js;th. Both ""'"' found
rrused m scc:oncbrycont<xts at thc sue.
Most ofthe well-p...cn-.d, though brol:cn,
ftr>tStcb wosdiS<'O\'<rcd in t9llin front
ofthc northern temple ofLe\,1 V, neAt too
stcb ofSeo l's son and successor, Ramesses
11, o omaU frogmcnt b<Jonging to the nght
side ofthe stclo wasdJS<'O\..,rcd two )..Ors
btcrin the southern tcmpleofLe\..,1 V. The
initial plusc of i.e\"<I Vbegan no <>rucr lhon
thc clc\-mth ocniW) BCE, thus ugoufieontly
posubting thc "'Ill" ofSeo las""'" os thc
demise of the Eg)-ption New Klngdom
g;unson ot Bcth Sheon (the L>nor.,.,nt
prob>blyoccumng on the third quoncr ofthe
n...Jilh ceniW)• BCE) Most schoLm :ruume
tlw the steb ongin2111 stood m•tcmple of
I.e\"<I Vlll,o poori)•doted lc\el tlw prob>bl)
should b< :assigned to the tlunccnth ocnnuy
BCE,ondfor....sonsu~ \Y>SITlO\-.d
Jto btcrdotetothetemplc in Le\cl V.
At thetopofthc SlclaiSaeo...ruUy
dro\\1\ winged sun disk lob<led "The
&hdcttte," on epithet ofHONS, thc
f.Jcon-heoded dcity\\orshoped pnncip.>Uy
ot Edfu, oncoent &hdct, tn Upper EB)'Jll.
&n<>th this protect"" S)mbol stonds
KingSeti I weonng a fuU IWt "'th • Ronng
front ond • OO..,.firung '"K \\ith a circlet,
from 1\hich rues the rtl)':ll UIO<W.The
lang offers oncmse and libotion to • daty
bb<Jed "Rc-Horakhty, the c"'"' Cod,
Lon! ofHca'""' M.y He Ci\'< All ufe.•
Rc·Horakhty tS sh0\\1\ \\1th a humon
body and a folcon head CO\'< red wtth the
royJ.l ntmts heJddress and sunnounted
by • circubr disk and a protruding
uraeus symbohxmg the ::ancient s.o13r
god Re. Between the long and the god
are an offering Stomd, lotus flower, and
olobel desrnbong the octoon dJSpl,.,
1n the ~ne, • perfonmng Jnccn"ie
ond Llbotion." Abo\·c the king is •
c:utouchc thac encloses h1s throne n. ne.
Menm:a:nrc, '"Eternal is the justice of
Rc." The canouche" preceded b) th•
stondord royolepithcts, "The Good G· •I"
and " Lord of the Two Lands" (t.c, L'rt r
ond Lower Egypt), ond follo\\cd b) th
ph'""' "Ci•en ufcloke Rc • Bchond tl•
king IS Ihe suucmcnl, ..All ProtcctiCin o~.nJ
ufc Attend 11om •
The moon bod) of the stela h••
u hncsornconly lncis~d text, wnncn
from nght to left. The onscnptoon open>
(lone 1) ""h the dote: Yeorr,Jrd month
ofShomu (summer), d>) tO. The fi•e
nomcs that compose the lung's tull
trtulory occupy rhc rcmaintler oflone t
together \\lth Iones >ond :1- The fir<it three
nomcsltnk the king to (I) llorus (co lied
"Strong Bull, Who Appeon in Thebe-,
Who Nounshu the T"o Lands");
(z) Nckhb<t and Wad1ct, the patron
goddesses of Upper ond l.o\\cr Eg)'Pt
\ Rcpcoting Borths, Strong of Arm, Who
Subdues the Nine Bows"); ond (j) the
Colden Horus \ Rcpcotong Appcoronccs.
Rich in Bows rn All Lands"). The fino)
two n.1mes, Ythich arc enclosed withtn
cortouchcs, prm1dc (4) the kong's throne
name (or prcnomcn), Menmutrc. :and
the cpothct " Mode by Rc," preceded b)
"KongofUppcrond Lower Egypt, Lord
of the Two Lands"; ond (S) his brrth
n:amc (or nomen). "'Sell Beloved or
Proh," prcC'<ded b) "Son ofRc, Lord o f
Appcoronccs" ond follO\\cd by "Beloved
of Rc·Horokhty, the Great God") The
following eleven lines (Iones 4- 14) offer
elf"'"• proJSC of the long of the sort
mulincly round in New Kangdom m1litary

wcripaons, euJosizinc the kina's ''21or
and sua:ns in banJo and dncribtna the
fear he plaood 01110111 EcYPc's (defeated)
AsiatJc ftW:min.
n.. final section (stanina partwa)·
tJvouah line t.tl contains the historical
aux ofthe text. Here S..to summanly
recounts his army's apture of the 10\\'11
ofHarnmath, whose ruler had attacked
and occupit'cl Beth Shean and fOoned up
with Pdla to bottle up the 101'11 ehiefof
Rchob in his town. Ancient Harnmath
is to be equated with Tell d ·Harnmah,
about t61un south of Beth Shean;
~lb is at modern Klurbet Fahtl, 10 lun
southeaot of Beth Shean and east of the
Jonlan River; Rchob,. at Tel RchO\·,.s 1un
directly south ofBeth Shean. Altogether,
the king dispatched three divisions of his
army to put down the re\'011 - the di,ision
of Amun to Ilk the town of Harnmath,
the divmon ofRc to recapture Beth
Shean, and the di\ision ofSutelch (S..th)
to seize the tOYt'n of\'eno•am, which
e\1den~y had joined the fray on the side
of Hammath. The location ofYeno'am
is uncc.rtain: the mo>t hkcly candodote
for this place is thought to be Tel Yin•m,
located well to the north of Beth Shean
and oboutBiun due west ofthe southern
top of the S..a ofG21ilee. Seti d oses the
irucription with the claom that all of the
..,..,. fell to his army withon the •p•n of a
'lingle day, a boast that seemi reasonable
but'cl on the ohon diMances between Tel
Beth Shean and Tell d·Hammah, Khorbet
Falul, and Tel Rchov, perhaps less so in
the caseofTel Yinarn if1t is indeed the
Site ofYeno'arn.
n.. rq>eatt'cl elforts ofunruly
Canaanite ehiefs to secure independence
f10111 El)'ptoan domination and to seize
781
control or gam tnftucnce 0\"er the1r
neighboring t0\\'115 and territorie< " ere
a regular feature of Eg)'J'Itan-C:m ..nite
rclatoons during the l.:lte Bronze Age.
Tlus stela documents the reusen oon of
Egwtian pa.•eron the vicinity of Beth
Shean at the begonnong ofScto rs rcogn.
The l•te founeenth centul') BCE- the
era of the l>te Eoghteenth 0)11•sty king
Amenhotep IV (Alchenoten) and his
immcdioue suettssors h3d Kt n some
weakenongofthe EI!)'J>Ii>n Empore on
western Asia. Seti I restored EI!)'Phan
•uthority on c.n..n •nd rebuilt the
EI!)'Jlllan garrison >1 Beth Shean, which
had longservedas Em t's ke)• milit>l')'
onst2llation in central C. nun The ko ng
recorded the Year 1 campaogn on this
steb and possobly on the s..tond St<IJ
(see no. 13), u " elias on the nonh
"'Ill of the H)-posl')le Hallot Karnak on
Upper EI!)'J'L Whether the king directly
p:aniap;ued 1n 3n) of the mtht;ary actions
u socoated \\i th the r<c:apture of Beth
She•n os debatoble; 11 is just os hkel)•that
he gne m;archmg orders co his djvision
commonder> from field hudquoner>
elsewhere, but as wu regul•rly the ase
¥11 th Eg)'J)ti.iln mill1.lt')' successes, the
king claimed person•! credit fotthe
acrompiiJhments ofhos eomm•nder> and
field troops
JW
~f~rtnen:
Brand :ooo, u.t~us; o~ ... •~• •997. 19~J.4;
ttu c lt993, u -$-19,tU· J7. 1-46·"'8, fig u.
Kitchen ·~n. ,'Ol.t. t• -u, Kikhtn , 99JJ,,'OL
t , 9 -10; Kilebcn 1993b, \'Ol 1, 17- 19; Krucht~n
s911; ~c s9)0, L6 -t9, fi& s, p lt.. -11, -l] !j
Shc:<~n tn 19 11, n:ud
·tm< 1\.-nod,a
11, v.htchdiltC'\ t ll
<mJII fr:II!J11COI ~ llll' b...-p.mmnit
ofhnc~s 7<"tit''"' r"~O\ l'ml &n1 91S
bel\\ <en the nunhem •nd !Oilthcm temrlc:s
of ~el V. The bq:on <>1 lone, q and
hne<8 ~t8 >nJ the u;:p=r r.uootthe onuoJI
hocrogl)'J'hk "~''""'lane N •« l:>rol.cn olf
At JC'\~r.al f'OUl'' m thclm4.nJ'(xm,thc tc\t
IS baJI) wom and f.lrlll "'cnurch oll"!lobk
The \ tci.J\ !O·ltn~ m~-nrtton reJJ\
fromldttong.ht l hC\JOOU'i:Jf"ln
the tc\l an be Latt:.d) rc,wrcJ l'!J-.cd on
rar.~Jicl Ne\\ tri.in~Jlm'l Ul'-o:Of'll\.lf\~ "The:
I<XI folk>"' the rouern otthe f iN ~tel>,
norntl). • dote (1'10\\ , brnc:nta!oh,lo<t
>nd un,...toralolel on hne 1, tollo"Cil l>)
a n:cnauon of the Ling's tulltuub" and
then..,....... ho<sot I<.\I rro~<~ngthe l.ong
tor ht\ Wll, br.a\ct')·, ;and \1t1one50\Crthe
AsiJtK'. The true hutonal lot"C11on ot thc
report su n' m llncs 9 to, \\here the l.Jngts
informed th>t Af"ru from Mount YJnnutu,
together" 11h the T•pru, N\C otLOC~ed the
(23) St ela (" Soc:ond Stela") of S.tl l
Asuucs ol Ruhma. lbel.ong'• n:>ctoon to
& thStM r.!niEar ~y 1 ltt1 century a< r
thistribal contloct,as r<ponedonhnn t6 ·~·
~WIIo H 177tml't e7cm0. J~cm o
ostosend a deuclunent oftruer> "bad<"
IAA1S·885
(it i~ noc .sUtC"d from \\hrn:) toY.1nnucu an
the land of O)Jh), from " hence ho< 1orcd
The "S..cond Stela" ofScu l, fike the so-
return ~ictonous ;aftcTonI)' two d J)"S.
coiled first Steb , w>s carved by ES>'P"""
bringing plunder ,., th them Om« 17-09).
an:wn,, working in Canaan, oflocJI
The t<" ends Oooes 19'10) \\llh prolloC for
bos>h. 11 IJ badlywom and incomplete!)·
the bra\'CO') and victol')'of the dow><: lang
preserved Thetopofthestel>oslost Wh•t
The htStonal dctJds ofthiJ
rem>ons ofthe nght sode of the vignette
onscnpuon an: lc:<S clear th•n thOS<' of the
below ohcn>"Sthe legs and feet ofthe kong.
who we•rs along kilt >nJ is foctng the legs
Forst Stela. Noneof the n>m<S mcnuonl:ll
in the For'<l Stcl> are n:peot•-d on the Se<Ond
•nd feet of a god otondongon a plinth. Then:
Steb Also, the To)-.ru ore othen11se
probably""' • motchong pair ofligun:> to
unkn0\\'11, Ruhma c:onnot be located ume and elfon I') crc>ung one otel•, rather
\\tth .iln) aSJUDnce, Jnd the broad tc:rms than two, to record all ofthe C\'Cn ts?
•Asuucs and "land of O,.h) · do not help JW
us toponpoont thelocauonoian) of the
tnhesorpb<esnomed onthete• t As for the RctCI:ntt\.:.
Aptru, these people arc regularly oS50Ciated Afbng.ht 195::; 8t:lnd lOOO.I!f. 02\"W:1 199i·
u·-ao.Jr.J~hcn 19~s. \'Oll, l) ~'6; t99P· ,u. '·
\\11h the H•buu/ Aptruofeuncoform texts
U - IJ; 199}t\ \vl.l, !0·11; ~~ 19)0.!9-JO.
(sueh as thelamous Amoma letters of ~. 6,pls.4l ..... . s:o
the fourteenth rrnrury BCE), \\hen: they
>rc frequent!) portro)edosouwders.
(24) AnchO< produced from an obsolt ll
renepdes. and mcrcenann (see p.16)
f&yptlan encrovln&
\Jrmutu m>) be the lull) rqnon•round
ohe btcr, btbloal tO\\l'l ofpnnuth (llel\'oor •.• ~..,ec~ ...· '.• <SJ BfQI"\Ze~~ s-
La~ St.;4'\o.~"' l 17tn 12thctnh.~ry9C8
01the Crus>Jer Era) on the temtor) oi the
Urt..: ' !lf"'I I H 70cm','t 5aem0 :scm
tnbc oflss;o<h>r()oshu>U:19), nonh of
,',1 t~O~.t i •A.'o 1~92· 20'36
llcthShe>n.
IInether the e\"Cnts documented
Anchors secure >hops at sea and Steady
on the S«ond Stcb were pan ol the
.....,. gcner:~l campoogn of\'c>r1 as those: them lG"Jnst the "'11\"CS, ,,;nds, ~
~nts. h 1s noc. uncommon to find
recorded on the Fir'<l Stela "uneeruon.
them on the ocean floor, though oueh
Thcdufcr<ntl'l.,..o(nameson the r1111
do;co\cncs need not necc:swil) be
Stclo ,e...,. those on the s..cond Socia
tal.cn .. ondo<;ttions or.tupwrcdt. lbe)
(10\1 ns on the former, onbal poups and a
an: often diSCOI'<=ml near harbo<s.
mountJonous area on the bnerl•n: stnl.ong
anchor.tge-. ond JO)"Whcr< >hops stopped
and <~ tWO separ.lle camp•ogn>. doc:
The oldc.u 11nthon w~rc mJdc of stone of
..econd one rrcsumably tal.lng r bcc boer on
no p.trticubt sh:arc, to ,,ruch ropes ''ere
!>cu l's n:ogn (then: IS oubst•nual n-.lence
ollx hed. EI!I'P""" anehors \\ere the first to
for muluple A>ootoc: campoogns dunng the
be produet'cl on • <hope spea.Uy desogned
"''gn ofSctol) On the other h>nd, ohc toul
to sulnhze the >hop Sueh onchors N\'C •
lc:nj!lh ofum< for both campoogn> \\OS •
\\-.lo base and rceedong thnks. the~~
mer< thn:e .b)'S, >nd the"'" camp>~I!"'
beongaland oftrUn~le \\ith a rounded
tool. place "'tlun rc>sonahl) >han
top. Ncar the oop " ' "a round hole for tho
d"tancesofBcthShc•n ll'hdem"Croll
rope th>t atla..ht'cl the anehot to the >hop.
11 se<nlS mon: hl.cll that the 1\\0 stcbe Anchors toke ohese are depoctl:ll on Egyptian
n.-conl e>"Cnts thottoo~ place in dufer<nt
.;a.n , in" .;all rJinungs :and ~ngr.J' mgs they
r<llJloll ,.rs, 11 ., not unr<>'S'ble thJtthese
1 arc oh0\\11 stored on J ccl.
t\\'0 nunor(:3t1lfQ1gRS took rllc:oe m r.ar-d
Thos anchor \\">S di5CO\oered on 198! olf
sucedSion. as part ofthe .,me Ll'l.'<r !or.~y
the COOSl o1 M~. nonhoiAIIo~ dunng
ontowc<ternAs» ofYc>ro ofthiJking.lf
t~oecourseofan undcrw•ocr~
thas \•i J S the c::u.c. hcMC\"'!r, ooc mUSt J.Sl. 1\11\'C)· An<>thcr, br):''l' onchor "... found near
the quesu<lC" whl' dod the artoS>OS IIOISO\'C
IL 8oth b) three meters below se>lc\od, some:

one hundred rnetm ....c oithe WJrdine.
, . anchors_, broucht 10 the surfxe by
mansoi1 tloabna parac:hulr After they
_,cleaned it became apparent tlw the
smallerone bcft on one oiou ados put cian
El)1llian ...,-.vine. while the WJ<rone bcft
lftenpvinsoioclouble u. Despite these
ddl"erenca, it is posable that the anchors
arne flom 1 .u.te slup. ha\ina be<n . .rrcl
by aaewclurinc the slUr'ssoils throughout
the Eoslem Med~~annean basin.
The Cllp'IYinc on the smolkronchor
is .... prcscn...t "'""' thoush the anchor
had bin for thousands ci ),.,. on the
OCUli 8oor 11us is bkdy due lO the foct
tlw it wuaMml wuh sand,_ oithe
time. The anchor's makers utilized only
putoithe...,....... thus .... cannot
enlftly .........uuct the original scene,
little oiwhich hu survr....t.,. mnoining
f'narnent depicb lWO figures aanding
78(
opposite one onothcr. One ..-. .rs anldcts
and probably reprosents a \\'Oit\Jn. The
qu>bty of the engr:tVU\g points \\1thout a
doubt to an Egyptiancnftsman. We do
notlcnow why this parucular fragmont was
r<US<d as an ancllor, but wo may llSSWll<
that thiS OCXUJted afi<r the SCOn< had lost Its
iconographb'21uo.
Egyptian anchors an: famili>r finds
off the coast ofCana3n. 0 \'c the j<>rs,
anchors oftlus type ha'" com< to hght
:ill along its shon:s, \\i th. parucular
conc<ntntion notablo along the Cannd
Coast, <5pCCially in the an:a ofMogadim,
"be"' thisancborwas found. It appears,
then:fore, that dunng tho period of
Eg)'J'lian rulo in Canaan, Eg),.uan shtps
and Carumi"' mcn:hant \~lsoperoung
undu Eg)-pllan patronage regubrly Ailed
Canaan's shon:s. Whilotro\'<'llR the open
sea was possible, in :illliJ.chhood most ships
[25) C.naanlle commercial jars
hugged thecoosthne, malangfrrquco1
••. s. !hll
stops at an<:horog<S established '" OJt
Late Bronze Aga 11 t.\ ' •h cer • ..JfY
shcltm that pronded pro<CCllon from t
BCEl I Potterv I H 52 '• .., w 16-3'3 em
clements.
IAA I I 6942 1·7007.' 103 2015
Noshipwn:cked \~I dating lr·
1138, 2015 I )39
tho Bronze Age has >S yet come to light
olong the roost of Israel, but anchors ,, l
In the !Ate Bronze Age, pm~<ularl)
other finds (m>inly ponery jars) found ••n
from the fourtr r nth ,.-~ntury onw3rd,
the ocean floor attc:st to Vlbrant tr.J.de m 1ht"
conlmtm;al conta(h bct\\ccn the l.lnds
Ea>tcm Meduerranean 8as1n dunn~ the
of the Ancaent Ncar [~\t c'rJndcd,
Late Bronze Age. Salhng was undour tcJh
re.chmg unprcccdcnt<-.1 h<tgh"
one oftlx most tmportant means of
Carovon< tra\cleJ 0\erunJ rctYocen the
conducting mtemauonal trade dunnjt th~t
\·arious ccntt.rs of ('OYttr, \:Onn«ung
period, and u faohtoted ueslxtwcen [ I!)fl
Eg)pt tn the <auth\otth B•b) lon~>
and M)'Cen>C (Gn:ctt), Cyprus, ond roo>UI
m the ea>t onJ HatH (Tur~<)·) m the
OU<S fromAnatoJia rrurkt}1 toCanun
north, and men:hont <h•r' w led the
EA
<colxt\oeen Eg)l'l onJ CanJan m the
Rt>(~rcncn.
Basch 199.., Gahh and Jb\~h t981t lb\.Unc-
1990, 19 -1:0 , N1bbt t97S;Suq.bu 197'Z· ICI ... \.
e•st ond C)'l>NS. the Acgeon Islands, Eut, dcwt\·cs the utle ·the lntcm~tion;al
and M)~en•c (Gn:ccel m the west. Age."
Thu •• the bockg1011nd to the
The comcroncc of goods at thiS umc
;appeann« of the commercial J:lr, ma_u.
•hould not be rcgorded., tr:~dc m the
produced 1n Canaan otthiS ttmc. All
modem stnsc oflhc wo1d, since tl was
such l'"shan: the foUowmg fe01urcs.
cnurely under ampcrial control; u dad
not reRc:ct rnvau! amu:IU\'e, but r:n.hc:r nunor \-an:~cions nocwnhsunding a
stJtt euh:.nge The products th:lt ,.. ere narrow neck, a (usuolly shorply) connoted
1n the grcJtest demand were copper from shoulder, n.o loop haodlcs, and a tapcnng
body ""h a pronounced, nar!O\\, ond
C)'I>NS, gold from Egypt ond Anatoho,
thtckened base (n:scmbltng a knob).
Sll\er from Assyna,un brought •n b)
Th<l"" range bct\\cen so >nd 70 on •n
CJfO\'On to Ug•nt'" S)n> ond dmnbuted
hctght and hold bcn>cen tJ and 10 htcn
throughout the Anctcnt ~en~~. and
eoc:lt- thus the) could be cnied by •
pn:ctous hqutds, such •• perfumed ods,
siogl< P"""" \\1lhout much dtfficulty
m01~ted 1n small potter) eonwners.
Thq• ha<'C been mcln•med ·eanunuc
from Cypnu and M1unae The"' IS no
JUS· CM"ing to thc1r ch1crcenter of
doubt that thiS pcnod. mo"' than >n)'
manuf1C1\1te- the northern ~na~rute
other an the h1.stor, of the Anac:nt Nc~r

coast (from th< ~rmel in th< south to :as
fu north as S)"ria), but tho)· hO\·e com< to
tight in Egypt, Cilicia, C)'PfUS• Cret<, ond
M)ttn><. It thus app..rs thot they w<n:
a Canaanite ln\"enuon, used to eqx>n
agricultuBI producu from ~noon to
fon:agn mark<tS. Such 1-cssols an: d<pact<d
an Eg\'pliOn woll paanungs. stopp<n:d and
cam<d on th< should<rs ofstt\-cdon:s
shown unloadang goods from Canunate
1-.-11 tnOO«d an Egyptian harbors.
Q,lit< a Ws« numberof~naanat<
eotnm<rcial jars havo also be<n found
at sea, strmgth<ning one< again the
gmualas5Umption thot thq•sen<d as th<
sundud contain<r ofmanum< trad~
Canunite commercial jars were
lint US<d an th< Late Bronze Ag<IIA
(uri)•fourt<<nlh e<nrwy BCE), and they
rtmain<d in use untd th< « ssauon of
widnpr<ad mantim< trad< atth< <nd of
th< Bronze Ag< (ca 1100 BCE). A bttr
,,,..;on of those jars ma)' p<rhaps be se<n
1n the Phoenician commercial conta.aner,
which app<utd tn th< tlt\·tnth c<ntury
BCE. The ~naanat< jars "en: dtsign<d to
transport a rang< of agricultural products
from Canaan: " ·ine, otl (nuinl)•oh\-e oil,
but abo sesame otl), tree resm, oli\·cs,
and hon<y. They ""te notth< onl1•type
ofjar produc<d atth< lim<; oth<r typeS
of jars, antend<d for household use, an:
allo kntM,. But th< bn<r only und<rscon:
th< hoghly specialiud n>IW'< ofth<
comm<n:iaiJar ns narrow n<ek <n>bled
Aopp<ring, iu tap<ring th>p< and pomt<d
base~ its wmgth and ponability,
and au pain:d handles and promm<nt base
mad< it eosi<r 10 earry.The Canaanite
eotnm<n:ial jar wa• th< fim manumc
transport , ....Ito be manufael\lr<d on a
wid<JCal<.
101
The Egyptians became fJnulaar \\11h
th< ~noanii< J>r thanks to th< copious
ognculrural produce that wassont from
Canaan 10 Egypt, mainly :as pa)m enl
oft:uts. The Egyp112n< n:cognoud lh<
ad1'2ntoges of the Canaonal< jar, pn:femng
it to iu handleless Egyptian counterpon
For the first ume m EgJ'plian hastory,
Jars \\ith hondloswen: 1<1del)• us<d, a
n:al inn01'2rion \\1than th< longstondang
tradauon ofEg\'pli.ln cca•macs
The gre21ttst COnc"eRU2 tiOR o(
Canunite commcrci21 J.ln kn<Mn to
dot<\\'OS found, .wpruangl)'•outsad< of
~noon. In t984-1994, obundan1 n:moans
of • shapwm:k """' <ACO~>I<d olfth<
coast of An•tolio, at the site ofUiubunm
{n=pn:sent-day Boclrum) Thuhap·s
cargo consost<d of some JSO coppor angots
wtaghong • total ofoppro>Om31tl) l<n
lOns, tin mgocs wttghmg a 1ot:al ofont con,
around 175 glass ingots, <bony, ostneh
<ggs, <l<phant lusks, happopolomus t«th,
gold •nd sii1'Cr je" elry, bronz.< vessols,
ond much, much more. The shap, bdicvcd
10 h••-c sunk around tJJO BCE, isolund
of tam< c:tpsulc p101idang unparalleled
lestamon) to th< worlungs of trade an
the ~Siem Mechtemne::t.n B:uin dunng
the Late Bronx< Age. In oddiuon to the
c:ugo menuoned :abo\·e, the 1h1pcamed
:around 150 Ganaanilc commercial j;us.
Anoi)'SIS ofth< j•rs m ·e•l<d th•t most
had onginally hold n:san derived from th<
Atl~nuc tercbmth, toi;Uing around one
ton . Rcsm wuusrd in ince-nse, and, along
wuh bcesv.'U, it played an impon .1nt role
in mculv."'rking, be-ing u5td m the •lost·
\\'U• technique. AfeY.•of the C3n.u nite
Jars cont3incd oii\'CS, and one v.1s filled
woth glass be•ds P<trographic studaes
ofth< jors from the Uluburun shop.,=k
m ·eolcd 1ho1 moroth•n 8o'>~~<«
mlnufactured on the Cannel COJ\t,
1he rest we1e made on 1hc Lcb3nc~ t dunng cxa,;~uon~ m Jaf'f.t, south or' Tel
ond an the vocinaty ofR•s Shomroh ncocnt
UgJril) on the Synan c:o.:>« Thl\ !Jet '"'"
funhcr aucnuon to the 1mponanu:' th.:
CJnnd C03St l0 the network of Eg\ r·
sponsored 1ntem:auonal tr:~dt during the
Lot< Bronze Age (stc no.Lj). Th< most
impon:anc:ant hol"lgcstn the ;artJ • .u
Akko, T<ll Abu H3\\'2m, TclSho~m••n•.
Aclu, Ttl Namt, and Tel Dor ~m<-J t·
haw pl•)<d I kq rol< an th< CORI<I>O•<
ol Cannnue goods, transpon<J on the
C:ln~J.nllc: commerc•JIIJn th~t hat.!
become • well·kno\\n bronJ througho<ot
the: E~.stcm Medatcmne.1n &~1n
EA
Rcfrr-cn«s
Coldm~t-~1clr 1010, Gc.tn:n !0 1~ t--ill<~
Z007; M;arnn .t01l,l19 8"'oPub lo.zooS...
.tooSb; Zcmcr 197i• -1 -;
[25] Stirrup jar
Ne,. K•ngdom, tate 18th O.,.nastt(1 'tTh
c~ntury BCE) 1Fa•cncel H 7 em 0 7 2 em
ColfQCt•en o' W. Atnold ~.~. 1er f\. tr crlands
, , . surrup 10r displays the shop< of•
''til-known ~l)'cenacan pottc.'!l") vessel,
11hach, lake other t)"p<S of M)-c<na<J n
,·c:sscls, '""s •mportcd into Etn"P''" great
numbers dunng the fourt«nth Jnd
thirteenth centuries BCE. Yet lts slzc.
material, and dcrouuon indtcltt thJt It u
an Eg)1>UJ.n imatltion o( the M)"CCn.Jcan
protot)tpe.. The Egyptian imtt3tions of
fordgn potu~ry vessels ''ere produced tn
vot.nous rypes of ilone and faicnct: and
reflect the flounshing intc:mou.ion:ll tr.adc
ofthe umc
Whale m•n) uJmplc, ot E~')l'u•n
\lOne lffillJUOn\ Ol IOrc:IJtR J'OIICI'l JlC
known, onI) J small numlxr oH.uencc
c:•amplc~ hJ\·c ~urvl\ cd, probabl) due: to
the fr•gilll)' of the nutenal The EJ;)l'taon
f.titn(e \tarrup J:ln, though de~rh
tmulaung the sh>p< ofth< A<~;eon
protOI)l"'• Jlwoys d"plJ) EJ) pu•n·«llc
dc:cor.~uons, ''h1ch d1tfcr from tho~ ol
th< M)<:en>eJn 1-cssols. Th< bod) ofth"
j;u is dccorJtcd ~ith geomNriC moub
along ""h st) laud lotu' fto~'<" on the
handles.
M)'t'C:n3eJn pottel")· \css.cls h~\C
bten found m :~II the 0\1hzed cen1crs
of tht Wte Bronze Aj;<, ondudong the
~nnnuc cuy <jU les. Thr M)unacJn
sumap 1ars. \\h1ch r.an~c m MZC from
htrge cont.lmCrs 10 smJII rcnonJI l;~rs,
prob:~bl)• contJancd o1we oi1. wh1lc the
smaller Egypuan 1m1tauons seem co h;~\ C
adorned theenuance co a pte 1n a
fonn:ssofRomessts ll (co 1179 uu
BCE) 11-cn: ununhed by jacob Kopbn
A\1\. The rccon.strucuon of the IOCJtlon
ofthe (r.~gmcnts \\1than the: g;uc structure
tS based on the ongmal, unpubh~hcd
dr.a,,mgs produced :uound the tame
ot the exc;a\';Jtlon ;and on the n:suhs of
re«nl c~C3\':ttions Noncthelcn. \mcc:
mJn)· of the fr.agmcnts arc ~till mtssmg
:md the: fr.agmcnt< \\ere reused 1n :a bu~r
ph.tsc of the: g;~te, Ihe ~construction
>hoold be r<gud<d ...,tcnt•u•< (fiJ 19).
Acconlong to the n:•dong proposed
b\ t\eMtth l\Jt~hen, the mscnruon\,
"ha<h """' locat<d on both the lcti ond
the nght sHies ol the plCYo 1), conu.1ncd
utJes of JUmcsses II, 1ncludmg h1s Horus
n;ame. throne n~mc. Jnd btrth ru.me.
;as tOIIO\\S: .. HONs~foakon, Strong Bull,
5<l01cd ot M>3t, I•Jng ofUpporond
hciJ pcrtumeJ un);Uent> or laquaJ <. The
Lo\\'tr Eg)-pt, U~rmaa.trc Setcpnrc:, Son
ranu.-ul.u ~hJrc olthc)C IJrs \\J~ sw~tJ
ofRe. Lord ofCrowns, R.IIT'esse< (II)"
to thcar tuncuon, for the\ ~IO\\Cd the
Although th< fragm<nts con be
U)Cf t O St0f1 the ftO\\ ol the rrc:ClOUS hqutd
dc:ul)· :1scnMd to the rcagn ofR:anu.."S<eS
ftom chc ..pout \\llh the thumb, " hale:
11 and 3re thcn:fort usoc•:.ted \\lth the
hoiJang both h>nJies '"'h the S<COnJ
thartccnth ccnllatj BCE gate {Lc:ld IVB/
.;and ch1ni hnitcrs
Ph;a.s< RG·-4-l.), chc) \\crt rccO\·tn:d an a
osr l;~tc:r .sccond;ar,-contc-.n , the g;ate's fin:.I
phoso (L<•'tiiVA Phase RG·!b) At lust
R.ci CfCth.C"-
four of the fr.agmcnts \\tte reused u
biJrkh1199~• \ 'C'rmtuk. ' 91:
construction blod.s 3 1ong thr s•dcs of the
[27] Fracments ol a cateway tacode ol
btcr g"Jtt\\l) .1nd \\1thtn the toundJUOn
Remesseall of us ttoor The sn llrt;CSI fr.agmenu
_, 11 l'h"' 1>-.•I":&'J ' J\ 1 ~ , I.JI'
COCUIIIUI C lrSS th;an l hlrt) 1\Cf\.""COI of the
cc:ntury~El ~ti."3fi4"Ml~'~l mscnbcd f.1c.adc; h\c: smaller fr:~w,mcnts
o.~ns.onsttlr.• mof'IU 14 .. H w-nc,.,
cle>rl)' also belong 10th< f•c•de, but their
\·, . ? 59 emil<<'" _v...:ocm J'OSIIiOf\5 CJnl\01 be rtronlttructcd \\l t.h
AA 1 ~17 l·2 •6' «n;aant), due 10 the1r l:2ck ofswficicnth
dlsunct tc\t ~c.:~1·3uonsofthe EJ.!)-ptiln
footrcss.begun,, :o• 1b,· the J••r•

Cultural Heritage Project (JCHP) and
dftcted by the authon, confirmed that
all these &apnents originally adorned
the facade ofan earlier phase of the gate
(LeveiiVB/Piwe RG-40), which 5WV1ved
watil the twelfth ccnnuy BCE, when it
wudauoyed.
The tndividual blocks of the facade
were approximately 1m wide each, an
eaumate bued on the bJaett fratpnents
on which the outer borders ofthe blocks
are oti1l Jlftlft"ed. The blocks from the
npt lide reveal that five or lia blocks
were indiwlually stacked on top ofeach
other 10 crca1e each lide orthe enure
facade. They were then prepared by
camna atl lidea. euepc the backs, which
were probably left roucbiY cut in order
10 unpn>ve their anachment to the gate's
mud-bnck ouperAn~Ct~~re. No materials
121
remoin from which to suggest how the
blocks were secured to those above and
below, or to the gate itself Judgrng from
the brinle nature of the loeol kurl<ar
sandstone from which the blockJ were
c:m-ed ond the domoge that could h•ve
~d dunng thear insudl~tion, it IS
lilcely that the rnscnptoons were caned
afier the blockJ were onstallcd The
porous nature: of the ..ndstone al>a
required that the hrerogl}'PM and borders
be plutered afier they were urved, as
revealed by presen ·ed traces of plaster
within the deepest pans of the carv~ngs.
,.,,,,.1
These traces also \-esuges of
the original yellow and red parnt, the
only two colors empiO)..d, " hich were
intended to inm:ase the vurbihtyofthc
hieroglyphs Other plastered areas, such
as the borders, appear to have been len
scedsthat .....,. burned on the gat.,...) 's
Roor at the time of the destructron of the
gate. ThiS dcstrucuon " .. dated \\1th
hrgh probabilrt) to the second halfof the
twelfth centiU) BCE, suggcsung that the
gotc may ho\c stood for more thon half
• century after the death of Rame>SCSII
Ccr.amtcs e.xavatrd from this context
also support • Twenueth O)'nastydaung
for the fino! usc ofthrs ph•sc of the gate
(I.e, rhe twelfth ccnriU)· BCE). When the
~te wasdestro)'td, the f:~~;:adc elements
that \\Ore located on bo<h srdes of the
g>te,...y apparently fell away from the
coll•psed gote structure and down the
slope Ounng efforts to reburld the g>tc at
thest>rtofLc\'CI IVA/ Ph•sc RG·Jb,the
fragments of rhc facade were rcputl'OSed
on the rcttored gare" a~ 's found>tron and
used .. orthost>lS that hned the buc of
1u walls. u menuoned :aher.~.
In the t990S. the fragmcnrs scn'ed
IF•&- 19) Reconstructed &•te facade of RamesHsllot Jaffa as tht buls for the 1econstrucuon of
the facJ.de th:at nO\\•adoms the eastern
\\htch '"'ouW h:we cnJblcd ahem to e:~sily
"'hi~h., rho two <rdc> of the foe>de entnnce to the Lc\..1!VB/Phase RG·4>
white. The pla51er also seem> to ha'e SJ1JO the -1 m·~1dC g;UC\\;1\':lRd SUII h3\C
rtsclf, about 4·-IS m abo\ethc gate\\a) gate wntnn the c'=\~uon arc.a an ):atf:a
been intended to create the appearance enough length on the ends to be rnscrted
tloor. The lett and right srdesofthe focode AAB,MP
ofdressed limestone blocks. mlo its mud·bnck superstructure. The
\\Ore probobly connected b\ mc•ns of •
Ample evidence ongonaung from ,,QOdcn rcm:uns mduded evidcncc
honzonul wooden lmtclopproxrmately
the JCHP excavations oft he gate's for the use ofced>r (Crdrus /!bam). oak
6 min length, \\hich would h:l\"c rcstcd on
de51ruction level (LcveiiVB/Phasc (QutT<W), JnJ oli'< (Oit• tun>(l<•) Such
the top •urfaces of the ••ndstone blocl.s,
RG-4a) reveals the facade's porenual • bnm probably rested otop the 1\\0 srJes
spJ.nnmg the 4 m-\\1dc gatcwa)·· Wood
for more acowatcly determining the of the facade and w.. hkely I•~J;C enou~h
is the only motenal that the fo.:ode could
dimenstons of the gate~ :a whole:. The to pcrnuc ns dtCOr.JIIOn or tnscnruon
hol\"e SUpported, gt\tO the J'IO(OUS 03IU~
fa~de's associauon with the Lc,..1 Whole the r<eonsuuctJOn of the
of the sanclsrone and the impossrbrht)
lVB/Phase RG·o~a gate rc,·uls that the mscnpuons nc tnscrumcnQlto t~
ofiLS supponmg a stone hotel. The
mimmum da.suncc beno.·ccn the s1dcs fJnde'sattribuuon cothcn:tgnot
hkehhood that wood \\JS empiO)-.d"
of the faadcw.as no lcssth;m 4 m. RJmcsscs II. in !OIJ. ndiOC:Jrbon
al>a supported~ the diSCO\-cry'" lOIJ d>un~ ofth< ""'hocol<>!!•nl conte>1 of
MoreO\-cr, as Eg\""'J'Ii:m gates \\Crc often
ofmo~ than twodotcn fngmentsof samples from the gote'sdcsuucuon 1~,..1
at lout two stories tall (on the basis oft he
wooden beams, presened between t ond
architecture of Middle and New Kingdom tonfinncJ the (Jade's associ:mon ~,th
1m in length, withtn the debris of the
Egypuan cataract forts along the Upper rhe Lc\CIIVB/Phasc RG·4• gote. The
collapse of the Lc'ei!VB/ I'h•s• RG· •hort·h'-ed sanrpl<s consrSied oflolos
Nile), rt OJ likely that this g01e ongrnall)·
4;1 gltcw:~y. These \\oodcn bc:~ms arc of ~a.rlc)', wheat, chtdpca.s. J.nd other
hadn.ostoriesaswell Thcfioor ofthe
cstim:~ted to h::wc been at lust6 m long,
second story was in all probability at leatt
ECYPl•On Emptttl 83

[ZI) Slo,... jar frocrnent bewlnc the
...-of!letlll
Tool c: "Farah f5c>Yth) I t•· N Kmgdom
Oo,na>ty ltuto13th- early 12th century
BCEll Pottery,partoollyre;torod Yl48cm
H 38cmi1AAII9'134
This fngment of•large Egypt !On storoge
jar b..rs the lower p•ns of the throne
r10me and binh n•mc ofSeti llendosed
in anouches and flanked by palm
branches (meamng " Years"), endmg
with tadpoles (meaning "too,ooo")
abo\e <1om stgru (me• rung "Eternity")"
nus standard eombm•tion of sigru
ofttn accom~nied rQ)'21 ru.mes and
..gnmed the dl\1n< pronu.e forth<
king's reogn of hundreds ofthousonds
of l"'ars. The fragment wu found on the
<OUrt)'Ord of th< Egyption h<adquon<rs
11 Tell el·farah (South), which was u.ed
84[
throughout the Nin<tc<nth and ..rt)
Twenueth Dynasties. The T0)'31 n•mes
19th engraved on this fr.agment, hoY.e\'cr.
d>t< the 10r10 the reogn ofSeti II mthe
Ntne:tecnth Dyni1.Sty Tht.s ts, in fotct, the
only object found on southern Con»n
bearing th< name of thiS king, whoch os
not surprising eorutdering the unstoble
politic:alsiiU:Iuon tn Egypt during thel>te
Nineteenth D)'nuty, whoch ..,..,ntuall)
led to the eoll•p.e of the Egypuan
Empire in the Twenueth D)'nuty (.ee pp
...o-.. 1).
Lmle IS known ofthe octl\11)' of
Seti II In C..ni1an, but fragments oft¥~-'0
identjcaJ $l0r.t.ge )ars ~aring the n::1mes
of thiS lung "ere found in the counyard
of one of the Egypti•n fons on the Ways
of Horus m nonhem Sin:U. 11u!se \'CSKis,
which were probably sent from the
lung's palace on Egypt, deorly reflect
Egypuan :admimstr.llion :tnd 3th: to the
conunuing Egyptian presence tn n 1thcrn
Stmu and tn wuthcm C:ma;a.n du th~
reogn ofSeu II
DDT
Rtfcrcn«s
Coi.Jv.;t»er t9S0i MJcdon.:dd cc 11
18"19. pi< U.l, LXIV.
(29) Statue of Ramen os lll
& th St1 11n I ~~t:_... ~ n d n'\ ..
1
' 1-:"t,centurJ BCE.h BdJ!Jt i H
Base 7f'· 1"f r.mltAA 5 -1:!6
The IIJtue depicts a hfc-sue \C'JtcJ hgurc
of!Umesses Ill, the second I.Jng ofth~
Twenucth D)'nast) , \\hO ruled Ejl)pt lor
31 )"t•rs <••· uSs 1113 BCE)and "ho ''
often referred to as th< b st gre•t pharaoh
ofancrent Eg)'pt. The I.Jng" odenulocJ I•)
his throne name and btnh nJme. \\hh.h
ate cngmed on hos shoulders. end""'J
in c:utouches
The statue was round muul.ucJ 01nd
broken 1n I\\'O at the front of the northc:nl
temple ofLc,el V atlleth Shean, the
head and torso l'(mg race down nc:sr the
lowe rpm of the bod) and throne" Lc\el
V os dated maonly to the elncnth c:cntul')
BC£, postdaung the reogn of!Ume<se<
Ill and most prob•bl} olso the Egwuan
Emptre tn C3na:m The onginal conU~).t
orthe statue is thercfo~ ;usumed to
be in Lc\el VI, whoch is dated to the
early T\<..,nll<th Dyn•st)' Jnd ,.here
Egypu:an trucriptions be.anng t.hc n.1mc:.s
ofR•mcsses Ill ha>"e been found (see
no JO). The Statue is often rcgonded
"a form ofEKll'""" propog•nda - an
:mcmptto eura.sc power at a umc \\hen
Egypt's actuml hold o~;crCana:an was tn
dcchnc. Simtlar self-promoting measures
may be S«n \\lttun the Egyptii1n
stronghold at Seth Shean, \\here an
cxcepuonall) large number ofolfioal
Egrpuan inscnpuon.s ::~nd monuments of
the earl) Twenueth O)'llOSI)' ha>-. been
found (see no. JO).
The s~a~ue's mJtenal (loal ba;oh)
111 U
:and aru.suc st) 1c: delirl)' indttJte that u
\\3S made 1n ~n:a:m, though us :=~nt.sans
were undoubted I) Eg)T'tiln, 3J m the
case ofother Eg)"PUan monuments
'r found at the sue (see no. JO)"The sutue
,...3 s b.ldl)"d•m•~ed on the course of
-B
the: temrle 's deSU'UC110n. but there :arc
also 51g.ru ofdclibcr.ue muubuon, such
:a.s the miumg arms anJ left hand, the
chopped faa•l fe•IW'<S. and the bn:n
;at the v."3I.St~ The il-atuc daspla)"' some
st) lisuc peculianues in the Wll and f•cial
fe~tures. and, especioll). on the broad
g•p ben'""" the lop, \\luch is hoghl)
unusual in Eg)-pU;an .stJtuar)" These
pccuJtanues art u.stWI\•aunbutC'\1 to
loal production. The possobilot)" ha< olso
been n t.sed th:at thts \\;U a re,..'Orlang
of:m older st.ttue dcptctmg a dt\1nc
figure \"1th <1 \ ..orShiping lmg Slandmg
or knechng bc&\\ccn hts legs, somcthmg
thai could e~IJ1n the gap 110\.. C\(r, :~.s
there IS n O SUrJ'OMlRg C\idcnCC for lhi.S
incerrrcc:auon,n rcmams more hkcl\·
that the i tJtuc's ~nunttc manufaCiurc
3C'('OUn iS for ii.S 5t) IISUC ~~ubnUC.S.
DBT
Jtdcrtnt"(;4...
lhwnNAAJm •99'9· )J.mtj t966- lf. fie 1 t·t~
...,..,,91o.J&.rl SL
e 1ypt uan Emp•r• IIS
(30] 1nocrlbed lintel
Both Sht an "'•'•' Kongdom. 20th Dynasty
(12th century BCEl t l •mestonel l lt.3cm
H 5C'cm i1AA 11969 5
The throe adjoining f~>gmenu
compruing thts partially preser\'td lintel
dtptct a knttling worshiper, on thtltfi,
facing nine columns ofhteroglyphs. Tht
tc'<l cont,uns thrtt of the fi\'e official
names oflbmtsseSIII (hi<llorus name,
binh name, and throne name, the l;auer
two enclosed tn cartouchu), as well as
words ofadoration addrtsscd to the king
b)· the worshtper, \\ho is tdennfied as the
.. Ro)"al Scribe, Cre.:u Sle~~rd, R.ame~­
uscr-khcpe5h." Ltntel5 beanng seenuof
worshipers adoring ropl namCJ art well
anestcd m Egyptian pri,ate architecture:.
In the eomplete examples, the 10)'01
names :ue flanked by a worshtperon
either side. It may be assumed that the
Beth Shean lint<!, whteh prtser\'e s a
little 0\'erhalfofthe onginal seene, also
origmally featured a second figure of the
worshiper, symmetrically dept<1ed on the
right.
The lint<! was found along \\i th
addttional inseribed arthitectur:ll
fragment5 in a secondary context below
Level V and <hould thUJ be assigned,
along \\i th the other elements, to Lev<!
VI, whtch i< dated to the early Twentieth
Dynosry. These fragment5 are generally
considertd to hr\'e ongtnated in Bwld tng
1soo, the largest and mos1impressi\-e
building ofl.c\'CI VI, \\hose plan sh0\\'5
a notable Stmilariry to New Kingdom
private residences in EI)'Pl~ The name
of the official menuoned on the hntel,
Ramcsse-s·u.scr-khe:pesh, appears in
eel
other mJCriptions from Le\'<1 Vlat
Beth Shean along With addittonal tttles.
including "Commander ofTI'OOI'5 of
the Lord of the Two Lands (the King),"
a militar, title, and " Ror•l Sen be" and
"Grcot Steword." Dunng the Romesstde
Period, the title "Grtat Stewatd" w••
given to adm1nistr.~tors ofro);al eMatcs,
\\ho, frtquently, also held mthtary titles
ThU5tt is likely that lbmesses user·
khepesh was the milttary commander
and gO\'Cmor of the Eg}'pttan stronghold
at Beth Shea.n Morem·er, cons1dcnng
the common octummc oflintcls
bearing pratses to the retgmng lung
in pn\'ate hoUJes tn Eg}'p t, u IS likely
that thiS lintel origtn:llly belonged to
his pnvate restdence, prol»blv the
imposmg Bwldmg 1500. lbmesses·
user·khepesh may hne succeeded hi<
father, Thuunose, \\ho is mcnuoned on
additlonal archttectural fragment> from
the snc a5 h:aV1ng a h1gher milnar)' r.1nk
and wuh the title "O,·erseer off'orctgn
Winds."
The inscnbed ond decorated
archttectutal ftagntent5 from Lc\'el VI
at Beth Shean were undoubtedly made
at the site, )'Ct the St)ie •nd qu•ltt)· of
workmansh1p mdic:atc thou they "ere
ptodueed b) Egypttan Ortl53nJ.
DBT
Rrfc~nccs·
Schnxr .:on. no 6-lii Ward 1966, 167·69,
fi&· 9J.
Eaypuan Empuo l11

[31) Pepynoo·u..ped~
Beth S~an I Late Bronze~... :a- tron
Ag. rA i13th-12th century BCEl i Chalk I
H 715·73 Mo<.d•• ' 128-t38Wt ca <00·
550 l<g! IAA I 19• 0·1348, 1940-134811
lk110ftn 1911 and 19)) :m archaeological
eq>edition from the Uruvenity of
PcniU}1'-.nia eonducted Wlde·sc:tle
un,..tions at Tel lkth Sh<3n The
e.x.cavaton rcc=cn:e~d remams daung
from the Neolrthic through the ~r1y
lslm-.ic Pe-riod, but the most imporunt
disco\enes b)· far""''" those from the
Late Bronze Age and the begin nang ofthe
Iron Age - the tiJll< of the New Kingdom
tn EJI)'J'C, when Beth Shean ser\·ed an
EJI),Uan 1tronghold and adman~Str.tti'•
centor for that ~n of the country. On the
teU, the mos1 imponant assembi•Re of
811
Egyptian monuments c\'er unc:an hcd in
Jsnd came to light (see nos 19·JO)
The copiuls presented her< are
:among the most tmpresst\'e 3rchnectunal
elements from the Bronte Age e'er
found in lsn el. The)•were fasluoned
from ch:alk. 3n C2Stly C3n ·ed stone, tn
the shape of a splaytng P•Pirus flower.
Chalk is readil1• . ,-..il•blc m the r<goon,
and thus there ,. no doubt thot the
apllals were produced in Beth Shean,
probably by Eg)'ptron orusons JUdgmg
by the hrgh quality of the workmonship.
Th< same type of liOn< w:~s also used
for making the hntels and doorjambs
be.uing Egypti:an mscnpuons that \\Crc
dtSCO\"tred :at the 5iu:, the m~nu(acturc of
y. hich as cle:arly anribuublc to £gypti:ans,
as onl) they would have heen copable of
carving the EJI)'Pti•n hierogi)'Ph>(see
no. JO).
sunnountcd "vodcn columns crec1cd on
hJ>< come not trom the temple, but from
one ma) J\\Umc th.n the' ''ere hnlhantl\ tor of the unpreSSI\'C bases found there
The upper .md IO\\Cr c:nJ\ ot the l.hc l.u~c.•mros 1 ng struccure, c;aJicd
r;unu.·d, J\ \\4;0! rrobJ~I, the "ooJcn The pbnofBurldmg 1500
capitals Jf"C H;at, 3nd c;~ch end has a ..Su•IJmg •soo,"' thc mOSitmprcssa\'t
closelr resembles those ofbwl~rn~
column~. p<rhap\ '' nh lloral mouh
dcpress1on mto whtch a pm of )On' cJJiu:c uncut.hcJ :It the snc Bualdang
rciJtcd to the f'Jf')'nl~ plant. 01 ' ;ut~'tcd eXc;J\.ltc:d '"Tell ci-Anuma and Oclf
could be in~c:rted to connect the ~apUJI tSOO I) <IIUltCd .lithe tOf'Of lhC tell, an liS
on ~olumM m Egypt cl-~ledan.l'" E~rtV' Its mtc:nordcstgn.
to a ceiling be;am ;abo\'e 3nd a column northwestern part hs ~IZC, the quaht)" of
Unlonunao<i). the pap)'ru<·<haP'~ archucctur.al clements. dccor.auon.s.
bel"'' · The better prrser\ed cap11.1l \!Ill ~~~ con,trucuon,JnJ chc finds J.swci;J.tc:d
c:.ruJ.ls \\ere not found m the builJmg :and rommcmor.lU\C in.scnpttons Jll
retains traces of \~h1t c plas-ter in chc 10\\Cr ,,,ch '' tnd,utc bc,ond ;~doubt th.un \\U foliO\.. the Eg)l'UJn tradmon. HO\\C\Cr, ;a
to \\hrch they ongonoll) belong<'<~ For
depresston, which, in tum, beu s ahe the r•b« of lh< Eg)l'll•n gmemor of
feJ'}()OS unkn0\\0, thC) \\~fe I(O\~Cd. diSUnctl)· CanJJOIICprJC1iC'C, :IPf'olrC!Otl)
tmpress1on of the wooden pin that JOtntd Beth Sheon Junng th< Iron Age lA (see
along \\1th other .uchuectur.d dcmenb,
no IO) At the ccnoor ohh< bwiJrng.
<mrlo)"' rn th< Beth Shun ''"'""l·
rhe cJpitJi to the column. II JppcM\ thai is notJblc tn ll5 construcuon: \\'lulc
to the b.ack of a temple c.xc:t\ ;ncJ 10 the •urroun~N b) rooms. IS • h;ll (co 8' 9
the c:~pn al~ were mounted on ,..ooden rn Eg)'Pt• bwiJrn!l> """constructed
southern ('oln of the \Itt (Y.hcre the) "ere m) m ,,h,.,:h t\\"'0 monumentJ..l column
colum ns, for no stone column b.1m:ls <nureJ)· of mud bric~. 8Uihlrngt500
found l\1ng upside-down, one ne1:t co the ~.SC) , ..ere d&sCO\-e.rtd •n snu EJch l.S l.j
h3\·c been found at Beth Sheon, "'en ,,-;,s crcctL-d on cop ofscone loundltlonJ,
other) Though the origrn>l e>covoton m •n l,),:~mcacr ~nd .around So em htg.h.
1hough the) were used for monumentJI upon ,,hich 1."'0U.r'SC< of mud bncb we~
construcuon m Egypt The great \\Cig.ht
;an ributcd the arnals 10 thiStcmrlc. Thou~h Butldmg 1500 IS •rpro<imaocl\ laW Tlu.s t~Jture show) the. Eg)-ruans
rcnrned CXC""J\"lltOOS at the sate under somclc~a,,l) fromtheirot,,hcre
ofthecapit;~b and the cstimattd tami.hJnt) With, and \\l.lhngncss to
the :ausptcc.s of the Hebre\.. Unl\crstt) tht arltJIS \\CO: tounJ,It I rcaiOnJblc
herght of the columns (see belO\•) moy Jdort.mltucn«S from their~nJJrulc
of )erus~l<m (1989- 1996) ha'c le~ to IO .usumc thJt the CJrltJis ongmatccJ
suggest that the trees u.s cd \\-ere cedars.. surround•n~
another c:oncluston Stott the Silt' ot the
the largest and nrongest trees in the rn '" ccnor>l h•ll•nd thot th<r hod
eapnals do not confonn to the )tiC ot
regaon. Dcspne the fact that no tr.t.ct:s of
the temple's column bases, the) mu\1
pigmcn1~ hau! 'UIVI\'cd on llu: c.apual<,
Eaypuan Emp•ftl89

, . capitals, which--= found
IOF'hn· w= sq>an~ICCI during the British
Mandate Period;""" wu -tiO the
Roc:kefeller MIIICUllltn JeruW<m,....,
it lay well protected in 1 stomoom and
wu .....,.nluboted, ond the other was left
on the cell ond sulferod significant damage
aver the yean. 'l1le c:apitals were reunited
for the present exhibition, thanks to the
combined dl"onsol'the Israel Musc:um,
the Israel Anbqllitin Authoril)•, and the
Israel Nllure ond Plrb Authoril)'; and for
the tint time sine< their disco\"erj' ninety
ycanaao. they tuve t-efined fiom
intcnsiYc resuntion. carried out b)· the
Israel MIIICUIII Ratoration Labontonos.
l'apyniHhapod c:apitals ""'"' ,..,ry
common in E&YJit. While they""' bmiliar
10 us from Middle JWI&dom ond earlr
f4hteenth Dynasty wooden obj<cu and
lltistic representations, the earliot ac:tu>l
popyruHiooped copotals on: only an wed
fromthetuneoi'Tuthmoou Ill Columns
bearing pap)'111Hhoped copotals were
dudly used in hypost)ie (multi·c:olumned)
halls ond in small eult bouldings ilaosksj.
In Et!YJX, the 1'2110 between the c:olumn's
muimum dwneter and iu hetght was
t:J-1'7 '111emuimumdiameterofthe
Beth Shean columns IS unknown, btu
bucd upon the cbameters of the ..,....,r
paru ofthe eopttals we may deterrrune
that theirnunimum diame~erwu around
40 em.~ EtiYJXWI columns widen
towvd their bonoms, the muimum
cliameler may be ntimaled at around 6o
em. It appeaB, therefore, that the height of
the Beth Shean columns (oncludmg base,
c:apital, ond ceilina bcom) wu between
J ond 4.1 m. (11ois. then, would also ha,..,
been the height ofthe central hall of
Building lJOOJ
to I
l "A~;o........gl
_p~c.'*-c
In contnslto Egypt, pap)1Us-<haped
ctpitals wcre rare on Canaan. A pan from
the examples from ~th Shc.n, only two
frogmcnts ofsuch ctpttals h._.., been
exc:a\-;lcd to date in Jsr.ael: ont v.~s
found at Lachish and is anributed to thc
Acropolis Templc ofthc twclnh a:ntuoy
BCE (see no. 45), ond the othe"'"' found
l)'ing upside-down in the coUrt)'2rd of
the Canaanite palaa: of Str:ltunt Vlll at
Mcgiddo, dated to thc founcenth a:ntuoy
BCE. 'l1le J>OPI1US-$haped ctpitals frorn
the Egyptian admmastraU\'e center at Beth
Shean along ,.; th the fragments from the
Canaanite city states Lachish and Mcgiddo
atlW to the adopoon bt C.naannes of
the Eg)'ption eustorn ofdecorattng public
buildinp, such as temples and paloa:s,
with monumental ctp;uls.
EA
Rd'e:rentn.
Arnold zoo1, s:-m 1>.... •966. fi&-9s-•:
Muu zoo6, 7..·76, pho101 J.IS· J.16i ~bur
101li Rowe 19-40, r b•. XXVI' lO; Lllk.l,
Sq<lnwtn 1976
admtnistr.u1on at tht: ~uc 1n the cart)
'J\>·enueth 0)1>ast) I r>gmcnh oftnscnbcd
boll Is beonng<tmil.r ut<enpuon• ""'" •lso
been found at Lacht-h, Tdl e>·S.Ii, Tcll
cl·F•r:th (South), Dctr el· B.ziJh, Jnd Tel
Haror.
Theon;crilx:J too,,), prm·oJc concrete
evidence for the f l-')l'l1Jn c'rll'lttJ.uon
ofloa.l resourtt"'. al-.o~., atlt:)tcJ b)
tc\rual n1Jcncc
from Egypt The
refe-rence to l
temple on one of th<
~ bel\• luugge"-' th>t
[32) Bowl fraamenta wlllt administrative
lnaerlptlona formed • conttnuous IUlP tlut was lll!ixed to
Tc 54•ra N•·-"' k ngd::>m... !nt"-,m •1 tOr Egyptun tcm('lc .. tn C.uu.ln i' a bod or the bxlc of• tluon<
on a dec:oratlve panel
tnconclusl\l!, but n hn Ncn ~u~c,tcd One ~the panels <Wrbl~ an Eg\l"W'
112thCC>ntury 9CEJ)I'(;I'•,., O<ac! ,,.,.._ t ,..,.~t 1\ N K D,JJtn.
thJt the tnrute couiJ IU" "' "ell h2\e .!JgnoWY 310 barqlct llc "ears on
rocons.truC'<'d bcMt 26 5 em 2t1hLif~tJ.)t,.d._tt, ~.... r,ecE l·vcrvl
been JedocateJ to • <.-ult obJ<rt or • sutuc cLtboratc pleated g<Mn ch=ct<nstoC of
IAAI201 5· 1105 • t;..trnl"' 7c.miiAA !ltl3J :?537
houseJ in a local C.ruanuc temple. The Egj'!"W' officials~thc RomcsstdcP<noJ
3dmtmStr.&U\C nJture oft he te\LS lnscnbcd ondsitsonon Egyptt3D-St)icfoldutgchatr
f rogments offour p3nJOIIV compltte
bowl<beonng hicrottc tnscnpuon• on
on the bowls tSt\1dcnt, but thc fJct thJt """'red mth alcopanf sian. wlule hoiJtng
the texts \\t~ u\scnbed on srnalll:Jo\\t) • dnnlang ""''i tn his nght hand and a lotus
thctrektt:norswcrc found in 1hc: b.st
is \lgmfk:anr, :U:In Eg)"pt, smalltnsrnbcd flown tn his left h:>nd. A wonun, probahl)'
Late Bronze Age occupation lc•el otTel
bo\\lssuch :I~ thc'sc were \OU\"C'" ruture hu ,,r.,dressed tn on elqpntlinen garment
Scr:t. Thc •n:h>c:ologtcal e\1dcnccclcarl)
It has thcreforc been suggested that the rommonl!' seen'" depocuons ofuprcr-d.us
mdiateJ that the sue WJ.S an Egypci;an
Tel Scro bowls plo)..,d • rok tn the ntuals Eg)-ptoan "'OCTO<" of tlus pcnod, pours"''""
uronghold <luring the R:lmeostde Penod:
ofoloeal temple, most bkel) oH)mboloc tnto Ius dnn].;ong bel\•l Belund the womon
the tnscnpuons are dated b~ on
contzoners f01 theolfenngs P""S<nteJ ""'a nuJe female <l>na:r and "'ofemale
paleogr.tphic ond othcr ground< to the
to the temple; the bowls would h••" musociatu "'02MI! long E&l~k
u rlyTw.,nttrth Dynast)', most probab11• dresses Bchutd the seated dtgrtotarl'''"
contatnrd a token ~mount ofgnm. "-hllc
to thereignof R:Imesscs lll Onlyasm•ll nukse"-;mt ,..,annga short Egll"i.tn-SI)k
the actual qu;tnttt)' >nd purpose of the
part of the onginalonscnptoons h2\.., kilt ond • broJd-aollat nt:<IJJ«. AnOihcr
sun.,-cct, )~t the rem.1ming te.u mdiC3tH olfcnng ""'"' n:conled on the temrJc's
panel $ho\\"S three men ,.anng short
c.xtcriorw;aU
they record mc.lSUn:dqu;onuuesofgr:tm, Efl)-ptoan-st\io: l.tlts. t\\0 ~them t:arr)'tn8
which in one cue wc re meant for :a temple. DBT
hunted buds ond one COrT)UIII • calfon
One ofthc tOJCU also records a date - his shoulder>. A tlunf paneldtsrbl>'
rq;nol )'Oar zz, on all prob•biltt)• n>lemng Rdcn-n«.s ch=ct..-rist>C Efll'J"i.t" btrd·hunung seenc
Goldwuscr 1981, Gold\'~un 198.&
to the n>tgn ofR.:unesscs lll. These
inseriptions undoubtcdly reflect Egyptian
Ecypua n Emp•r•l i 1
th.u uJocs ~in • pop)tUS nwsh, since tt
also 1tlduda imoges ofClhu, it m.>) weU
repmcnt the hw111ng ofbinls and li\'eStodc
in pq»ntiOR for the bonquct.
The idenuficouon of the dognowy
dosp~)-.,d on the ivory panel has
been debated. While some suggest
he represents a local C:anoanite ruler
(unce the object was found in C:an..n),
others ~~o,.., argued that the panel's cle>r
Egypuan themes and iconognphy find
close parallels'" New li.tngdom tomb
decorations in Eg)l" and thus strongly
argue for identil\ing the dignllar, as
an EI\"P'W' official Mor<O\-er, the
conspicuous EI\'J>Uan lt)ie of the panel
mal<rs 11 highl~ liuly that the panel
was produced by an Egypuan artisan,
thousJt minor details, such as the curly
hair of the hunters, for which no panllel
11 known tn Eg)'JII, may mdocote that II
~u manufactured wn Canaan. Sante cht
fragments ~re found in the gO\'emor 's
residence at Tellel·fanh (South), 11
is possible that the seated dign11ary
represents the Egyptian gO\'emor
stationed •t the s11c or another Eg)'Ptian
oftiaal uationed there. The particular
•t)iistic details of the panel assign lito
the early T~nucth Dynasty.
DBT
Rd'CT<nCn'
Brandii99Si Br')'Jn 1996, 61·69, tishn :ou ;
....,. '9JO,I9.rtss
(:14)Moclelpencue
···~~: ddO t.tNi ..... l'lgd~m. 'l0tt1 0jf\8~tf(C8
12th contvry ace. ioOI'fll: 3:..cmw (. 6cm
1Mt1938·6t3
92(
This model pcncascosonc ofthe "'O<Y
Items found in the corly Iron Aj;e plwe of
the palace ofthe rul<rofMq;Jddo (sec no
4il· Unlike most items'" the hoard, whoch
display St)iostic tr.Jits indicotmg their
producuon on the l..c\';lnt, thos pen cosc IS
cloarlyan Eg)'Pttan product. lt was found
brol.en, but most of ItS fragments ho\e
SUI'\'1\'td, allO\..-ing for u.s :Umost complctt
=tontion. The uppcrmo<t part dospl•l• •
scene showmg the god Amun·~ seated on
a throne, wnh theodenllf)1ng onscnpuon
"Amun·~. Lord ofH..\'en"bcforc hom,
and a kneeling ling facing hun in • posture
ofadorouon. The king is odentified os
IUmesscs !II b) two cortouchcs cndosing
his throne ~me and binh name.
The ,-ert~CaJ trough of the pen cascos
UlSCnbed "ith the funenty phrase "for the
J:a of" foUQ\\-ed b) the U~CS "RD)'>I Em'O)' tO
utttame part of the pol>« hoanlll1a
E\'l:ryforcogn Land, <h'!:rsccrofthe Stable
the rcogn ot Ram<'"'' 1111«<: ""· 10). dtlfcrcnt nunner r<m.1Jl1S '"""""n
'MJghtyofAmun' of the ~odcnce." A
Amm.ltn¥-h· n ha~ .al..o been ,ugp_c..IC\1 lhJt DBT
fragmentary and badly damaged onscnptiou
lhLS Thutmo~. I he! f,uhcrofRJmC\~'-·
on thec:rossb3rot the centerof the trough
\\'cser-khcpc\h, mJ) ha\«:t\cn sct\'C\1 Rt(CTCrhO
ondudes the san1e funerary phrase, another SLn~t,S.S· tqS9,tO' ), \\;ud t9M, I6;"-69-
>t some pomt »the Eg\'puan ~~mur
utlc, generolly read as "Troop Commander," t1t. 9 ,. W1lson 19,q,u-u.
at MegoJJo, and th>t hos hogh·ronling
and a n.amc, which has been tcntatl\'ely
.Wnumstr.II1\'C ut.lc..., ;~.s th..-y :a('fiC'Jr on th~
tnlored as -n,utrno.se" Hov.n-cr,
J'COCOlSC, u\f.hCllCiful ~lcgk.IJO\\J.S,ln
thedamagcd<Ondouonofthecrossb>r
unponant i::g)'P"Jn >tronghoiJ dunn~ the
U\SCTlpUon m.:akcs the rc;~dmg of both the
r<:ign of IUmcSSCS 111. Thos uuerpretatoon
title and the name unccrtlon.
The assoa>tion of the ondi\1duol ofthe "'*""""• thouilh t<mrun~•., b.lsal
on too"'""! specul.luons: the w>•:"<r1.1Jl1
refened to on the pen cosc \\ith fon:ogn
rc>dongofthe utk: and roamc on the cro<-'ob.lr
bndsond proboblyabownh the mohtary
onscnpuon, the h\'potheuc:Jl .Jcnuhcauoo
suggests th>t he may hJ,.., been on olf=l
of the rcn Cl5C 0\\~ \\llh the l;nher
stationed'" C:anun. On the bosis ofohe
proposed restorouon of the damaged oflbmcsscs·\\'cscr·l.bcpeSh;ond the
presumptiOn th.ltthe father ofRomcsscS·
crossbar in.scnpc1on, 50me Kholars
identify him with lhe "Troop Commander \\'cscr·l.hepe>hscnedot ~leg>ddoor
Thutmose• recorded at llcth Sl1e>n as the ·~"here else 10 C..naan tn oddouon, the
fatrn,roflbmcsscs-Wescr·khepesh,the suggestion that ML-g>ddo """ '" omporunt
Eg)'P'i>n <tJOnghokl is not Wl'l"'rted b) the
Egyptian gm~mor of llcth Shean dunng

(35] Pllcrlm llul<
Ot-1r tt'· Batah.., lN(:_._K.ngdom,18th-20th
l>yn..ty (15th-12th century BCEll
Celt•tel H: 12 em V/9.5 em' I~<J, The
Lou15 and Cermon WarschaN Collett'()n,
G•ft of Susa'l \'f:JrsehaN Robtrtson
and Hope Warscha.... Los Angeles. to
Amc:ncan F"'ends of tneerael Muwum I
2013 52 311
This'"'"'I hu a globular body ,.,th
a lentoid Kction, a cyltndrical nec.k,
uhghtlye\'erttd rim, :and two loop
lundles at the sides of the n«k It IS
decor:attd with om>.! I pamttd dark dots
on the neek, handles, and body, plus two
lotuJ ftowen on the iides, JUSt under
the handles. AI the center of tho body, 11
diopiO)'S a rm>O\~blo cucular componont
with a double·funnol "'ctaon and a hole
in the center (ca. 4 em an diameter).
Atound tho hoi< thoro is a pamttd
84 (
The prcuh:uit) of1has c~.1tn1 .,,
the romo\3blc compon<ntcaru l th<
m1ddle of its bod). Th1s footurc m <>
tt :an isol.1tcd cx:ample among the one
pilgrtm·flask assemblage and mJ• be
due to a mod1ficouonofthe <har< th.tt
occurred m Canlttn :aft~r the \C,,c.
:am\'Cd from Eg) pt. Such a modalh.•ttillO
m:ade the \'CS,cllc.ss functionJl J~ J
container, :and thus, it ts more rc;a nJI"tle
to assume th3t u w:as desagn~d ft\r ' ' oc
m a funcr:arycontcxt In c.urrort ot tht'-t
it ISwon h notKing that the lotusllm,(r
depleted upsido-dowTI ,;Sible on both
sades of ahe \:c~l is 3 common'' mbt.,J
:usocu tcd w1th funcraf"\ 'ontcxh tn tt.oth
El:)l't •nd the Lc\'3nt
AS
lt(o(crcncrt:
ASton 1994,1)]'« IJO-t, t)~\IY4 J, 'l.lUf
191o,fig . ,
decorau,.., motif consisting of black
triangles :and oqu.tros ougmontod with
traces of rod paint.
ThiS \'<Ssel belongs to • <Ius of
pal grim fl>sks th>t appured in Egypt m
tho Eight« nth O)'ll>sty during tho roign
ofThutmo"' Ill and wore produced
through tho limo of tho T"'<ntloth
Dyn>sry. Tho ryp< aopr<..,nlS tho New
Kingdom ' " rsion of tho globular flask
,.,thout handlos from the timo of tho
Old Kingdom. ln Canaan, calcite pilgnm
fluks h"'" b<en found at Tell ci·AIJul,
Lachash, Beth Shemesh, Me&iddo, ond
Beth Shoan, ,.; th the latest u amplo from
Tell Quilo dated to tho "'cond half of
the oiC\'l:nth century BCE. Tho palgrtm·
fbsk shape was common in ar.~mics
throughout the Late Onanze Age Eaitem
Medatcrr.anc:an.
Cultu rat Interaction between Egypt and
Canaan during the Nineteenth and Early
Twentieth Dynasties
The e>tensh"' Egyptian presence in C.n.un during the
Nineteenth and E::uly Twentieth DynosliC$ stimuloted
reciproc:ll cultur.al inftuences ofunprecedent<d scope. From
C.nun then! is an:h.aeological evidence for the •doption
ofparticular Egyptian bwial <u>toms, suchastheuseof
anthropoid clay coffins, whoch, although they h•vo: been
found m>inly on association with Egyptian strongholds, ""'re
probably us<d by both Egyptiall$ and the C.naanite.sli,ing
alongside them (sre pp. 97•100). The use o(such rollins by
both populations is suggC$t<d by the mix«! •ssemblages of
burial gills found in conjunction With them, ronsisting of
Eg\l>tian, Egyptian-style, and loeal objecu, u well as Cypriot
and Aegean imports. It is further indicated by the romplete
absence of mummified bodieo and such essential Egyptian
burial paraphernalia as C.nopic jars, heart scarabs, and funeoary
inscriptions. Moreover, while isolated clay Sluobti figwinC$ (also
affiliated with Egyptian funerary <u>toms) hav.: been found at
Beth Shean and Deir d-Balalt (among 1 mixture o( Egyptian,
Egyptian-style, Canaanite, Cypriot, and Aegean items), they
are uninscnbed-unlike their Egyptian rounterparu-and their
form and poor quality suggest local production. II is therefore
not entirely clear whether they se...,d Eg)-ptians or C.naaniteo
attempting to trnitate Egyptian burial <ustomL
Canaanite sites datina to this period ha'"' yielded loeal
imitations ofEg)'Ptian prestige goods and ani facts, such as
cosmetic v.:sscls, furniture inl.a)'S, amulets, and jewelry, as well
as Eg)'ptian·SI)ie stone, bronze, ivory, f>ience, and glass \IU5eiL
In addition, 1 &ilicate workshop producing glass and faience
objects was found in the Egyptian garrison at Beth Shean (lte
pp. S4"5Sl· Associ•ted with the local temple, this workshop
mainly produced smallartifacta, mch as beads and pendanl$
ofloeal as well as Eg)-ptian style, among these, amulets
n:presenting Eg)-plian gods, whicb mggest 1 fusion of Egyptian
and Canaanite euft. Analyois of these products also shows
Eg)'Ptian-C.naanite technological cooperation.
An Egyptian influenoeon terracotta and gold plaques
and pendanu displaying the image ofthe C.naanite nude
godden (known from Lev.antine glyptic an since the early
eel
serond millennium BCE; see no. 13) is also notable. Dwin~ this
period, the goddess was depicted ,.ilh she typical hairstyle oi
the Eg)-ptian goddess Hathor and holding snakes and/or lotu>
flowers. Agold plaque from Lachish, for enmple, displa)'>lhc
nude goddeos in this manner, Standing on the back ofa hor.;c
and wearing a local variation of the Egyptian -'ttfcrown (sec no.
39). Parado>cicalfy, this representation and the ones like it, ,.·hi,h
integrate Egyptian-S!)·!<! motifs into the traduional Near Ea,t•m
ironocraphicronventioo of the nude goddeos, actuall)•_ ,
tohav.: been inspired by depiction• ofthe l.n':tntine goddess
on Eg)-ptian private stelae of the Ramesside Period, attesting
to a Conaanite influence on Egypt as expressed by £~-p~ian
wneration o(a C.naanite deity. These pnvate stelae portr.y
the goddess alone oras pan ofa dovine triad, us~~.>lly standint~
on a lion and always associ•ted with annbuteo of the goddess
Hathor, although she is identified in most cases by hie"'!ll)-rhs
as the goddeos Qdeshet (see no. 37).
The nude goddus is one ofa number ofC.naanite gods
,.-ho,.·erewonhiped in New Kingdom Egypt (see pp. IOI·tol).
Among others were the goddess Anat, who recei...d therypi<;al
titlesofEgyptian goddesses, such 1s "Mtstressorthe Gods" and
"Great o( Magic," and was wncrated by kings as well as prh•ate
individ~~.>ls (soe no. ~1); the god Ba'al, who during this period
was identified with the Eg)-ptiangodSeth, pauonoftherulers
of the Nincttenth •nd Twentieth Dynastieo (see nos. 4!·-uJ;
the god Reshcr, identified with the Thrb•n war god Montu and
often depicted on Eg)'Pti•n private stelae alone orl\ith other
gods, sometimes in triads including the goddess ~eshet (sre
n0-]7); and the goddess Astarte, who also received epithel5 o(
Eg)-ptian goddesses and was frequent!)• ponra)"d on Eg)'Ptian
roy.lland private stelae and in gi)'Ptic an (see no. 45), usually
nding a horse. In f•ct, Eg)-ptian vrorship ofCanaanite gods is
the most ronspieuous upn:ssion ofthe <uhutal impact of New
Kingdom Eg)'Ptian rule in Asia, espeeiallydwing the Ramesside
Period.
There is no clear evidence for c.naanite wonhip o{
Eg~'Jllian gods in thel..tte Bronze Age, except in the case o( the
aoddess Hathor, as seems to be suggested by the Eighteenth
Dyn•stydecorated box<1 (see no. 6z). Eg)'Ptian temples
dedicated to Hathor are associated with the turquoise mineo
11 Serabit ei-Hadim in Sin>i and the copper mines at Timna;
the worshipers at these temples were pnmarily Eg)l>llans, but
Can.1.1nitesen1plo)\:d 31 ~"th ..ices seem to ha\'e ~n inspirtd It lids in the Israel Museum Collection (most origmally in the
by the <uhic acti•it irs there. Con••nitt tombs of this period Da)-.n Collection and l'f"SUmobly from Deirei-Baloh) have
include a large number of E~:;-rtian ...,r•bs beoring imogcs and been published (fig. to). A coffin in the rollection orthe Hecht
names ofgods, but there,. no .-iJcnce for the actual worship Museum, Haifa, and lids in the Bible Lmds Museum, Jerusalem,
of these goJs ~· Can unites, n<or i5 thcn: clear .-.i Jcnce for the oil probobly ontttnating in Dcirei-Bal•h. are still unpublish<d.
e'C.istc:nce in ~n.l.Jn ofll!mplc~ d¢Jlc-..red to Egyptian £odt.. In addotion, an anthropoid rollin made from chalk "as found in
Rather, the e\•idcnce $U~t'h lh~t. as m the Hrk.\OS Period (but the course orsalvoge e.avotions ., the site (Tomb 111), the only
on an eftn lo'\:<rK>lc). 1he Cana•nit<< iocorpor:n<d E~'Jllian stone anthropoid coffin to hl\e eomc to light in the country thus
prntige •)mbols into thetr cultur•l•rhere but did not adopc far. Unfonunately, robbers h•d alreadydestro)..,d iu lid where
E~'Ptian rehgious belief._ the raee had been in order to reach the tn:osures inside (and
the rollin itsclrw:os robbed at a subsequent date). Finally, in the
Rc(cftncn~ Eg)-ptian fonreosexcavated at Deirei·B•loh,nonheastofthe
Al~ 19-11. CAJtt'ChU' a~,c. CA.tmc-liu.' 1004; [)c)chJ.n 19;9. Dodua cemetery, twenry addotional fragments o(coffins were found.
JOOI; Orcn 19i J;Tolllwal()()9. Tests performed on therotlins from Deird-Baf.th m ·ealed that
.arne had been diSCO\-ered neorthelulns in which thO)• had been
produced. TIIIU to date, the number ofeolfins and lids [Including
Anthropoid Cofftns I Eran Aroe fragmentary ones) from Deir ei·Balah stands at around 75- Two
additional complete lids are lr.nown from uchish (Tomb570),
The doSCO\"")' o(anthropoid pottery curtins tn nca\"2tions also in the southern panofth< rouncry. Beoides this, it was
throughout the country hn gcner>!ed a areal deal ofscholarly recendy establish«! that one of the published rragments from
attenuon. The colfins.qiindricaland lifc-si:e and l•"!:•r, wtre Lachish was actually three frogmen'" from three separate eolfins.
prod~ using the cothng technique. Their upper pans are AJ Tdl d ·Farah (South), two completeeollins """" exca\-.tcd
(Tombsssz onds6z) as•-ellasthefragmentofa thindrolfin
fitted ,.;th 1 lad ulnbiting a human tace and arms in 1 vari«y of
11')'1.._ The lid ,...,cut fromthecoflin befon:ichadcompletely (Tomb9JS). lt oppearsthat theoeeolfins"-e"' r-ewed in a later
cosn~%t, tance they ftre diKO\-cted wtlh loter poncry inside
dried, and thus it fit the colfin perfectly. Through the opening
them. Aconcentration oranthropoid rotfins was oiso found in
that was creat<d, the body of the decease.!, along ""h funerary
the nonhent pan of the country. AJ Beth Shean, the expedition
Jifis, was insen<d. Some of the lad sand coffins >till bear traces
from the Uni\-eniry ofPcnnsyfvanio f0t111d ev>clence for some
ofpoinc the faces were pointed ,.-hite, the lips or cheeks red,
fifty coffins in the nonhem rcmetery II the site.,..,., coffins""""
1nd the eyeo bl•ckor}"'flow. Each of the dilferently designed
found intoct alonr with their lids, whereas the remainder of the
Jidscxhobits atlc..t 1 few of the roll010ingfeatures:a ,.;g, a lotus
evidence consisted ofhcl rragments. The coffin fragments were
ftowuon 1he forehud, eyes, tl~brows, a nose, a moolh, I (hin,
disc-anled by the excOJV>ton. and thus it is possible that the actual
an "Osins" beand, checks, urs, arms, and hanJL Thesedetoils
number ofanthropoid eoffins was 0\-.n greater than reported.
were achie,..,d by the aJ'I'Iic:ation ofadJitionallumps ofclay to
The fragments were found in some ten rock·hewn tombs,
the smooth lid or by engraving. A prot ruston at the lower part
robb<d already in antiquil)·, alongside the remains ofthe origtn.J
of the coffin usually rcprescnu ftet; it is n:asonoble to assume
funerary gif\s that had been deposit«! there. Finally, be<ides
that this also made it possible to stand the cotfin upright dwine
the evidence rrom Beth Shean p.oper, at Td Midr:uh (Tellel-
producrion. ln rare '"""• n:aliuic: feet.,. depict<d.
Madma), ju>t south o(the site, a single lid fragment,.... found
Todate,t]O complete and fragmentary •nthropoid coffins
on the surface of the tell, and recently, a complete anthropoid
ha.., been found within the bonders ofC.naan: In olfietal
cotfin was discov.:red 1n the course ofsalvoge exta\"2tiol1$
excavations at Dcir ei-Baloh (south ofGua), only rour tombs
ronclucted by the Israel Antiquittes Authoriry at Tel Shadud in
containing mch coffins were uneorthed (Tombs ll.f, 118, 119,
the )eared Valley (seen~ jt).
JOt)- Besid« thesc,JJ coffins (with their lods) and .n additional
EcyptiAn Empi,.l97
 It IS customary todi\1de the coffins into two nuin types;
The first type mdudes coffins in whtch the head and shoulders
:m: clurl)' dehne:sted, S1mt1ar to the wooden and Stone cotlins
used for embalmed bodtes thot h»'e been dlSCO\..red m Egypt.
The second type consists ofeyhndrical coffins, m which the head
ond shoulders are not dehne.ced. The lids are also divided mto
two types: the n:nur:a.hstic type, wuh de.trl)•marked outlines
around the face and almost seulptur.ol focial feorurcs; ond the
grotesque I),., \\1lhout dear outlines, and tn \\htch the hd
IS JUSta bae~ground for facial fe.cures, cruung an unnotur.JI
&mpress&on, almost a oriorure. AI Beth Shean, the n:uunlinic
!}'!"' w:u preferred, whereas at Dcir ei· Baloh, most oftht hds
belong to the gro<esque 1}1"'· Atony 0\ent, 11 oppears that the
tmoges depicted on the hds spnbohzed the dece•sed, though
they were not me~nt to M- indi\i dual port:nus.
In shon, to date, onl)' fi\·e coffins h:n e b«n dlSCO\-cred
in situ (four at Dctr ei· Bolah and one at Tel Shadud). It IS thus
difficult to rnch dear-rut cond USlons regard1ng the customs
surrounding intcnnent in such coffins Howe\cr, u 1.s 1n1eresung
that m Tel Sh•dud, onl) a smgle bod\ wu pLieed in the coffin,
while at Dctr ei-Balah, the coffins held more thon one bod)•eaeh.
Anal)'SIS ofthe bones from the Dc1r el-B:llah eoflins tndi<Jtes
thot eoch held the remoins of a least two odults, ond usu• lly one
or mo more. ThiS IS a surpnsing finding considering the capacit)
ofthe coffins and the relatl\..ly small Size of the openings. In the
case of the single coffin from Tel Shadud, the bones ofcattle,
sheep, p1~, and fish were also found; these ammals m:a)' haH:
been buned tn the coffin :along "'th the dtceascd as proviSions
for the ofterlifc.
The nch funer.ory gtfu found m the tombs thot \\ere
unearthed in offici:sl excavations support the a.ssumpoon th.:n
the numerous Slmlbr uerru th:at reached the antiquiues market
in thclotc 196os ond 19701 .....re robbed from Dctr ei-B:llah
The g1futncluded usembl• gcs of~naanue pottery, Egypuan-
s!}le pottCf)' (sec fig. t7), 1mported Egypuan pottCf), and
tmponed pottery from Cyprus and M)"Ctnoc (Greece). Lwrury
ucms such as :alobaster, bronze, and gloss vessels, gold and
c:amehan Jewelry, and sa.rabs, amuleu, :and figurines were :also
found. Most of these obteers were imponed from Egypt, others
\\ere amitations produced in Canun. Ofputicul:ar interes-1:are
the loc:al imit~lions of the Eg)o'pu:an Shab11 figunnes, diSCO\'c.red
sa I
at both Beth Sheon and Dctr ei·BaiJh, the role ofwh1ch " "' t.:>
perfornt the corvec worl< orthe deceased in the ofterl1fe
Who was buned in the onthropotd coffins found m C uu.tn'
Up until a few dcc-;~des ::ago the cuscotn.ll')' response was th
these \\ere the coffins of Philistines. Thts Vle\V \\·as based on the
fact that above the heads of • lew of the figures modeled 01 !lc
lids of the coffins there were \\hot oppcarod to be feathered '"·
Stm1lor to those worn by the Philisuncs depleted m Eg}l'UJ•l
reliefs. By contr.ost, a thorough analrsis oft he coffins Irom tl
ccmetef) at Beth Shean re\taled that the date of the coffin>
should be mO\-.d back to the th1neenth centuf)· BCE • bet<>re
the .lm\'.11 of the Ph1hsunes m our ;m~a. San« then, the ..."'fhns
from Dcirci·B•I•h ond Tel Shadud also came to light. :~nJ tOOJ\
n IS dearthatthe anthropoid collins .tre to be as;oc1ated \\llh
Egyruan rule1n ~naan at the tnd olthe Latt Bronze A~c. thc
thtrtC'enth-twclfth century BCE. 8unal1n anthropoid cnlhns
was o long>tondmg Egypu.tn trad1110n Most of the :~nth...,...,..J
coffins of New Kangdom ER)-pt htrc m.1de ofv.ood or \cone,
and • great deol ofelfort wosdt\oted to thctr deSign In th<>c
coffins the body of:1 smglc indl\'1du.1l \\JS interred ::after 11 hJJ
been emb.1lmed In the Nalc Df!hJ, cspcctJII)· In lb CJSiem rJ.rt.
and m northern Sm;u, pottery anchropoad roffin1 \\ere tounJ,
similar to those from CAnJJn. For e\ample, at Tell d-\Jhud1p
and Tell Basta (Bubosus) '" the eastern Delta, and ot Tell d ·
Borg tn northern Sanaa, coflins vel') $1malar to the one\ from
Canaan, ahough contJtnang embalmed bodae~ came to hght
The mouf1 ::appc~nng on the C:ln;a::annc coffins - the lotus tlo\\c:r,
the wtg, I he "O~iri.i bcJrd.'' :and the posauon.s of the :a.nn.\ - ar~
also undoubtedly of Egypuon ong1n It therefore appeor~ thlt
t.hc anthropotd coffins from C~n:aan reflect an EgypttJ.n bun:al
custom or the umt:mon ofone b) the ~n:a:anne elate Of course,
not only the coffins re,..aJ a connection to Egypt but oho the
rich burial gJfls th:at were dcposittd 1n them, indudtnga \\ide
r.1.nge ofEgypta:an or Egypuan-style evt!r)'dJy\csscls .1nd. C\en
morc 1mponantll'• obj«u related to Egypuan behcts obout
the needs of the dud. At the ~me umc,nas mtcrcsung thac
among the obvious Egypuom mllucnces on the coffin.s, ~ l;ack
ofunderStandmgof Egypuan phenomena on the part of those
rcsponsablc for the ~na~natc coffins ~~ notable . For tnstancc,
though one of1hc coffin.s from L:lchash bc:ars ::an anscnpuon m
Egypti>n h1croglyphs (fig. zt), • ncmpts to read th< msrnpuon
IF•&· 20) Anthropoid coff•n• hom 011r oH~alah . IMJ, G1ft of Lourenco
and W1lm• T1tch, Nt \lf Yotk. purchasers of the Dayan Colloct•on
 leftaled lhllar- wnt1a1 by an individual who did noc
rahRIJw bepoocluc:ed a ~COIIIbinabOII ofsigM
*'-·illl llllpOIII"ble 10 cletermin., '-'lhc dettastd
lllldeniOocl the llleallintofthe local SloMti figurines that were
~ ID the IGmbo, and whether !hey knew lhctroriginaf
lllallinl 10 £&not. The COIIII*x "'fttli<an<e oflhc collins and
!heir~ burial goods only incrusn an lhc face of
the mulls of the anduapolopaJ anai)'IIS oflhc bones ofthr
deceued iMaled at Dar el-llalah, wluch reveakd 1 sinulariry
between the JICIPUIMions buned at Darel-llalah and in ~~
!cYpc, in - 10 lhc populalion of Canaan during lhis
period. l:fowncr, it is imponam to ~I that El}')>tian sources
iadiarrc dw burial -..dclhc land ofEg)'JX was .,..,.1:<1 by the
~ u an abomination that mUSI be avorded.
11wre is nodoubc lhat lhc anrhropoid rollins found rn
Canaan..., the result oflhc cultunl conraa ben.-..n Ell)-pt
and Canaan at the <nd oflhc Late Bronu Ago. Nor is lhc.., any
doubc reprdinc lhc hiah status oflhe rntem:d - considering
the eft"on requized 10 produce lliCb rollins and, ofcourse in
Ji&htoflhc rich burial ..:A. •' -• · '
lliJI . ,...~ u-1 <onlainecl. N...,rlheless, II IJ
dillicuJr 10 raolw lhc issue oflhc rdenbry oflhc deceased
ltltcned in these collins. How ean we d<te11111Jre " briber lhey
-~or Canaarurcs WIShrng to emulate EII)')Xlan
~~in the spirit oflhc period1P,rhaps 0
combination ofboch pooabjliries u-Jd be conside~ In •"''
CWtll, lhc two CODcentntions ofcollins, one in lhc ' icinrty of
BedrShean and lhc olhc1 in lhc vicinity ofGua . , _., ...t
lhc .. of ·-- -- ""'
~ lhc ~lies in these centers ofEI}')Xian
nrJe. k 11 unportant 10 recall that Detr d-llalah wu also an
~ fortrns'" lhooe days. which prHwnably feU under lhc
alllhority oflhc EaYPrun admrnislnlive center in Gua. Bolh
Beth~~ Gua • .., inhabotcd by a larp J'OPUbbOn or
Etypcian IMiicials, ocnbes, and mdiwy .......,.....1, whose role
10
- - Etypcian ouzeninryoverCanaan. lt is .......,...ble
10 ~ dw rn their deaths, these individuals l""fem:d to be
~ '"acconlance with lhc Em'JXIOn <US101ns and belrefa lhat
tJuauahout their Jives. Howeve.,Jilce olhc1 £mrtran
u-1 fK,Jd
~ lhat- adopced by lhc Canaarurc popubtron,
II II abo pourble lhat bunaJ rn anrhropoid rollins waa rrdopred
~ lhc Canaanite clitca-..tlhc end ofthr period of
Etypcian rule over the land.
tOOl
RcfC'~ncrs.: The lnfluen• f Canaamte Mythology on
Dolhan 1979, 98-to.t. Oochan 1981, :zp-88; Dothiln :ooR, ~ 1 Egypt /No A r Oarshan
Dochan and N.JhnUas·Lot;mJ:oJo;Oren 197J, IOI 50i Om.m r 1116.
ui-ZJ.
1e plsg.'<> •• fubocltulhe<!zj,
"lC'.1J rru"mtl\ ot El)l"IOsouthcm
bcn.~cn Elt)l" >nd lheauesol nctrth<m
""for ,-uiiUr.lltnl<rl"'..-belwttn EI)'J'I
r.hoo•rhe <nllr< reriod ofthe EI)'J'Ir>n
~ )'t"~~ mJny CJ.n.unncc; mJp;ateJ
l h\dthoo.J, 1\htle ihe Egjl'IJ.Ins
lj:ll hurlJe"' n•llsmrn, 1raJm. >nd
1 cumc hl lhctr IJnJ. At the $Jmc umc,
Ejt\'J'I"n ott..."UUI, r. " onJ 'OIJtef'> 'l"'nl short ore\lend<d
rcnod..n c~ru.m. I Inn, J ;'U< !.It) ]'I\ W)'Cnor lllrrude '""•nl
t~cuhwntotlii C': t ~ ' rSQ(Jt ""'f"'mgcohnd,OllrNd) mthc
.u ..:icnr EJ>rwn htnenl') llcrarutt 1he J"T>mJ<hnd rotfin lUIS .
l<'fe,.,n.;e.ro '<.' \trll Ca=re ~-ndl,omon~tlhc<c llllhor • nbt f.rn
ill.l'li••IL>J\ otll~ bl.hi •nJ lheS)TUngod ~)·r;w(lheC..ru>nne
'Aiht;u>). Su..fl ~h:m""'C"Ir. hl."'\\('\'tf. "crttn thJtpenod fc..•w'llld (;u
benu:cn. l>unn~the \I,JJic Nrl~-.k>m. C.tn.unnerommuruu"'"'"'
.-.ul>la-h<J"' the ••"''"' 0.:11>. •nJ 0\Cr umc """- senlr:n iiiN>-«<1
J'l)lnr.:•IJ'O\'I<r rlu1 danal<J rn !he ~d lnlcrmcdJJrel'<nod,
"hen !he 11)'->l"rui...J ""'lhem l:g\('1 Th<ducfgodofrhoseeulem andecd po<srbleth>J >he IS the godJess in quesuon.SC\er.ll EID'PIWI
D<h• d)n>>l~<' -.u Seth, "hoof1<n rt'('les<nled lhe he..Uofforergn
f'lnlhronl, "''" •• 11.1'•1 rhrC..n.unil..ronn god. Th< txpltat n.unc
ol 11.1'>1. t.o..'""'·lak those 01 01hcr C..ru;orule gods, as nor men trona! 1-oeu Eurcm 1cus. such uKorh>r·lhe llgJnli<: cnftsnun god,
rn the 1'0)•1 '"'''"f'I>On>oflhe ll)'ksooorlhc&rm-.ld)msues.
111\-.,onl) rn lhc umcoflhc NC\\ Mlgdom.allerlhe
onneuuon of southern C..rwn 10 Eg)('I by Thurmose Ill onJ lhe
><Srmtl>lron of• ne" rcdlnology and lr:.u<ogr>rh), tram 1\'csrem
Al.i> tnlo El)l'l, •h•t C..n.»nne pls ·in lhe&r ongrn.ll n>mes anJ
n:prcscnuuons \\trc fOt.nt'd tnto the ·,.tnOIUc.. EgypcUn pmthcon.
from thJI poant on- anJ unullhe end otlhe RJmr:.sr.fe d)lWIY-
the Can3lrute gods "en: mennoncd 10 t~les :Jnd mc..lnt.lnons, :Jnd
temples :and pr:ay~rs \\ere d~~trd to them ~~~ 1m~wt'.re
c~nbi on ~tcl.u~•.1nd tM•rnm-tcJ: ""ere mtq:r;urd mtothe n.1mc:s
ond ep~theu ot k•nS'- Thus. forrnston«, Amenholcr II, the..,.. of
Thumuxelll, rhe ronquerorofC..n»n,c-.llcd huruc:lf"II<IO\-al of
Resheph•; Thutmost IVwu .. \J.I1otnl "11h H1.s Ch.lnot hkc A\t:.rtc•;
Tutankhomun - "11<10\-al ofH>uron•;s.u 1- "lloiJ-Ik>rled Iii.<
(Ftc. 2l) lower part of an anthro td ff & 'al", R:rmcsses 11 - •Appe>r< upon rhe ll.lnlr:field lrl.< ll.l':U•, and
lmttl tion of I n E- t J po CO tn from lachtth belttftl an
.,,. In tnacnptton. lAA 19l&·J&7 R:tmcuc.s Ill ..AnJtllnd Astu tc:arcaSh•ciJofJflnl'"l1\cgrclt
fondness of the Etl)l'll>n krng> fonhe C..n•Jrulc godlo is f'lrllCUI.Uiy
nlden1 in rhenseofR:rm~ 11, "hoJ;O'elhe Wl<qw\'OC2lly
C..naanue n;rmc Bin)I ••, r l>.rughrcr ofAn.ll)ro his tlde<r d•ughl<r
(«<no. ~I), SISterofhiuons "A<Urle as on HIS Righi Side; "11<10\ed
ofAsr.ute: anJ 'SoldJ<rofAn.r "Th<Lmcras•C..rwnuc IWTle,as
"ell, llso aii<Sted in lhe Upnrrc err< as aneptthel forlhe '""""'of
An>J (lnlrr'nt). Ncxonly hasduiJrcn, but a4o lhe dogofR:rmcsoes
II ""lllmed as·An>tl> Prolectron ·rnad.Juion, the RamesuJe
drn.uty, "hich~1ed rn lheeurcm Delr>,reSiom!Scth 10hu
role u • dp••stJ< god, Rom....,. II dedJalcd • s~eu 10 hun rn lhe
fonncr heanlmd ofthelf)bos rn honoroflhe four-hundred )'C.ll
]'Cnod olthe god'sdonunron.depicungSeth :rtc'O<ding rolhe bner's
C..nurure rm>cc.ln a kJnd of r>r:rphruc ollhe rebuoru bel\• ern
lheculrun:sofG""kand R<lme.u m.>) be S>iJ rh.lrl\hilr:C..n.un
""' ronque~ b) EJ>'P'"" soiJrcn "'""' miJ·S«<nd rrullr:nruum
8CE, 11 ,_.._.the C..ru.uule IT1)tholoJll thJr ronquc~ EI)'PI
The most J'OI'III>r Cuumne gods :among lhe flnl''""' ol
•h• Ne~. ~angdom. as >lt<SIN :Uso b) lhe bng:s nomes, w•re An.11.
Asr>ne. Reshcph. H>WO'I, 11.1'>1 (on.! JIJ'.ll :Z.phon), anJ ~t. Th<
.Jcnllt) ofthe bucr 11 \2guc :~nJ open to a \"VJCt) of intcrpR:tJtton.s.
!hough rhe 1\'esr ScmriK rooc of her n1me potnr. de>rl)· 10 •
C..ru•nue sourtt. Of .tll1he godJmes menuoned rn lhe llgJnt
re\ls, lhc eptthetfil ("Hoi)'Onej S\niSonl} Ash=h (A(nj, anJ u is
lllC':lntltlons •ndJc:atc th:.t cxhtrClnnnue gods 'Acre ustmibted
rn10 EJ>,....n culrure. u -.cU. Some"" f;rzrulw to us from Anoenr
El-1he head of1he ponlheon, E>hmun - rhe)'OilllJ Phoerucun god.
tbmnun~ - • S)m< moun urn god. 11.1\wr - rhe god do> ofB) bb,
Nakbl·1he SJ'OU"' of1he moongod,AdammJ · lhc spouse of
Reshcrh.>nd <eonandsofonh. Th<re.ll'<alsogods"hoscidmuli<s
oulside ofEll)'PISiill r<m>tn undur, such as1he J'liT t.'lrplur Jnd I}Jrr.
and MeUI ot'S.:th She•n, 1o11hom •n [g\'J"WW Aeb wasdedic>red
(«<00.40)
The common on.:rn of1he C..n.unue gods led 10 lhe blurring
ofthcar tr.ursand rothe&runaficruon. Tlnrs,n"Cn lhou(lhe.ldlone
bean asrc<rfie ch>r:rcter rn Cuu.rn, rn Ell)'J'I they·..,..,.. clomuur<d
>1 b<sr b) • Sln(llelr:lll-bellrgm:IIC)' In the 1'0)-.llJISml'lion$ they
smnc the enemy •nd rrocect the long, and"' rn<anUIIOnS they· Jlrike
1he demon> and rro~ect lhe gods. konogr.>rtucrUy,lhe Conaani~e
gods are usu:all1•depicted hoiJrng aspnror bow(«< nos. J;, 41,
and ~s). or gruprng a mxe rn a thr<>rerunucsture,l)-pical oflhe
rconogrophyof lhc storm gods an lhe Ancien! Neor Ust.lndccd•
the ongan oflhtS g<srure Ires an 1he portra)-.1 oflhc fln'J'Il.ln Jane,
Eeyphon £mpuo lt01

but 11 retlllll<d 10 EII)'P( as a reewnng future ofC.nunite gods.
5omdimes the JOCiclns<s daspbv a maternal asptet, as goddess
are """Ito do, but their mibwislie asptet rcm.llned stronger The
exccpbOn ,.,.. Qdb, who ts no< mentioned an I'O)'!ll ansenptions, and
whose nak<d erolic fronuht) as comparati•'<ll' r:are (set no.J7l
The tremendous anftuenec ofCanaarute m)lhololl) on
Eg)-ptWI culture is no<able in the figure ofSeth Thas god, who
used to rq>resen1 the gods offoreagn people in gener:al, and ofthe
conttmpuble H)~ in parucubr, hearne a positi\'t entity in Egypt
alrndym the ~.. orAmenhotq> n.With the rise of the lbmessade
d)mst) from the t:aSI<m Delta, the \'tty ancient site of the H)ksos,
the aod was de\'Jied to pronunencc an the pmtheon and beemle one
of'the d)nasbc:gods,on a por'illth Amun-Re. The w pang oflus new
!denlity utibud his connection to Ba'al, the Corumne storm god; has
fillly womorphic depacuons decreased, whale his anthropomorphic
t'eplaCIIlations-asa Canurute god wnringal.lh, a eonaeal CIOI\11
(al>Oof£cl,.W.oncinl ,.,th horns, and a wnmerdmg)ingd01•11
thebocl.-prohfer:ated.ln flCI, the wuque featur<SofBa'al beeame
soana<hed to Seth th>t the bnermaybe eonsadered m 1111npmarao
~ofBa'al: s.•at·sopouses, Anlt and Astane, " "'re idenulied
as the spouses ofSeth; Slorms, r:aan, and '"ow came to be Seth's traits;
and the SlOt)' ofBa'al'seombot ""h the Sea became Seth's0\\11 bot~e
E\-en Ba'al'swnpons- the lo.lp, the eedarspe>rS. and Ius thundenng
~ - kn<Mu from the \Jpriuc <pic, now found thcar rbee in Seth's
bonks apanst demons and disease.
The legend ofSeth'seombat.,llh the Sea (al>O l.n0\\11 as the
An.rrt< l\lp)nu), dedicated to Amenhottp " · ..... the first Eg)-ptian
latcnry composition to be written tn alote rcgi>ter, and the first to
forussoldyonthe gods. It \\'Uonlydounsof)ursbt<r, in the
Ramesside Pmod, thlt £c)~n lner:aryworks, m)'lhologJcal and
Olhers, wm:compooed tn this rqisttr and de.'Oied toth>tsubJect,
and thus it as possible thlt it w:u the foreign ongJn of the "ory that
led to this liluat)' m'Olution. Moc~o\'cr, the numerous refcn:nccs
to Seth at that time asabm'e'il'!lmor'ililobonledApophas (fig u },
insteadofbis ponnyalas the desptc:lble murdererofOsisns, m, af
only slightly, the ...wt of the Egyptian's po$!11>'0 encounterS\\1th the
lll)'lhsofthe godsofC.naan, espeeWiy of tho>e an\'olvinglla'ol.
)USios unique mythologicalelcmenu from C.naan we"'
pracn'Od in the figure ofSeth/Ba'al, sotoo\\ere Conunite dements
prn<rwd tn the images ofbis opouses, AsUne and AnaL Thus, for
eumple, the Eg)'pllan tpithet for Anlt, "The Bag Cow ofSeth,"
tne11lion<d in an tncant.ation, as none other than a tr:ansbtion of her
C.IWNie epathet "1be Cow of Ba'al" The same incantation (Tit/
0
Ltulm MaJ!Cal PJI')rm) de5Cfl~ how the goddcssg>thered th
pouon<d blood of R<, uSUtg • C.n>anue hter.uy ttdlmque of th
groded numerial paucm x/x+t: "She brings 71ugsofsil•-er and
jugs ofbronu." The sexuolospect of Astonc, "hteh ts absent lru
most of her Egyptian eanontc:ll ocrum~ asdescnbed an th,
stO<) ofs.th'scombot "'th the Se:o: The godd"'' left the l.nJ ott
C.n20n11es m order 10 bnng •tnbuteto the sea god and, <t>ndll
the shore, sang and laughed m front of him \\hale noked Thl\ n••
recun in thelbmessade woric Tlt/l'aro Brolhm, \\ haeh descn""- ~
the Sea lusted afterthe beautaful dlughterofthe gods as she \\ll~
in the cedar forest of Lebanon. Also aunbuted to thelbmc~<ad,
1'<.-riod IS Tit/ CAnttndanp o{llorusand S<th, "hach, althou¢1 11 hn
Eg)'J'Iaatl atmosphere, ats prot>gonasts anduJe Astane and Anal. t~.c
daughters ofR<, head of the gods, \\ho were gMn to Seth a.'""''
With the foil ofEg)'J'Iatthe tum of the mallennaum and the
esubhshment ofand<'(>Cndentl.lngJoms m C.nun, the Eg)l'(l.ln'
anterest m the gods to the ust of their km&dom eeH<Il MOSl
dasappeared enurdy from the literary 50\1tttS, "lule the trud d.><e
to Seth- Ba'al,Anlt, andAstane heame fullya.samabted mto
Eg)-pu>n eulture,au Coruanuc ongans forgotten Th~ tracci ol Anal
and Ast>ne stJU can be found an Romm EIDl", whale the n>me bl'al
bc!ame :a \'crb mt3rung ..to fig)n" :md :an 3J)IlCII3U\e ofthe ru.~mm~t
stonn (flrrBa'aO .Seth, b) eontr:ast, returned to ha. fonner role .,
represenull•'e offoretgJ> gods. ltts therefore no< surpnsmg thot :aller
the conquest ofEg)l" by the Assynans, and, subsequen~) b) the
l'crS~ns and the Ptolemies,Seth, as a S}mbol offor<iJ.lll<n.. be.:ame
the mo<1 despised god in EIDl" IIa. name w:uer:adacued I rom the
pr:l)'<" thlt had formerly been dedac:ated to ham, """ allClliUUDru
wcrr composed ag>in>t him, and legends aS>Ocioted "'th ham hearne
nog;&ll\'< (formsl.lntt, the '"'rSion of Tit/ T'lro Brothm an PJI')TUJ
llunal/w) His formerly crud amage :u the murderer of Ostns ""
$ltengthened, and :u a eonsequen«: he came to be adenuiied not onl)
with foreagn gods, such as the god oflsr:ael, but al>O \\lth the god's
enerrucs. Thus the ltellentsuc peoples, for anst•nee, idenufied Seth
\\ith the fc>nome T)-phon, the enemyofZeus the "orm god, unow>r<
that a thousand )'<3rSearlttt, \\hen the kingo of the New KmgJorn
Egypt ca5t Seth in the posau•-eun.ge ofthe godsofC.na.n, he w•s
described an the preciselyowosue manner- as the heaoi<: storm god
" howaged \\>I \\llh thunder and \\lnds.
Rcfcrtnca:
SudtlnuM 1967; It \'ckk 1967, 1tdd 1971, Comchu. 199-t; !()().&,
Collombt-rt ~nd Coulon lOOO.ll~J.ll, Tau"~ lQ09; A)-m·D.tnhan JOIS,
10"'j1
(36) Head of Amun, god of tha ECYpllan
Empire
~• .,.too ,f'l a
Tha., ~IJborJh. Jlm~llih~·~illc: hcJd
dcptcts the toJ Amun \\I!Jnn~ hi') "l''"·.tl
kM rounJ m"'•l.tbc""TT'\'1\".l\01'11!10311)
~unnouniC\J ~ .. p.llf ot ulll.llu.ln rtum~.
nO\'-' plnh lo-t Amun N-,·Jme 1ht! pltron
god ot the col\ <•I Thdoc•\\hen the Thcb>n
Elev<nth D\11.-r, reumt<-.ll~"' rt .alter the
First ln1cnncd1Jtc rcn,tJ Uh:r on, \\hen
the TheNil Li~hteenth 0)11••11· reunateJ
Et:\'('t Ofl("e J~JIO .1ttcr the cxrul"lon l"~ftM
tl)lo..\oO\..u,henn~tnthc N<"\ l\1ngdom.
, .. heno~n,&cnt E~l'UJOCI\ihz;mon
re.tched au milat~.c,OfklmK:, ~nd
naltur.>lrea~. Thebe. be<mtc th•ampenol
<>patal. A>p•tron ot Theb<-. Amun \\ J>
)000 rromolcJ 10 the ("''IUOO of $Upremc
)1.UC god .anJ .2\\UOlcJ I he f'tlSIUOO Ol
• I.Jng of the God> •
Th!!mllatJr) \1cton~ ofthc
laghteenth and Nanet•enth 0)11J>IV '"tht! New Kingdom g~:atl)'COntributN
on I\'Or\ model pc:n ease from Mcgiddo,
~ang• an Asu cnhan«d the pos111on of 10 thC' \\Uhh .lnd J'IOWerofhis rncsts.
on " hacb the god is sho\\11 seaaed on his
Amun assuprcmc: god of the em pare, as rellected b)· the d>bor:ate temple
throne 1\llh lbm<SSC' Ill knedang beiOn:
:and he wJ.S 8''·cn 50\~n:•gnl) 0\"Cr the complex of the ~od at 1-omok.
h1r0 an ador:anon (sec: no ).II
dcmc.s of the: counmes unde• Egypun The head presented here was
Relagaousde.dopmenu an the late
nale. The phar.><>h> ofthts pc:nod arc doted on sl) lisuc 8rounJs to th• tei8n of
NC'\\ 1\.mgJom funhereleutt'd Amun
regulorly sh0\\11 prcsenung thctr spoals Seu I ofthcc>rll ineteenth 0)11aSI)
ofw:a.r bcrorc Amun, \\hO i.s f~ucnll) 10 :a J>O'IliOn ofuni\-c~l precmmence; (ea. 1194- 1279 BCE). New Kin8Jom
the god., desenbed wath such epnhcu
dcrictcd p~scnung the som•tn of\1C1or')' portnats ofthe god A.mun ~rc otlen
;as .. Has M)'SicOOUJ tobturc is Un"nown,..
to the long (\C<! no. 48). A depacuon of adentacol to those of the naltng Ling.
.. No Other Gods to:now t lis Tnlt form ...
th•s cere moo)•:appc3n on a ,.,ctOI') ste13 :and 11 h.u lhus been su~stN lh~t the
..No One Be us Witness to Him: :and
<r.'Cied by Ramcsses ll Jtileth Shean, •nd )'OUthful fJCJOI futures of the head m>)'
.. He l.s Too Cu~t." These ,mrihutcs 3IIC51
on a qimder sc.tl from the 13.0\C siu~; the ponD\' the )'Oung RD.mes~s II, the son
to 3 bchefin the :all·encom~ssang divine
formrr sho\\S the dl\-ine act pc:rfonned b) :anJ he1rofScul The Sl3tut tO\\hich the
J'O''trofAmun, ,,hose pronuncnce
Amun, Y~h1Jc an the l.mcr 1t 1J the god BJ' al· he•d onginally !><longed wos rrob•bl)
could no longer b< ehollenged b) an)
Seth (sec no +ll· Anothcrobi«t Iron• dedaaced to the gR"Jt temple of Antun :at
olhcr god. The supreme Sil t US ofAmw\
Can.Jan f~Jtunng a deplcuon ofAmun lS
E1YPti4n Emplrol 103
 111 hts nght hand and a rn..ace or uc '"hi"
l(>m>k b) ~cui, ootph>r>•>h> •n\Cnru"n~ ,·ct the •conocr.arh•c
COOIC:\h 10 "h!Ch \hC ;a~ .liS wggcst
left h>nd. oft<n ,.,,.,d >bo\'C hiS h<>d 10
of the 'r" huleJ to the
)1..1n
thJt 'he connoted erouasm ;md femhl) . the ~maung po'illion. Re~effrcqucnll\·
~xrJn(Jon ot th ~p~;ars on Egypuan rn~o ate 'telae of
Iter E~ypuan portr01)3b, \\htther :alone
DBT the 'en Ktngdom, ;alone or wllh oahcr
or to a tnld, U\UJII)· reter to her :as
QJc<hct, \\hl<h undoubtcdlydemcs god<, both Egypu>n JnJ C;m>Jnllc.
RciCTCC"-C~ Th1s ~tcb drp1ct~ Rcshcfin the manner
lmmthe~n,.ucrootq.nrhol) ") ~m
Antnno\kh '""~. .. most common!~ found an Egrpu.an Jn -
the l.c\Jill "~l!ncnll\ u.scJ JS 3 d1\1nc
,..eoanng the \\o"huc Crown \\lth .1 gudlt
cruhct rather than .a name ot 01 ~nirubr
hc<1d Jt the front and t\\O sw:amer\
dell). )Ct m Ell)pt Q!l<>hct re~ul>rl)
!37] emtlan stola tbo ... nc worohlp<trl ueJ m :a knot on ahe IO\'cr pJrt He
1etc"' 10 the Can.unuc nude goJdcss.
ofCanunitede•t •• h.1s Jn Eg)'J'llan·st}lc Nud anJ \\CJ.n
'lltl.£:0110); 1h.1t1t \\J,&:ons,Jcrcd to
J bro3d·t.::o1br ncckl3tc <1nd .a knee·
I'< he~ n>mc Th"" \UrrortcJ k the
length Ell)l'liJn·sl) lelult He •und• •n
CVO\COIIOOJI cruhet\ • 1dentk:~ 10
the •mJ•ng po« hold•nJ > •rc>< 10 h"
thm.: !:'"" m Eg\ j'ltO other goddeSS<<,
n~t h>nd onJ >\\c>ponde\a1bcd ••
l-oth Ej:\ pu>n ond CJno>rul< · th>t
Th1-. ..h:l.l Nlo~rs co .1 ,!J-.tJn~.t Jr"ur ,)a m;~ce-:nc tn hts left The crtthc:ts tOr
Jc~o.omrl.n\ thll n;~mc. The cpuhcts
l ~ftiJil ru\JIC)td,IC.': 'I.tl the ''"'u:cnth Rcshct recorded on th~ ~~d~ Jrc ·crcJt
<'fl thiS ~1cl.a Jrc \hstrc..~ ot llc.a~ocn ,..
JnJ l\\s.-nucth O)n..~,ttc,Jcr•"''"~ GoJ." ·Lonl olflco•<n." ·Ruler olthc
" \l o<trc\<01 All GoJ<." onJ "[)COl Rt
1.~\ rUJ0~¥1 ~~r,h•f!10~.ldi\IOC' triJJ Ot\inc: Ennc01d,'" JnJ "'Lord ot Etcmlt),..
\\Uh<'Utllcr Equ>l · ln her Elli'J'I'•n
~.·,m\J~ungl.lt ,,nc lJOruJn .mJ "'"' J.rrcll3uons or1en 2SJ«I;tled \\1th htm on
rcprc\cntJU()n~ Q.tcshet IS us~ll\
C.an.unatc JciUC' The tront ot the \tel.l £gyru:an stclu or the ~c'' Kmgdom
dcr•~tcJ. J\ on aha.s stcl.l, it.lndmi! on~
'' ,J,,1JcJ mhl 1\\0 tadJ,.che IO\lCr hciJ
hon .and holdmttlotus tlo\\crs m hc1 nght
The tlmd dell)' •rrcmng on the
Jcru.:l~ the "nbt.· R.Amo~ .anJ h1' '''lc
hJnd .1mi one or t\\\J ~rrcncs 1n her leh.
'I''""
stciJ IS the Ell' god \hn-Amun-
{n:h:ncJ 10.1' h•' ~l'tcr) \1utcmuiJ 1\t Th<goJ ~hn ""oneofthc most
She as gcncrJII) \hown \\tlh the ltilthor
~.ncehn~, thc1r hJmh r.u\CJ m .a ~c)turc •ne~ont Ell)l'""" gods. \\hose role • s god
hJant) le ...urmounh:J hy 01 ~.7re;Kcnt moon
o l \c:ncrJUOI\ h)\\Jrd. the three dcnu:) offerulil) •nd m>l< potonq IS clCJrh
Jnd ~oh10k, on on thas 'tciJ, or by Jnsmun ...
Jcr•~tcJ 10 the urrcr hcld.lhc Jl\111( n:llcc1cJ in hiS ioonogr.>ph)~ he tS >lW>)~
the <)-mt>ol ol the goJJcS\ II >thor
tn.u1 comrnsc' the CJilJJmtc nuJc ponn)'C<l st;md•n~. his leg< wnrrcd •n
Rcshct .,,~s ~ CJ.n;unale god
god~!<~\ ~cshct scanJ1ng on J hon Jt the \\hO'\C nJmc \\,u ongtn~lh ltnlcd to mummy bond>gts and htS en:ct rh>llus
«ntcr,thc Cana.amtc god Rcshd on the (1f'Ott'rtl"[t in fron1. Mm usuall) "~3rs a
tl:.mcs (mlt~fm ttcbn:\\), hghtcmng,,
n~ht, >nd the Ell)'J'I"" ~oJ ~hn·Amun· IO\' CTO""" surmounted b) two fc;uhert.
:.nJ rcsulcm.'C TC..\IU~I referenceS 10
~on the lett The "ooh•p<r< >nJ the '"th > long nbbon h>npn~ down the Nck.
Reshcl 10 S)Tll ;anJ has n:rn:scntatwns
Jc10c~ .m: Jdcnuficd t-~ the .aJto•ntnJ: In the ~e,.. lvngdom he wu S)"I'ICICilzc:J
on Eg>1'11.1n .)td.u! at the ~e\\ ktngdom
\\lth the =otor god Amun·Rt, he>d ot the
h1erogl)-ph1"' 1054.--riJ'fiOOS portn) h1m ",th wc.lron'"• \\h1th 1dcnlll)
The Cln;llnnc nul.!~ goddf.""»~ fint Egyj'llJO p>nthcon dunng thiS period (s<e
h1m n .a "~mor Boch C.JnJ.anuc Jnd
r>0-16). Th«l"thetJ>>SOCIJtcJ \\lth the
;arrc.ns '" Lev;~ nunc p.1)T'"c ~n '"the: fG)l'fiJO tc).t\ refer to Rc~hcf ;as J
god on thiS stclun: · Bull ofl hs Iother
uri) second m•llenmum BCE. She'" )..1.\IOr:anJ .I rch\Crfu( ptotCC10f'. \\h1le
J.nd .. Lord oiHc1\C:n ..
fn:qucntly dcr•cted on ClnJJmte Wte hi< Eg'ff'U.ll\ crtahcts :a~S.CX.IJie tum Uni.U.e the trJdauon31 d,...,ne ui;ad~
Bronze Age tert:ICOIIJ ;~.nd gold riJqUC) mth hcJhng~tnd fcruht) 1 .lS n.:ll. The
>nd pcnd>n!J (sc< no<. 3S.l9· 61. ~6) in Eb')'r'· "tuchcoosast ofadt\1nc:
El!\l'u•n portr.>)Jisolth< ~od t\1'•<>11) fJthc:r, moth-:r, :and ctuld. the .n.sod3tion
llcr idcntny'" the C3nJJnHe rortrJ)Jh shO\' ham hold1ng:.t shtdd :and or spc:u
~~unknown, a~ ah..:rc au: no .tssocutcd

Eayptlan Empuel 105

bc"'ccn the tl
o f \trl.ar " fh

thcrombtn..

t •equ.>hl\
....,(M·-·· A•-••blc:
t tlutthe

\\ere .1\.<\C"-.:u• a u t} k'nllll\,

anJ. ro''abh, ~OIIIIft the Jll('rl1l<"

PKl

kt'lt"f~f\~
C"A:1nk'l U\ I'N-Io 9 ~ a..\. ~ll:l (.1.1f1Kf1Ut.
:tlO.t I • t no. ~ T 2009 40
1\hunJ R,.o'\r,: :.natv•:..~~~a. W066..

(38) Mold lor a triad ploqut based on

Ecyptlan prototype s

Thl) n'k~ \\;&' u.KJ t..,. rrndunn~
rott<') rl>qu<>, "ho.h tu•• h:cn tounJ
tn ~.:on,t.Jcr:ablc numbcn .u CJnJJnlle
"te< ot the l.Ju: Jlroeuc A~• .llong" 11h
molJ·m>Je ro<t<r't h!!UM<' (.eo"" 61>)
None ol ehe rflquc\ thJt h,l\-: come to
hg)ll, h0\\C\Cf1 da,rl;a~· the \4:t.'OC p1'l'\COIC'd
on thO> molJ The molJ c.hol-ol> auJ<
fcm.1lc figure m rmnul '1cw ~t.lnJmg on
• hone! >nJ tbnlu.-.1 b) t\\O <m>llcr m>l<
tigut~'· Two Nrt.l\\\lthout\ln.ot<hcd '''"~
fillthccwourrcrcumcn Thckcf\C\\.1\
prol••biY on>poreJ b) Egyru•n <tdJc ot
~ R.lm~)ldc Pen~ dcr1cnng tht' ,,h, 1nc
tn•dofQ,leshct, Re<h<t,•nJ Mon (.eo no
37). \Vtlllc the uJcnuficowon ol the hil.UIT~
n:prescntcJ on the mold'' unclc.'Jr, thcu
c.la\ 1ne n.uure" ul!.hconcd b) ahc Cf'O\\"IU
on theor he.>J> •nJ !>) th< f.oct th•t the dcpoctoon ot the nude goddus st.nJong on
h:m;alt r•1-~ li..ltr•"-td ~.;anJ1ngon ;an • ho«e.lik the !;OOJ<»on the gold pbque
JOimJt She \\CJD ;a ~cnC\1 conk.•l trom Llclush (sec no J9) - t.Jt unlik the
m'l\\n I!Jn~eJ b\ J p>or Ot urtumeJ horns, E~')'J"~>npnliOI)-pc>.\\tudlJcptct thos
goJJnuunJon~ on •lion (sec no. J7).
n:m•ru\(cntot thcd1\l.nt hc;aJJrnsm
In JJJouon, ~I.e the Lldush pbque, the
Anc;:..:nl 'ur E.utcm Jn of the ~J
mollcnnoum HCE fhe nulc hpue on moiJ rn:sents the goJd<1S hoiJong lotus
tlowers, "luk the lii)'J"U'' procotypn
the l<t\ \\C.111•1JII tro\\n r«Jihng the
>ho" her hoiJon' ,.,.I.e< n \\CU .ulocus
El'\1">-'n WhncCtO\\n (S«n ai<Oon
the C.ln>>nnego>J< ll>'•l•nd Reshcfon
tiO"ou:D- The mold ,,;as
noc found 1n a clc;ar
.;an.mcolog.Jal contc\t. '' hdl make\ u
" "" t..ongJonun, «<"-" 1".40.4-1)
The h..JJre<S ol the hgure on the nght .!Jtli.:ultto d>te, t.Jt the I'.Kt th.t n sccnu
to h••.., been '"-"'''reJ b\• R.m<.'<sW< tnJJ
mdu~J<s the 2~1nl S)mbol romrnsmg 2
nciJc potnts to a dltc tn the thi.n1.."'C'Rih or
~--cnt;and ~Jr, \\tuch LSotlcn 1~~1N
n, duh ..~rut') BCE
\\UhJ~o:UIC'.S 10 lhcAnclCOt ' CJr E.ur
DDT
Although mo>t rrol'•"il msroreJ b)
Eg\,C.IlR R.;a.nlt':SSklc t.nJJ stCIJc,lhc uusuc
~lt'rt'tk.fi
st) )< ot the n><>IJ JnJ the h<>Jdn:""s 01
lkn·o\nch '9Sl,Comchuszoo.&,1!;"'.no s IJ.
the three fi1:un:S ,-.Jc.;art) ,nJK"ltC 1ho111t 1.S 2
lcxll procJuct Th.: C.Jnaannc rroJu,;lOn
o1 the mciJ oui<O ~eJ b) the
(39) canaanlt e &oddu• on a cold plaque
L o:t>>oh NttN ~ n~d >m 20th D)-nasty
It 2th ettntury BCEJ Go~d I H. 20 ' em
W t 1 2tm'IAA I t978·1

This gold·she<:t plaque w:as dlSCtn"Cred

in a crumpled stote and wos unfolded b)
modem r<Storcr>. It h:ad prob•bly been
npped from •nothcrobJ«'t before bemg
crushed and dlSCOrded The pl>que IS
d<a>r.~tcd tn rcliof \\1th • nude fem•le
figure: \\C!:t~nng an tlabor:ue C'l"()¥.11, standmg
on tho b>ckof• han< and holdmg two Iorge
iooa flOI\CI'$ in C>ch hand The fact th:at
she is standmg on the b•tk of>n >nUll.ll
suggcsu th:at sheiSagoddess, as this":as
a com"Cntional mc1nsof dcptctingdeltlcs
tn the Anctcnt NC>r East and p.tni<ul>r
Cana:anitc dcotlcs tn NC\' K"mgdom Egyp<
This !denuficouon is conobor.ated by
her el.tr.a\";;lgant composue crovm,\\ hich
consists of• pltr of r.>m's horns surmOIU\ted ~cshct on Ramcss.tdc stcbc. though Ill Is ~ nJ the r n'f"''Ulll\\
mdKJIC'J b) UIO dctJ&

by two ostnch fcathen fl1nkcd b)•two p>u"J
ofcow's horns.
The lllloge ofthc goddess on this
plaque is >SSOctotcd woth the nude fcmalc
figurcsdcpocted on C.umnne Late Broruc
Age cb1· and mcul pbques >nd pcndonts,
the buershesundson :1 hon (k'e no ~;).
Yot thc Lachish goddess otop a hor<C mal
also be USOC'IJtcd wath rcprcs.tntJllons of
thc hone-nding Cln>Onote goddcu A•tone
on EII)'J>II>n New Kmgdom stciJc. Ltkc
tho nude 6gures appc•nngon C.naonne
ot the figurc'· l"' the strong l l!}rtun
mRucncc su~"t('~l\ th;n ns arwa \\J\
tJmall.&r\\Uh E~n-ruan art 1.St1..: cvn\tnllon..
OIIT
f~fCfC'OCC'\!

suggcsttng th.>t the plaque w:as produced pbques and pcndonts, the !dentlt)' of the Comd1u' zoo.. t~t · }!. nn. ~ .::,Cl.Jmt'r :oo 1

in Canoon (>«nos. 65, 66).110\<t\'er.
Egypt~n mspor.auon IS nouble tn tho
goddess's composne CI'O\\n, fC>then
and horns beang attcsted on a •-.ncty of
Egyption 1'0\~ and d.-, nc heoddressc._
Egyption insptration IS olso indocoted b)
tho lotus flO\\ en on the goddess's hands
and tho plumes on tho hon<'s hcod, " hoch
resembles reprcscntotions of Egyptian
1'0\'01-chanot han<._
The dcptction ofthe nude goddess on
thc Lachish plaque displa)~ • ~ affinoty
to represcntD.tions ofthe nude goddess
Lachash goddess IS undcar, )<t her tics to
the Clou>nne figurcs, on tho onc hand, and
to rcprcscnt>uonsofQ!Icshct on E.n-ptoan
stebc,on the oth<r, SUII!Cst th:at she \\'OS
aSSOct>ted ""h croUosm and fen dot)
Tho plaque,..., found omong the
debnsofthc temple ofl.c>el VI, "hoch
dotes from the lost phase of EIIl'J>II•n
dominion m ~noun (ea 1:t00-11)0 RCE).
It probably was ongmally JSSOC:iJtcd
wnh tha.s ltmple :md w:as muul:ated :and
disarded m the course of its dc~ ructton
The local productoon of the plaque ts

108(
 The \lek>l Steb as ofpanrcubr
[40] Tho Mekal Stela
Sl(!,mfic;ancc bcc~u~. ~lthough 1115 mall
rc~rcccs :a dJs~ec Egypu:an funerary steiOl,
II depoe!< a non·Egypu>n gocl, idcnuficd
b) nome» "Mck>l, Cod of Beth Shean."
surpris•ng todascO\era dctt) hathcno
unlnO\\"n from both the btbhal u;aduion
•nd the epographoc COtJ"''· The Mcl..:tl
Stcl.a l'i an ln\~lu;able \\1tnCi\, one of the
cumplcsofEgypu:1n t'uncr-~t)
\CI') (c\\

The '-td.JI Stcl.al 1111 [g_\ !"C.ln tunc1.U)
\tdJ ol the RJn'l'Uide 1\-noJ Ja"O\c«J
anuquu'·''"·arc:a ~fl11hleJir\1m
\UI'\1\10}! lrJi:m('m and 1 rk''" ;almo...t
C\lmpktc• .1hhou~h lHl~OUJI rut 1\
hcJ\ 11\ JJmJ~tCJ anJ n lon~l!r n:J1.bblc
The: .. tc.-b •~ nu:ed an t\\\1
hunr,,nul rq:l'h:u ! ~hl\ C'IUJI
\IU The Ufi'"r n.·~u:cr ltJtUf('\ .J pi
\ eJteJ (ll\ .a chron<' aaJ hoiJana! ,a ....u·
\4.:crtcr (n·rt~:'\C'I'IHng.d marunnl .1nJ
Jn ~nth (r..:ru:s.enunt; hrd. lle tJ(e'
t\\o "l'r\harcr,,cJ...h (ll "hh.h ~unJ,
"uh (lilt: Jml r;;u'}.CJ 10 .1 ~~ .. turc "'t
JJl,rJtton ~nJ the t>thc.:r h•"IJ&ng .1 k~tu">
llu\\Cf In the h>"crrt~l'tcr,t\\0 Ndly
d.anu~cJ h)!U"~' .uc JcrtctcJ, one ot
them \..nt:ehn~.thc och~:r one \IJnJ1n~
~lund hun. :rhe '"'"npuon an 1hr
UpJ~r re~I'IC.~r tJCnlltlCS the glld JnJ the
t"o \\llf\h&rcr\. '"\tck;~l. God oflkth
Sheon (obO\ethc ~od), "The Arthii<CI
Amcncmopc"" (Jbo\c the lett '"t.'nh•rcr)
anJ "'lh\ ~n P;~r.acmhcb"' (;~bo\c lht
nght "oohtpc•). The tc).t m the 10\\CT
fqtl\tCr. JO .J)OlO).I complcu~l) pn:scncd
funcr.lr) msc:nrc.ion .JeJa.::Jtcd co \tcUI
b) I'Jr>emhebon bch•lf ofht>U<"<<>.,.d
f.athcr, rc;tJ~... RO)·.ll ortcnn(t tOr Mek.tl,
the wc.tt god, ctut he m1g.ht g.r.1nt rou
htc. pre»pcnt)·, hc.Jlth, alcnnes.s, honor,
10\·c,d&~tcuon, t'rccdomol mO\cment,
unul you hJ\'C rcJc.:heJ the st.nc of
\-encrablc 10 J'C.l«· for the 3-0UI (tJ) ot
the one honored b) his god, the .an:hncct
Anu:ncmo(lC, JU.SIII1Cd ( r
MorcU\Cr, the stciJ ".l' ,hSCO\crcd '"
std.le found m the Lc\ ;ant d<!p1ct1ng .1
local Leunune god 1t pr0\·1dc~ ,.,\,d,
ll<:th Shcon r~<clf, the gocl's own C11). II
first·h;and te.sumon)' to the (;ascinJtang
\\;n crc"tcd dunng the R:amc\stdc Pcnod
(CJ llOO lt008CE),\\hCnCJnnn\\JS
Jnd hoghl) ontercuhur:ol mihcu of the
Ute Bronze Age 'Nev. K&ngdom. wh«:n
undco E!!)l'll•n control and Beth Sheon
EgypUJO ~ld&crs occur•ed C:an;a:an Jnd
Ep-ru<ln (:.lm\On. The su~IJ
\\J.<Ij .1 mJICf
Cmunatc gods"-cre\cncr.ltcd 10 E.nl't.
~em,. tll hJ\C been crcctN b) E~-ruan.s..
J\ \Ugt!CS1N ~
1
the \\Or'\h1J'CB n:amc..s EL
onJ dot hong At tho< umc, t.c-onune gods
anJ goJde).CS, 11u~h .u lb J.l. Rr~hct, RclacrKn.
l1wm~ 19·o, v,n..:C1U t9!R
An.at, JnJ Munc, ''ere C\trcmch
J'<'puloron Eg\l't, ••en amongtherO';>I
IJmoh ("" pp 101 ll Although mon)
(41) S1ola dodiattod to t ho loddOII AMI
E~TUJn •n~nr11ons mcnuon tht~
~ Sr
lc\Jnunc b-od'-! \tclr..ll rtmOJm.S to this
... tnc •u•f -lwC. t.. •'' r! .... '"
dJ~ .a m<\"'1 m)'tcm>Ui del C). lit) n.tmc
.... ''"' ""'I 3~ ~-
nc,cr ;~rre;an m ES'vu.an •n.scnrtton'
out <ode ll<th Sheon, and he lac'-> s..-cur<
Th1s Eg)'J'ti.~n~ lc \tcb ~how~ .1
.auc\UUOI\l mother Anc1cnt Nc:ar
wOBhlrcr r.using ha.) h;anc.ls 10 ;a gc>ture of
f JStcm In\ thol~h:ll .:and religiOUS IC\b
o~dor.mon ~fore: 2 goddcs.s dcpa"'1cd on
J\Y.dl. ths u."'n~n.ph). h(J\\C\Cr, ''not
th~ lc:ll. Bet'\\ ten the tigu~s 1s1n orfc:nng
""huul paroll<l• Mc~olsharcs l)l't<>l
13blc ''1lh .1 jar .and .1 lot'" 110\\"Cr. The
acone>grJphac trJIIS \\1th other l.c:\anun~
goddt:n a.s dCJ"~cJ ,,,th con\ cnuon:tl
m•le £od• o>th<)' •rrc•• on Egypu~n
Eg)'ptW' da\ me :attnbuto. ~he w~:tD :a
ro:c" ~~n~d()R'I ~tdu. ths bc.ud, holl\.),
«r<ton of the .~ufcrown ond hoiJs the
;and con&c;alli.JrJ, dung;~ ted b) :a nbbon
•nklt Sign oflile in her n~ht hond and the
dcsu~nJang unullncC' lcxcl•.u~ :al.so sccn
•w sccrt« ofdomiOtOO m her left hJ-nd
m der•cuotu o(thc ~ucr-~-n god The lMCf1f"C100 ;abO\.-c the ngurcs, wnucn
e;a·.tl, \\h&lc the tOrehud b~nd. knout\~
111 fi\C \crll<3liU>CS,tndudes the st>ndonl
Jt the N~k .tnJ dcsc~ndang unul \\.tiSI
tunc~" fonnub. uucndcd to ensure .1n
I<\ <I," more 1)1"<>1 of the goo Rnhd
eternal suppll oi olfeM!;' fe< the srda"s
The Jo><O''<'l ol the .,c~. ,.,monds us
0\\0Cr, edcntihC'd as ncsuukht.lhc
how hmatcd our lnO\' lcJ~c of:anctcnt
t:<>Jdesson,ol.ed is Mot, "Lad) of the Ski,
C.JnJJnnc rdig.1on as.. ,,uh \ 1r1ualh·
\I "tre>S ol All the c;o.h.•
no ;a\·;aaiJ~Ic Can;a;~nitc r~hgux.t1tt''<b t\nJt ".1S OM of the CJ.nnnatc dcaliC',
ongm.mn~ 1rom '''thm the bdrden Introduced 11110 Eg\'pt dunng the NC\\
of prc~nt·dJ)' br.u~l.lt IS thUS not

Eaypt~:tn Emp~tel111
Kmgdom. ikr ,~,

ll1sdepu.1~J c•n"
before her I kr I"
~•gn ,.. 011"' mdu. t
n01mcd one''' h1'

goJde>S ll"thor
1 he: hu:·n,:hr ~..
"ell J\ tht: dt.•J.r t ~ rt n k. n~urhl4.
C'OOIC').I ot thl\ ..tel.. I' mt tolb rroJ.u~...U'-"1

t') E"ru..1n.m'~""'''' n t~T"'"'"

"or<.h1rer. Yet the: m<~tau.l JnJ t~xJuon ot
the ~tdJ atlkth 'hC" n snJh.JtC th.:u 11"~~
m;adc Ill ClnJ.an. rrl bJhh .u 1\c.: th IOihrJn.
The \tela \\J' tounJ 1n th("nNthc:m h.:m('lt
of LC\d \ • Nt ht-.t th< \Utuc ol R.lmC'\'b
Ill (\t'e no. !loll, It mo...t pn,l'tJbh ongm~h.o.J
m Lc\d \'I, the IJ"-l lt\ rl M li!\ rt•Jn
OC'CUpJuon .u the 1h: dJung to th< rc1p.n ol
Ramt\\.C) Ill. 111' unl-..n..w.n "hcthcr AnJt
\-\as"~'rcJ 10.1 lo....tltc:mplc at lklh
She.tn or \\hC:thcr the '"'Pir.IIIOO tor tha~
Me b. 4.";JffiC: hom lJOpl. \\here huth MJI
and pn\·~IC' \\O~h1p of An~I ,lt< ~ltt:':llt'd 10
1he R3mcs\ldc l'~nod.
DBT
flcf~R'n«\
Com~hu,zoo~.111-1:,no \I ~C't~JO,
Jl·JJ,J'I so:l, km\(' ''~_.u. ;t,lt u. rl"-
>..xxv J. l.X'\'A·t, l.aU~.I ZOtl9,;1
[42) F-.gmontary rollol deplctln& tho
&od Seth
l J ' to '• 1. "'-rr.:&d~ l!fm ... O•h
lir :»·llt"cv"tury&:EJ
~me~t:nc H 70cm :... zcm 1-\:.
10~ 1a71J
Tht> <mJII fr>gmentJI) rchcl he>" the
rm•t;< of the Etn pu.tn ~od S<th tn ht>
m)1hac.JI·Jmmal fonn, crouchang, .tnd
\\c:~nn~ a uro~cuson h1s fort"hcJd. In from
or hrm Jrc the hrcr<>f!l)l'hs compn>~~~g
the 110rd "Gods." 11hteh rs gcncr>lh
C'OO.)tdcred 10 ~ rJn of the IIIIC kmg Ol
the God<." arphcd here ro Seth. The sl>b
w:u ongrn>ll) d>ted to the 11>"-" " l'cnod
10 \ IC\\ or Seth\ pronuncnl rosinon .lt
A\ Jn>. lfOWC\Cr, ll3CtUJit) t,biCS irom
the R;amc~"-adc f"conod, \\hen the cult of
Sethw.a( rC\1\ed in &hce;utem OchJ
c:~rutJJ ol P•·R3m<SSc.., ;and Seth b«otmc
JUUOUor U> Nkn. Tht Rmlc.ss.ulc dJtc
r ..enu..~h 0}11.tSri« {... PI'· 6;-68)
It "funher <UJ'POn<d b)•the rani)· or
rcpr<S<nt>uonsofS<th rn the II)~
!'<nod rn Eg~v< >nd the sr,tuuc srmtbnl)
of thiS ronn>·•t ofS<th 10 o•mptcs d>ung
from the !Um<S>Idc !'<nod rn Eg~v<
Tht' tngmcntJI') \l~b "u found
rn >«and.>'} u.IC rn the Ar>b nlbg< of
El·Q)Ibetb<'h.lt "'" rrolnbl) onguutl)
ununhcd •• the >dt.>«nl Tel Slubt: "here
HUI\<) m"<>i<d lind<trom the Mt.ldl<
Hronz< A~ethrou~h the r<B~Jn !'<nod. Td
ShalafJSioencd I<'}~ roth< ~u .llans,
the m.un tr.ldt' route JJong the l.c'\"3nl1nt'
COlSt, \1UIIo the Eg>ftWl :~dmuu~nuon 111
~ Th<ro<"bohn·oftheemten<'Cof
Jn Eg~-pwn outp<Kt>l th< qte >ltould 1101 b<'
ruled out Tbesbbnu) h>l"<b<'long<dtoa
bwJJang $ot:C\ 1ng lgyruans S1~11oncd there.
DBT
~ICrt'n<.Tt.;
Coki\\~S-~f l99lo lt'l~lf(.h 19S:

t<>upp«tcd b! the romrl<te >Men<'< of

ll)l-)01 rtnoJ monuments m the Lc\Jnt, 2s
orro~ to I he: IJf\tC numbe-r of monument>
from the urn< of th< Nrn<t«nth •nd
[43) E&Yptlan funor>''/ o.\ oll of ltu·Ba al
and Mesutu

rs. r~\,,n~u...h
•nJ,m<lhng
&No\<
them IJ(OIII\ thciiLli\D JUJ-1\~ al ;~nJ
the \'\OOlJO .l~ \ \ U.1
OJ.O\C\,Imrl\10~ tbJt the: t \\J' pi
CJnJ.an•tr f>npn, ~ \o'K:\ ~re f'}rtr.t\t.:J
on C<'mcno!M.II [j:j"f'l1ll'd' '"" "'f'Jt
l)!'rt•.an t\ll'\(r-.J"l ~ lhcll\chonzont.ll [44] Cyllnder•ul deplctln& Ramos. .• 11
n:cuhcr the oopM rontc\t ot the ucb nor
hnc:' ot tc\1 ~the i:CM. "bk:h tmt-lr..r wi th a ~naan1te cod
'M.'Ur. )!pJ c)t th.: :.l.:mrt\it~t n«nlf'Ch...,
It\ rtJlC Ol4,iJ\CO\CI'\ Jr'r l.no\\'n v, .,
t. s '·
,mJ <..r.•n'. ru)('r 11hc wortJi.'l the Jc-.1J.
OBT
•nduJc.•th.: .. wnJ.anliUtl('rJ.I'\ tt)flllub
lt•:h:Kn..t:\
tntcnJcJ hJ1!nWr-: .1n ttcm.JI 'urrh CJI u..,,., l'l~t~. , ..,, 1\'ftcr .tnJ M-»' NY'Q. no.
t'ltcnng' IN the." ..t~IJ .. cwnc:K h thu' ,..._)\~<'•!ICl ThiS claboDtc C') lander '\CJI futures J
\Ccm,th.at ltu-1\.lJIJnJ :O.h:wtu,,h.>\,nm COT1\'COUOnJIImJ~C Ol RJ.mC\,CS 11 3'
t\'rh•..ll • ~ ru.an g.utHlO .. l)'J*=.ll Eg\l'UJO the \·ICIOOOUS rh JrJoh ~hooung JfT'O\\'S
~tcl.l.. h.aJ cnt•n:h J\\1ma1Jtcd Et:)rttJn ~~a target m the Jhapc ol :a ~:~per mgot
The kJng. odcnuficJ b\ ho< throne nJmc
cuhur.al trJil~
An ulh:rc,tmttelcmcnt on the ,u,:b, cndo~eJ lR .1 artouchr, ''un the Blue
rcl;u~ h> 1-.~ruJn..C...n.aJnuc:cuhunl Crown, o~uentl\ •rrc•nng on ro) >I
\,JrS("(ncs. The IJfltCll.Sp1CKtJ b\ 1hrce
lntcr.acuon.t" tl'\(o ''J\ ~h.! thccVhooc .umc
JrN\\SlnJ h35 01 MI('POrtiOg J'IO\t tO \\hiCh
ltu·ll.nl tr<rlur>•'""''lJ'cJ """ ohe """"
\'JdUJ I» Jl, •l\..no\\1\ Ol & Jf) h \\""'IICO.
f\\0 CJn,umtc pru.onc~ arc bound.
S\mboltzmg the lUlit'< ~bJucd cncmtcs
FoUOI\cJ b) oh< '<:oh·Jrun»l ho<n>¢11'h ••
and the otctuJitargrt o t h•~ Jri'O\'" At the
J ciJ\~hcr,lt rcll«'1\ the S)l'k,efo~m. ~hmng
oppos1tc end of the \Ccnc "a C3nnnuc
the R.;amc,\ldC PcnoJ~ of the CJnJ~Ite
~ \\ ho p~scnts .1 )C&mnJr to the ling.
Slomogod hJJI>nJ the: El!)l''"'" t;o.l ol
A rrotccti\C "'"i-."C\1 totJcon .1nJ J rJMT\1..)
<hJO> <;coh IIJ·•I·Scth ""I''"""' olth< rt""' JOe Jcpoctcd b<hmd ohel.on~. •nJ
R.;am6~K.Ic: ph.;aro~olb. ;u\d he .lrf'CJDon J tF•C 221 Scarabt Wttn reptestnl~t.ons of
St)h•cJ pl>ntsrill ohecmrl) •r•«•
\"J.OCt\ of E~ ru~n monuments, both ro);&l tM COd S.th 1n h•l U3dtt•onal EcYPU.n
;mJ fiO\ate (~e no. -¥4 .tnd hg !l). rorm (left) and •• the canaan•t• ~··•·Seth ~mc-cn the fiP,Uff'
(n&htJ. both show•nalh• COd encased .n CoO\COliOO~I rcrn:~Ol.liiOniOf the
The random d;unJgc 10 the: )UtfJt."C of
tM EI)'Ptlo1n myth•c.al ntUAI of sl,)y.nc the \ IC10n0U.S rh.lrJOh rt'\."Cl\ ll1iC, ~ $C1mUJr
the )h.: I;~ po1nt.lt co 1ti reu5C '"a llu~rpcnoJ. serpent Apoph•l
"''Of'PO'Kd t o Llehbcr.Uc n•uul.liiOO, but
from • god S}mbolizc the cere mono >I
tr:msfcrofthc sword of•i<IOI)to the
king, which was 1ntendcd to guar.~ntee hi.s
tnumph dunng milital)· camp;ugns. Such
scenes appear during the New Kingdom
on glyptic as well as monumental an,
usuallr along \\1th the imago of Amun·
Rc, hcad ofthc Eg)'Ptian pantheon at
that time (sec no. ;6). Thc idcnmy ofthc
Canaanitc god dcpo<lcd on thos scalos
unccn:un The crown and d othi.ng are
thc convcntionalanirc of both Ba'al·Scth
and Rcshcfon Ncw Kingdom an, but
thc dosungw,lung mark on thc forchcad
IS damagcd and thcrcforc cannot bc
conclw"'Cl)' idcntificd as cothcr thc
horns ofllo'al·Scth or the guellc head
of Rcshcf. Thc innial publicauon of the
scalrcstorcd a rcdoning Seth l nimol
n<Xt to thc god's hcad, wruch would
clcarl\ identif1· the god as thc 5) ncwizcd
Ba'al·Scth Yctthisp011oftheseal os
also badly damaged, and the restoration
connot bc substantiated Nc,·ertheless,
the cultic context ofthe seen• supporu
the identification of the god as Bni-Seth
as oppo>ed to Rcshef. While the image
ofRcshef appeor> in New Kingdom
Eg)-pt exc:lusi,·elyon priv~te monuments
(see no. 37), Bo'al·Scth, as patron god
of the Rame<sode pharaohs, isdepi<led
together wuh the king in scenes on royal
monuments, mdudtnglhoq: repr~ntjng
the ceremonoalll3nsfer ofthc sword of
\1<lory. A rcliefat Karnak shO\\ing the
god Seth teaching Thutmose Ill how to
shoot .,;th • bow may provode addouonal
suppon for this idcnufic:.uon.
The iconographic conle:c:t of the
seal indiate it \\~S mode by an Egyp1121n
ani.san, but whether u was imponed from
118(
E~t~'Pt or produced locally at Bcth Shean
is unknown.
OBT
R.cfcn:n«S:
ComehU) 1994, 104oo06. no. RM16i Ktcllnd
tkhlinger 1998, 90-91; Ro\\c 19)61 no. S.61;
Tun.-, 2009, SJ·S4· dOC\Iment 41
(45) CyUndor aool dopoctong an E&Yptlan
kine with tho Caddell Asteno
S..:hel N~\ KongdOIT\, 19thllynasty(1:0th
century BCEJ• I Glazed compo&>t.on I H 2 6
em 0 1 1 em IIAA 1 1935·4442
Lal:c the qiinder seal from Beth Shean
(sec no. 44), thi1 qionder seal ponra1·•
an Eg)'Ptian lang in the compan~ of
a Cana:amtc deny, 1n this c;a.se, th~
goddess Asl3n e The lang, "ho faces the
goddess, is dt picted r.usmg a scimu~r
on his nght hand Both he and the
goddess hold a long spear. The spear>
Hank a central hocrogi)'Phoc onscnptoon,
whoch identifies the goddess as Astan e;
the king, ~·c,·er, IS not identified by
name. A.surtc w.1s rtl:ucd an C:mn nlle
mytholog)' to the gods 8a al and An o
She w:.s a.ssociared \\ith sexu:aht'
:and fcruluy, but also considcrtd :an
inllnlld.Jtlnggoddessofw;ar The l.1t \:T
aspect W3~ emphasized '" New Km• J lm
Egyp1, where Astarte W3'> linked ltl
chan ou and horses and \\:as rc~JrJc:~t
tlS protector of the ph;araoh 's chJrior
'"
battle Like oll>er C:tnaanite 1\od' Junng
th1.s pe:nod, she \\>J\ mtcg~tc:d mh•
the Eg)plian pantheon, bcrommt:: the
daughter of the sun god Rc, the dJu~hocr
of the Memphue god l'tah, and the""''
of the god Seth.
Eg)'f)f:i:m dcpacuonsof A\tJnc
usually show her naked, seated on the
back ofa hor>< and holding, "e>J'>II
HO\\CVcr, she IS somenmes rcprc,~ntC"J
standing m :a peaceful ;auuude or .1,
.1 wamor sr.1ndmg or sc;atcd, holJm.:
\\Upon~ :1nd \\C3nng oalongdre\' .tnJ
th~ 1-;g)--ptian At~fCrown, as on tha .. 'c.al
A5t3riCI.S rcprc~cntcd on NC\'t l\.in~dom
monuments an Eg} pt together ,.. uh other
gods- Egypu.:m as wcll.u Can;a;amrc
and with kongsofthe Eightctnth and
N1nttcenth Dyn:asties, as well Js non·
roy;)] \\Of'h•~" A temple,,,~, dcd1c.ueJ
to her U\ th~ R.Jme u~ tlpHJII~·
R:amcsse. 'uu~tc."' I m t c CJ.,t( m Oclu
The 1Jcnuh .. J.t • n "'f the m.tlc h~rc
on rhts ~JI J~ the L '~.:untrO\cr".ll
It has been rn'l" '~ .t rhc figure
reprc~nh tht· l .. u u· •c: .:•~ 1\J Jl. tn
\ieW Ot the d CIHt"l r truJ1n~ fnln\ ht~
crown, imcrrrctc 1 ,., • c hlmh ot the
god\uown. ll \H . . . . on thc.~ Ucth
She.tn \c:.tl f.,cc Nl ""' , ti:L" tl~ur~.· \'\CJ,...
the Blue CM'"·"'' .. t~J c.·\du..i\Ch
W Hh the rhlr .ltlf1 \ a., "- ~mm~h Jf}!Ue\
fori he 1dcnul·~o. :at on 1 c h~ure J\ th~
lr.mg Th1" mtcrrrC'' : n h 'uppoc-trd ~
rhc Ud th.tt tmh the _,'o..IJr:'"' '' ...knuru:J
~ nJffi(' 1 he rh~trudan~ dement .ltlh('
lront olthr l·nw.n '' Oll.""~fc lakd) .1 ur.lt:U\
Th~ '~.al ''·" hl\lnJ .lllhlO~ Jc:bn;.
daung lnm11hC" \t1JJI~ Bwnn· r\~c to
th(' Iron Aitc I, .anJ at h thcrehm.• d1thcult
(0 ('StJNI\h II\ rn.~l\~ J.ltC. lltmC\er,
portraph.ot the J:l,JJc,, A\t.artc \\ath
the E~")(liiJn lan~un othl·r f~\"JH&.an
monumencs pomttc.l the ~metccnth
Dynnry A~ an the c.: a~ of the Beth Sh,Jn
qhndcr ~~l.thc Bethel ~ell \\'.l\ mo~t
probably made b)· an EgyptiJn .lrW•.IIl.
though \\hethcr U W:l~ rroduced 1.0 Eg)"J'I
or C:lna::an U unkno\\·n.
DIIT
R.c(rrcnco
ConKIJUS!00~,! " · !9,nl.J IIO;Jtov.C I9tll.
no. S.60A, T.nlw) :009,1UJ. d"-'umcniiS
(41) Cult nlchu with octa&onal columns
I "':. 1
A 1 JS":E
\.f"' l ~ 'tt•t.llU '>.1-..... pnH(.t
st.~ , 7 )c; ILAA 152' •.....
• .:.2 l ..·J 19a2 t...s 1tlJ:j ·"~ 1-:;):'
() 210 7
In the l980,, a m.;a~mhcent lcmple from
the end of the pcnod of the El!)ptoan
lmrne an C.:annn C'J\\cntu:th D\11J~t)·}
\\.l!t e"<cJuttd :u 1hc summit ot Tel
l.Jcha'h It li J'IO)S.Ible that it won r~n ot
a 11>)>1 r•btoal <omple< and''"' thw
<alleJ I>) ou c.ravaot>r. "thc Acropohs
Tcmrlt.'" Tht ctntr.JI wing of the trmple
u'k.:lud~J an antcch;~mbC'r, a m.un h;aiJ,
.md a c.:ella, ''h!Ch \\ere bwh on three
Jalterentle\el\ the m.un hilll W;J.S higher
than the .antc.o.c;hJmbc•, and an 1mprrs.si"e
\t.urc.:J~r \ef'.lr.ttcd che matn h.tll from
thc<ciiJ, the hoghe>t p•n of the temple.
The m:un hall \\;U rect~ngu1Jr1n
\h~pcJnd mea}urN IJ ~o 1 16.50 m.
At u.s center, mo round hme~tone
column b.t.scs \\ere unc.artheJ on \\hach
the l"'iumns thJt )uppor1ed us root
undoubredl) re!tted It llo rra.son.tble
to J ..~ume thJI3 rr.agmcnt.al'\ column
(:lpn.al, \\hach "u tound tn scronJ..lr)•
me at the ~ate 1n JIJter contcxl, sheds
hght on rhe )£) lr o(thc c.tpltals th:u
)urmountcd rhe column.) ln the temple's
central hilll 111e el(J\.&tor ot rhe crmple
rcu>mtnn.ced chc fro~gmcnt aJ be&ongmg
to •n E!:)"!'IOJn•,t)IC r•J'I'I'US·ShJpcd
CJpatJI (sec no. ~1).
AIJJJCt'nttO the iC.lirt.lSC lr.:admg
up 10 the tcll;a,chrce round column
b.UCiWt'rcJI.JCO\Cretf. The bJRSWCrt'
.anached to the ,,JII b) me.tns oh
plil<tercd brick pal.tSteror parr. Two of
che b;a~cs fciltucc a c.tn<"d cil't'le on top,
moarkmgrhc place where the column
the} rupponcd stood, they also h.-e
four maseJ lines thoat d1\1de the bJse
into quJrtcn.•ndJC.tling the center of
b .. the base The thoro b>sc, b) conorast,
bears a n:hef mark.tng che po.suion of an
ocugonoal column. Some e1ght meu:rs
(rom \\here the ba.sc~ \•.-ere found.
;a complete ocugon;~l column wu
doS<O\·ered l)ing on the ftoor; fragments
of n"o ;addluonal oclagon;al columns
were found m the temple and elK\\ hen:
on the tell The thrrt columns .tppc:.tr 10
h;a\e b«nadentinl:octagon.tl m \h;~pr.
tarcnng 10\'-ard the cop, and swmoun1ed
b) a square cpotal, the sode> ol "'hoch
a.hgn \\,th four of the s1dcs of the column.
The bases and the columns .lrc m.tde
ofch;a.lk \\hlc."hu\Cr) common in the
\' IC101t) Ol l.ach1Sh
It seems thJt the thn:t bases and
three columns th:n stO<Jd on them formtd
two adjo1mng ruche~ A dern:ssion
prcscn c.1 ot ohc lop ofthe complete
column indicates thac the columns were
connectL-d b)' mc.1ns of 2 hntel. h ai)O
.:aprc:an that chc nichrs were roofed The
prime IOC"3tionofthc naches. ne:tt to I he
cclb'soucer\\"3ll,l";acing the ccntnl hall,
JIICSts co their impon.:ancc. They were
so cn1 d«r. So em ,,,Jc, and 1S0 cm
high. Thus tt 1.s reuon.:ablc to uwme that
thc)'\\trecult niches 1n \\hich starves
or SJcred scebe \\ere e~teJ, but \\ hich
h:a\-c not been rre.stn·W
(A-.:;~gonJI columns \\lth 'qture
carn;a.ls. 3S \\~II utolumn t.a\C~
resembling those diSCO\.-erN .:at U c.hi\h,
;ate\\ellknownfrom Eg)'J'(.. Thq lun
come to light in monumenc;~l ~uildin&s
ond tombs daung as for back as the OIJ
1\ingdom, but the)' were mc»t common
E&YPIIIIn Emplte J 117
 dunng tho \hJdlo Kmgdnm, ~~.for
namf'lo,on thot<mf'lo of \l<nluhorCJl II
at Dcu <I·IIJhan and mon< ofth<tomM
;ulkn• Hu~n. In a tcmrlc: c\U\atcd ~•
Toll Balatal~h<chcm) "molar jb\11 not
od<nucal) llut<d column<"""' found,
butthC) OHC d1fhcuh 10 dJIC In Jn~ CJ(C1
the column~ trom LJlhl,h, ;u \\ell those
tn.1m Sh«.hcm• .1~ 1hc onh C\ •de nee
fn•m Cl~an oiiJ~o:cu~J £f:\"f'U.lO·)" lc
1."C'olumnc, Lru:rwn to dliC
In the u~IIJ or the A..:NJ"Qh\
Tcmrl< atl.l'h"h a gold rlaqu< ..,,.
tou.nJ tn~l\4:J \\llh the 1mJgc ot i1 nude
~d<« stJndmg on a"""" II<< no. J9)
An an~.:•....cJ 1m.tgc ot .1 Cln.l.lMIIC god,
probl~l\ Rc'hct, \\J\ .al\0 d1\C\l\crcJ an
1he tcmrlc Ahhou~h Ill\ c.ull unknm'-n
to "twm 1h•\ tcmrlc \\J~ JcJ,c.;ucd, us
lorm JnJ J)W\.,,;uN hn~h clurl) o~ucst
dut tt \\l~ .1 C;Jn.-un•lc 1cmplc dN•c.uN
h> J lo.;al goJ, goJJc", or grour of
JctCIC\ At the \.lmt" umc, rJn1ruiJr
JJ"(hlh!crllr.&l clements l11C\IlO lhc
EmpuJn mllu~ncc on c .m 2JR ;anJ to the
am•tJuon .mJ .;aJoruon ofthe [g)flOJn
u;~dauon o t monumcnul con~trucuon M
the: Dnnmte nahng d;t\~ ~nd rdtJIOUS
est.abh110hmc:nl
EA
Ftclt:rtfk"fi.
Artk..a.J :"'u.t·(l -. l'w~lln :oo.... ::q \8..
li~,,\hl..ln :oH. uo· ~Y. nr • 6 • • Wnt:ht
l'i<>l
,,.,
[47) InlAy ploque depl<tonc a tanunote
ruler
•us•c ll"'"t, ts·lrc.nt.( lA
~JU· 130 BCEl t..gry ..,. 5 7 em
,•, 26crnTh o I~ em I.V. 193, 1eo
In the <arl) Iron Ag< rhuoofthe palace
of tho rulcrofM<goddo,th<larJ!<Siand
mosltmpon.,nt collc:cuon of 1\0nc:~
trom Ihe ll.me ot the Eg\fU~n Emptre an
c.uu.~n '"u IC:\e;alcd. TlusDn.urute
r;tl.lf:t \UScon<truuC\1 dunng lhe Ute
Bronz< Ag< IlA, •round 1400 BCE.
;t.nd undcno.ent mtnorch;t.ngcs Wllll
tlS hnll de~arucuon an the Iron Age lA.
around 11!0 BCE. Tho most omportJnl
'omponent ofrhe p;aiJcc \\;i.S ats spl c1ous
counpnl, "hich _,., sunoundcd b)
four \\lOg\ The rJilcC hlS not }"('I
been C:'<1,.3\otlcJ tn us cnll~t). buill is
~unuced to h~" c Ck.~ptcd ~ ;arc;t of
~s' so m ;t,nJ seems 10 h.;a\·c ~n ~n
tm~<.St\c ~lfU(tur( tnd«d Dunng th
IJtt: ph;t~ ;an underground \\'C.Sicm \\lng
"" aJd<d, " hoch mdud<d th...c rooms.
In thiS \\lnp., cl llcd 1he .. tn:'UUt') ... a
pJrttruiJrl~ b rge c-ache or' luXU') 11cm<
;and ~\\ell')· nmc 10 hgh1- \lost oflhc
ttcms l~ mJdc of l\'01)
Som< 3~0 1\01')" obt«IS, <OIJ«t«<
0\"Cr lhc: ..oun.c of dcat.lc~ by lhc: Clt\ ·,
rulers. \\Crc tound 10 the trcuW')
Sll flqJc ;an011)1U n::\c.llcd thl t some of
the ncm.s wen: nn·N b\ lonllrtiSt.i,
'"hale othcn Wt'IC tmrortcd from Egypt,
5)'1'13. Jnd ewn IIJIU (T\Irl.<\ ) Jnd
\l)ttOlC (m;unbnd GrcC'C'C'). The OOj~,."Cts
\\(l't' ("',Jr\cd from the lctth on oc.al or
NaJouc happoroumu.sc.s and from the
tu'ks or Afnnn or Jnda;an cleph:;mt.s.
M<»t of them scncd .u: ml.l\') for wooden
bou -s and fumaturr. though chen: \\l:'rc
Eayptu•n Emp•,•l 119
""""' compl<t~ it~ms, such as boxes,
combs, bowls. <.'OSm<:tic contomers,
and gam~ boanls. Nt>'ertheloss, th~
exa.,.llonSm'ealed that "'"n th~ mla)s
,.,., <OIIec:ted u tVOf)' obJects in thetr
own right, having be<on remO\'ed from
~objects to ,.iuth they were attothed
bc!fore bc!ing stored in ~ ll'easwy;
indeed, it appnrs that man) of the ini>)'S
....,,.. already damaged when the) """'
stored m ~ ll'eUW)' In tenns of sljle,
this impressive eollec:tion has bc!en dated
10 ~ founeenth-1\\eltlh eenlllr) BCE.
A model pen case found tn ~ ll'easury
bc!aring ~name ofRamesseslll, who
ruled from n 8s-nsJ BCE (see no. J4),
as rouahl\ dated 10 ~ time when the
~mbly of~ <OIIeroon eeascod
t20 I
ScholatS ore d"aded os to the
funetion ofthe palate bascoment. \Vh)•
\\ere so many pr«aous Items found
there.? The eXCil\"JIOrs of the t~asurt
assumed that the ruler ofMeg.ddoat
the time was • eolleetor of ivory and that
he stored hos rolleeuon on the paloee.
Others ha.'e raised the possibility that
thlS w:as ~ tomb- an unlikely setnano,
smce no human bones were iden1ified
there. Still others ha« suggested that
eultoe aeti\ilf took pl•ee there; ond the
possibalit) was even r:used thot thiS hod
been an i\'Or)'¥.'0rk.shop. Howcver. u may
be! assumed thot this wOJ the ll'easuryof
the cit} 's ruler, a rcflectaon ofh1s riches
ond \\ealth Thelw<ury uems 11 rontamed
were goods troded b)•Megoddo's ruling
d)'llJSI)'O\..,rthe)ears,ondthe) \\ere
undoubtedly kept an order to contonuc to
be! used for rommerce ond eJCthan c The
nch ue-asure illustr.:nes the m:agnatiu:ncc:.
power, and strength of Megiddo
during the period ofEgyp11an rule Jn •
cmph.lSizcs ats important sc:uu~ Jm~'"
the Canaanne populotoon of the or<•
It IS particular!) note worth\ thJt th<
wory ploque from the treasuf) dcr~<t ' •
namU\'e scene \\hose chieffi~turc ''the
ruler of ~lc:g1ddo. The cngra\cd '' c nc ''
p;~inted black, to emrh;;asize the'"" 1~100\
The plaque has o few round hole> anJ
was origin:all)' an;ached to a pte"·c ot
wooden furniture h)' means ofnJal ... or
tacks, whach may hi.\·e also been mJJt"
ofi\'Or)'. Despite the piJque'• rem>rl• bl~
51;11C ofptC\Cf\ JlltiO, lntJII \CC1100\0f
11 h:l\t not SUM\cJ tht r.a\agcsofumt
Howc\·cr. there no J."'-'l'-1 th.u tha\ a.s
one oft he n\O\t ..pcctJ ul.u \\Orksof
Can:a;mue n.uuta\ ~art h) hJ\e come
dCMn 10 U\
The pbque '-kracts an epa\oJc an
I'-'O )("Cncs ...erJr,ucJ t., .1 rO\\ ofp.aprrus
110\\ers On the nght the CJn>anatc
ruler can be \ten 't.lndm~'" h1~ th.1no1,
retummg \lt..loriou ...l\ trom ~Julc. The
ch;~riot 1s dr.awn b) .1 r.;tlf ot hones,
dnvcn b) the ruler '' 'lh .1 \\har. n 1~
cquarrcd \\lth ;~ bn'"e 01nJ a qua\'t'r tull of
3rf0\\>. BchmJ thc ch.Jnvt I\ the ruler's
)OUthful:~rm\ N-Jrcr ~o:.:UT)lng :a scmuur
(~e no 48) T\\o naLcJ J nd bounJ
rnwnel"\, tt<"J h > the hones' hJmC\\-,
arc led by • soldacr anned Wlth a shoeld
and J spc3r The pnsoncn are bearded,
e' idcncc of the1r Semauc ongm.The
ruler as protected from abO\e by • \\1ngeJ
•un dask. Thas mouf ongonates on Eg)'J>t,
\\he~ It ''as one of the S} mbols of the
•un god, but 11 h•d di\'Cr5e signa ficanee
outside E~t~'J'I and as not alw>ys
understooJ
The scene on the left depoc:ts the
ume ruler suted on .1 throne during
the \1Cl0f) b>nquet held on has honor
Before hom mnds an eleg•ntl)· dressed
"oman, \\1th her nght h:and she prcscnlS
the ruler \\lth ~ t~ueiN g)rment, d~pcJ
U\<r her shouiJcr and down her bod
\Vath her left h>nJ she h•nJs hom a lOtus
ftO\•er In •II probabaht\, thJS os the ruler's
\\'&fc, "'ho recel\·es h1m tO) ally upon hu
rerum from b;mle. lkhmd her stands :a
wormn suumm.ing :a I)T't, :and, possibl),
singang. The mannc1 in \\tudt the wom<Jn
holds thelp-. and the f>c:t that sheos
pb)tng solo (os opposcod to an a musoal
ensemble) attest to the Can:a;~nite nlturc
of the scoene, 1\hach dolfers from Egypnan
scenesoflp-.-pb)1ng. lt appe•rs that the
ruler is we:aring a g:umcnt d1tfcrt:nt from
Lhc one worn m the right·h:and scene, and
:around hlS neck he we:ars .m 1mpreuwe
necklace He dnnks from a bo\\1 held on
hos nght hood, and in has left h•nd he
holds thelotustlO\\<rgl\'en to hom b)
hillS mfe. He is ~.:.ted on :a hag.h throne,
and hJS feet rest upon a low fooJStool
'The throne comrriJ.e.s two m;~gnaficcnt
sphinxes, th~ir winS' ou~.Sp~Ud (onl1•
one is visibl~ on~ plaqu~). Jkhind
the throne, two s.en ants carT)ing
drinlnng boo.is a~ visibl~. lktween
~m = ce~monoal drinking •-esseb in
zoomorphic sha~s and a larg~ •mphora-
hke '"'sse!, whach probabl) contoined
an akohohe be\..,rage, in all likelihood.
wine. The tranqwl, •lmost ad)ihc scene
is completed by four birds depact~d neor
the ruler. ~e a~ fl)i ng (Onl)• the t:UI
of one h., swvh...d, in the len pan of the
plaque), while one p«ks at the remains
of food on the ftoor, n~r the throne
~depiction on the plaque is
magnalicent. It relates, succinct!), a long
Story that as also told on four othem"Of)'
inla\'S uneanhcd an the Mq;addo treasuf).
In the bner, the story is 1old in greater
detail, but unfonun:uel)', these 1nlars are
poorly presen...d
The date of the plaqu~ is still the
subJect ofdebate Some scholars ossign
otto the thineenth centUf) BCE; others
prefer, on the basis ofiu 5f)'lt, a rwelnh-
cennuy BCE date \Yhatevcr the o se
may be, the loc:al style of the plaque
lu""' no room for doubt with regard
to the Canaamte origin of its artist and
t~ loa! source of ats maan motifs. Most
ofthemotifsa~dearl) C.noanitc,
., uemplificd by the d 056t known
porall~l - a banquet seen~ depacted on
~coffin of Ahirom, KingofByblos (an
present-day Lebanon) . E\·en though
the coffin oslater than the Megiddo
inlay, 11 dearly reflects the C.nunatc
artlltic tradiuon Hov.·a-er, apan from
the lool St}ie of the Mcgaddo onlay, the
pooportaons of the amages and the 0\·erall
formal arrangement of us motifs attest
to the fact that the C.nuntte elite, while
under El!}ptaan N le, adopted some ofthe
122 1
pnncoples of the Egyptian anmic anon.
Mor<O\..,r, th~ plaque uses tho Egypuan
moufs of the lotus 80\,·eo •nd \\1ngcd sun
dosk as ro~-:U symbols, and, the bards, as
""'II, ~m 10 be rendeoed wath Eg)'Pii>n
inspir.nion. The inlay thus provides door
e\ ide nee of the Canu nite elite's desire to
liken itsolf, if only on the srmbohc le,el,
to the sun"Ounding Egyptian woold.
We do not know \\lao d<stroyed
the palace of the NlerofMegiddo. lt
could ha.e been the Se• Peoples or the
proto-lsra<lite populauon ofthe lhll
Count.ry; altemouvel)•, tt tS possablo that
the anhabatants ofM<giddo thems<l.-es
rebell<d agaons1th<ir ruler and d<SifO)"'d
his residence In ;ny t\·cnl , :around the
nme of the Egypuan " ithdrawal from
Can:aan, the exqw.sitc 1\'01)' tte3Surc w~J
bwied, along \\i th the pi• que relaung
the deeds ofth< coty's Nler, oni)IO be
uncovcttd dunng the modem cxca\•Juon
of the bas< men I ofth< destfO)"d palace.
EA
Refercncn.
~melt t91.t,l5-lli f cld ntan 1009; Kanto r
19s6; Ktmpins.ki t939.tJ7· 41, t6;· 61;
l.cibowta t98o, Loud 1939, tJ, r l. 4:.t; Z1tfcr
zoos-
(48] S.nt sclmltat
Pro-.-enance unknr. ... n I Lute Bronze Ago
,15th-13thc•ntury BCEJ I Bronz•l L65cm
1before bend,"8)l''·t.J I69 13125
The se1mnar combmcs the adu ntagc.s
of the boule ... used fo..tnkt ng, with
those of the sword, us<d for cuuong.
Sctmttat'S fi"'t appeored on tho thard
millennium BCE an Mcsopol.tnua, and
they became qutte common on Syrio and
C:ana:~n in the second mttlcnnaum UCE
Thcar popul.tnty even finds c"Cpn: ~oton
in artJSUC rcprcsent;a.Lto ns, an \\ht~h lhC)
01c d epocted on the hands of gc><h nJ
worshipers.
Wtth tho strcngthcnang of uc
between C.n•on and Egypt du nn1 th<
Now Kingdom, th< ES}ptians ber "'
usmg 1hc scamuar as \\tell. Such \H".1~lO\
h ll\'C come to light 1n Eg}-pt, ;md in
Egypu::m art, a scimit.tr in the hJ.nJ ut
the kmg ben me a S)m bol of\ u:h'l'\
gr•ntod by tho god (u<uall)· Amun. s.•c
no 36). The Eg)'PII>n word for '"'milor
iskhqx1lr, v-hich luenlly mcJO\ -,h.1nk
ofbe<f." Thas apporentl) >tcm' fr,,m th<
rc:sc:mblancc bct\\CC:n S\\OrJ~ ul th1 .. type
•nd berfshon4 1n«rcmngl\. the "~rJ
khrp.->h also m<Jns strength anJ r<n•er
Two scimatilrSbclonl!mg to lan~
who Nl<d ot opposite enJ, of the Fenale
Cr<scent on the second half of the
second millenmum BCE 3re wC\nh\ ot
s~c1al mention: One u, ms,cnbc..·J \o,ath
the n;~me of Ad3d-niran I ot t\\S\TIJ
(tJOI- 1174 1lCE), the other wtth the n•m•
ol Rame>S<S II ofEID1'1 (lli9 1112!1CF).
nu::appc!'Jr.tncc of the namesot f'O\'erful
kangs on scimiun Jlle~t\ to the:
imporuncc and prc.stage oftha;) we:aron
The scinucar under di.scmsaon LS
made of bronze :and wu C3St 35 a smglc
poece, tho ongan•l anlo)· of the handle
h01s not sunivcd, but u m :~~· h:a\ c ~en of
1vory or \..-ood. It was tmenuonally bent
m anllqUIC)', when It went out of ui>C', a
S}'mbol or1h~ d<ath orthe \\>mor 1\hO
h.1d been Its owner o.nd m whose comb 11
\\ilS buried. Evidence for a simal.u euitom
anvol"ing the d asconcinuation of a swon.l·s
use by burying nina comb was unc;~nhcd
in a buri11l c:a\c at Td Gcdor, north o(
ttebron, where two bent scimuars were
found. Scami1.1rs h:wc also rome 10 light
\llmster Men~chcm Bqtin dunng has (49] Kohl conwnor
10 local C \ (.1\ Jtl~lO\, J(lr ln<tJn(t, Jl •.• "ddo l l..·t~Sr ":t:.. I'A 14th
,,~It 10 ~aroon Apnl z. 19:"'9· :1 \\CCL
Aphck. Gezer, Beth Sho•n, and lluor. In cenh..ry9CE Serpen "ta~jgotd H ~em
~tier che s1gnang of the his1onc pt;ace
a.JJ itiOO, tWO l\01) lOb)' trom ~lcguJdo I'• S5cm IAA 1'13~ 101i
tre•l)· bet\'e<n l<rJtl •nd Eg)l't· llae
d•'r iJ\ hgurc'l cOlIT) '"i:
s.amn;arS>. one
\\oodCn SCJnd on \o,hach t.M rcr lt(';lWU
dept<" • p.lr>Je c>l ch>n<'l< •nJ soldtcr1 Thcu 15 much e\idcn« for the use of
mounled IS ans<nbc-d an llcbrcw and
beano~ ~tmnJr..., the other .l)"OUih cosmetics an Ell}l't •s ror bJck as th•
A~btc ..ThiS iWOnl WJS ~nt JJOO )"C.lrS
CJ.nyang a )(lmltlr bchmd the chJnot of:. founh mallenniwn BCE-panicul•rll for
;agow th;at u \..ould ne\ .:rag;ain be used
cil)" ruler (<rocc no. 4i). ln bolh scenes the tho usc ofl<ohl. a lund ofbl•ck e)<hnor
for mJlung \\Jr. An 1denuc;al 1word,
S:\\onJs Jrc (Jmed on the shoulders ounng the 1ime of the New Kingdom,
thJI had not been bent, ,.,.,_s:appJrt:ntl)
lntetc)lmgl)'t the closcsl par.allcl lo l ohl became proctaollr the onl)•form
presented :as_. gatl IO Tur;anl h:amun, and
the )cimltJ r dt~d here \\'JS found of t'\ C makeup. and tt wu opplaed to
\ \U found tn has tomb... This, of course.
on tho 1omb ol Tutankhamun hJJ6 tJ>i both the conoours ofthe e)'<S and 10 the
,, Q r;an phn se of the \"ision of world
BCE); ..-en the ebon)' anlJ)'S of liS erciJ.sha.. Kohl was nocJUSt usN tOr
pe•ce cxpresscd b) <h< prophet iS>aoh
handle hl\e boon presc"od The grul aestheuc purposes. it seems thai u also
'"And lhC\ shall bc;at thearv.o,ords aniO
resemblance between the 1\\0 \o,e;apons helped pro<<ct the e1-,s from the de sen
piO\\<hoa.teS and Ch~!tr Srt';U'S Into prurung
suggests that lhe\ "ere m;~nufJeturcJ glare. The chaefingrcdaent oflohl wu
hooks Nauon Jh;oll not ..~ up sword
on the u mc pi•«. perhaps<"'" b) g>lena. • naowol dark crc~· ore ofle><l,
J.g;aanst nauon, the) d1a11 ne\ cr Jpln
the umc s:mnh. The quesuon IS, d•d pounded to a fine ('10\\der ;a.nd mi.'CCd \\llh
"""" ,,., (l<>i•h 2~).
Tuunkh;~ mun recel\c ha.s WITlltJr from oal O< resin. Now lungdom Eg)'pl boostod
EA a nch \"Jrit:t)' of kohl conta.ancrs mJdc
the ruler of :a Cln.aan•lc c.it)· stale, Ord•d
of different maccriJlS- Some ofchcse
he prcsenl thc scimna.rd•.sna.s.scd here to
1\cftft"nct'~ wcrcartworls tn thetr0\\1\ right, Jnd It
a CJ n:~.J_nne ruler .u a gttl, For the umc lkn·An<h 1q5a, u~ hg 6 ..z l, rl u l·.Z;
IS e•S) 10 see th>t a grc•t d..l ofthouF-hl
being, th•s qucsuon c:mnol be an,wcrcd. \b'"cll·ll)'fiOf' :oo:, R«\t't 1990. t;-; ff
T.lJfTKif ty:-o; nJan t96l. t;-:-:-J, :~ ...., Za cr :tnd ~JII\1 1"\ \\'<1( an\ CSied in 1hcar
In the spant ofrcg.tona.l J'C3'-'C oand
rcconcili:mon, " replica ofthe bent .-.-r-·r manufJcturc
scamit:ar was prc)Cntcd to EgyptiJ.n
Prestdent Anwar S.-dat b) lsrocli Prime
Elyptaon Ernptte l 123
 Th1-' l.ohlt.~ nt '" ·r \\J\dtscO\t:rro
in a small room 111 1
th< Str.uum \ 'II I t •n tc r•l><cot
Mcgoddo, •ion~" h • grour uf mcm
other I Ut) urm< th;u h1d
th.1n t\\·ent)
been heddrn ~nca h e tloor in ;a \:Orner
of the room The
cle(lrum,I\On.IJr, .,J.tlult, .1nJ gi.J\<
find<. The l.«lhl nt mtr. ul OUI"iCJm.hng
des•gn, \\J\ IN1ni1 1 de J .,:lliJ 00\\ltn
the <hJpe ol.a K.bhrll, ~u1 u I\ undc.ar
\\helheror not elm. 1.1 11~ ''J.!nlh(Jnt h<
bod) hl' dcJn hnc~, anJ th .,J\C ' ' tbc
The ,,u.Je, tiJt nm 1\dc~o."< rJh:d \\Uhi:oiJ
leJt: \\hKh ;,aho L \("f"\ the urrcr rJn Ol
thC" hod\ 11 "d~.u ah.a11he t.1bric ot chc
'c\\el \\J\ c\rr~''!i'' ~.h~n co ht~hhghc
theobiC\:1\~o~Ut\ , M t.~JtlnJt:l \lnk•ng
contro\t "uh the ~n~ht !l"ld leal. A
\lffiiiJr ~ohJ (C)Ol.JIOCf 10"-.Tl~J \\ llh
the nJmc <>I Thutm"'c Ill (anJ rrob>~l)
from 1hc h.lm~ol ha,CJnJanue \\1\e:t) •~
t'(htl'turJ Jt The ,\ lcuupohtJn Mu.)cum
ot An, t\c" h l rl.
S.:rpcnunc \\.U u..cd for m;akang
\cs~l< Jlrc.ld) m the ttmt of Old
~mgdom, and numcroui outC'f'OJ» of
chas mmcr.1l hJ\C been tdenufieJ an
Lgypt In •ddttoon, dunng the ume of the
Ncw Kmgdom, El)pl \\JS the r~•on\
m:1m ,~xponer ofgold, ..anJ ltj storrs
ofch1s precious mc1.1l \\ere m.arlo.eted
throughout the AnC'aenl Ne.1r ~~~ .1nd
bc)ond, wnh ccmen for the mOlnut..actun-
ofgold JC\\dl'} opcnong up on 0\•n<t\ of
10<'<1tlon.s In C;an.a;a.n, by contr.l~l, there
\\JS no narurall) occumngiCrpcnune
ond gold Thus there 1> no doubt th>t
th1-s: kohl contJ.mcr cJmt from Egypt. lt
m.ay hone been 3 gatl: trom che fg)ltCIJn
king or one ofhlS officu.l.s to 1he ruler of
Mcg•ddo, who kept n 10 ht) r21i1CC It \\OlS
htddcn olong !\Uh otheriUXUI'} Items, ror
rr2son~ unkn0\\1\IO us pc:rh2ps fear of
SCilUfC but\\J.Sne\~frttO\~rtdb) tlS
0\\1ler
EA
R.c(('f'tfk"'fi,
AMon 1994, '6 19: BI"'\.ul1t9!!, LJJ)'q wu
:001. LouJ '9<\:p6. rl 'I''· "furi.J>oo~.
8<>·31, '99· ~ :6.
(50) Funoraryateloe from Dolr ot·h t.h
Four funeral'}· stelae !\trc "'J!On<dl)
da\C()\Crtd dunng dlicu e"<.avJuons
.n the cemereryoflkirci·B.t.IJ..h tn
the Gu• Srnp. The ccmctel'} . !\hoch
onduded aiJrge number ofEg)l'U•n·
It) lc onthrorood rollins bee rr. 97· 1oo),
J\ \\Cl12s ~•mple, coffin·les' bunJIS.
\\'015 .l.SSOti.JCrd \\lth the Eg)"f'll3.n New
t\.angdom OUIJlO'" Jtlhe Jilt The steiJe
.uc m.1dc of t11rtar und.stonr. common
on the Co.ut•l PIJon of the sour hem
lc\ .ant, "h.ich •ndantcs the) \\err
of10C'31mJnuf:~cture 'et thq \\err
dcdo<Jt<'<l b1 P"""" Egypu•n """h'J't'"
to the god O>om, ruler of the Eg)'J>U>n
rr.tlm of the de.ld SuK'e the su~l.1c wert:
not rCC'O\'Crcd tn lrg:~l C'CCJ\;JUOns,
the)· annot be- ;asSO<'I.lled \\1th ;anr ot
the bun•ls found on the C<metel).lt
is, hO\\t\tr, clt;allh2cthe four Stelle
form J umform group 10 r.:rms ofchctr
maltnal. \\"OrlmJnsh•p, ;and subtCC1
The1r pl.11n undccor;atC'\1 IO\\-er ~n.)
tndtcalc the)' \\err embedded 10 the
ground J~ free st;anding monuments and
rrobabl) m•o~cd the locouon of tombs
Thcar dccorJuonJ and in.scnpcions .uc
ryrically Ell)l'll>n, wuh p•nllds from
Ne\\ Kint,tdom Et:)'PI, md1a 1ing 1h:11
the)"""' most hkly rro.Juccd b)
EgrpuJn ~nas;.ns (ot E'g)'J'(i;an UiC" h has
bc<n suggested th•t such stebe sc"ed
the: Egrptians stJhoncd an southern
Cln3.an as subsututcs for the cu-'IOm3ry
supcnuucturcs bclongong to Eg)'J>U•n
pnv:ote tombs of the Romeuode Penod.
T\\o ofthe four scel;ae uc discwscd hcrt.
DBT
(501) Stet. of Amunomulo
04 r S.1 h N .... K n~~Of""' 1 tltn (}1 n 1 tt
Jthc.r tur-1 BCf 1 Ku·~<or &al'\d1tone
" a"cmo\1171em 'U 8221056
The stcl.t IS rough!) r«Ungubr \\lth o
rounded UlJ' It os wcribcd ond dec:or.Jtcd
on th•"•rrcr front, "lulc '"' bodos ptun ;one!
\light!) com-a. The d«or.ucd port depicts
the god Osw on the ldi, sund"''lo holding
the lbiJ ond the 1kqJ ~ · the Egyptun
otmbutes ol1.1nj:slur - ;one! "e>nng the Altj
ero..n r)f4C21J)' U!O<Ut<d "'th Osw in
E®l'l= an. On the ngho. fxing the god,
lUnCh • nulc worslupcr r>i""l!lus lwtds on
:odor2uon. Between the n•'O figun:s IS o FJT,IIS
'!"""turned tOI\-:ud the god. on • sunJ. ond
3bo\'C 11, o ~lotus""''"" A hocrogl)-pluc
U1Salpl10110bo\'C the >ttne tdcnnlies the jlOd
osOSinsand the"llnhir<r•• Amcnemui;t,
• thccJrhon< nome mc;uung "Amun on the
Sxrcd 8.ulc." Fo!IOI•>ng the ownc is the
com.....tiorul c:l.usofi«of. dccnsoJ rmon.
"luch fr<quentl) 3ppc;ll> on lunenr}•
.1S><ICI>It'd orucnpoons The truCnJ'IlOI1 docs
not tnduJcthe uldi\1du.J's titk,but the
WOCJ>t..,ofthestcl.t!\iththeccmctnyot
D<ord-B.tbh ~ tlut hcwuonc ofthe
E®l'l.. "'""ooncd ••
thegrc.
kC'fctrf'IC"C'i.
Oottun ~oos. ·~s; Ortun •91~ us; \ 'cncu.r.a
19~'"', 1od ....
Ecypt111n Empue l1 25
 (SOb) Stoia of Hopy
D' r l Bald~' t-.1 ,. ,.

The scrb 1.s r~cungul.lr\\lth :II OJ !Jr

top It l!t en.scnbed and t.h.•coratc:J n ahe
upper froOI,I\hJ!e II\ bJck 1\ riJ n 0n thc
left the god 0\an' ·~ \hrn,n ~c:JtN n h•'
throne, hoi dong the t!Jtl •nJ hll{a "'' tcr
and wc:anng I he: Att{Cr0\\0 On the
right, f;acmg chc: god," J mJh: \\ r4l•~r
weJnn~ J short fg\l'IIJn ·'tl k kilt, rJ"'"~
h1s left h3nd m adorJIIon ''h•lc h•' n;hr
hand roun hqutd lnml .I h.,JtiOfl' '\CI.
The •nscnptaon l!t unclc;ar, m''"i! to the
rough, \\ Om wrhcc ol chc: 'lone,~~ a
cc:ntJII\oc: rcadm~ ~u~est\ th.n I tJr\
J \\eii·JIIe\ted t\e\\ Km~:Jom n.1mC' m
Eg)pt, WJS the n.ame of thev.ur.Jt•rcr
There as no crJt.:c ol the nJmc (ll ( ) ' ' " ' ·
\'th1ch, tf 11 \\,h on~m.:JII) an~ n~J .
•s now complete!~ ohhter.ucJ The
0\\ntrofth•~ 'tciJ, hke chc o""ntrOtthe
abo,·cmcnuoned )tciJ (\Cc no ~OJ), \\J \
oi>O mo;t probJbl) •n Ell) pttJn <tJuoneJ
Jt Dctr ei·B•I•h.

Rt:fc~ncn

Dolh:.n .too& IS6,0m.3n IY'Itlo, II.t , \~nlur.l

198;', Ul;"· 9

[&Obi

12&(
 pouabh· by J'lf"r\Sing .l \\-CI ciJ\ past
J humon-fJce ·shoped core (them I
method) and oppl)ing rhc re<ulton
to the hd's c\lcnor. \\hilc the IJttcr
stollleother-hord The oddrtoon•l d
~urroundtng the f<Jl:C, that 1\,th~ C.l

ond crossed, <hononed arm< and h

(51] Clay coffin wit h an anthropoid lid
T Shadud Late6ronzeAg< lea 13th
century BCEl SaO.ed clop H 194 em'""'"'
customs, coffins ,,ere cquappt!d wuh
apenures to enoble the deccoscd's sprrrt
or ba to enterand e•rt the coffin The
\\ere free-modeled, hn~er< Jn.l Jll t
add1taonal clay patche' 1-.oiJh:J r
of\\ hu e pl:lSICr 3rt! \till \1'-i~lc on I
upper part ol the hd, 1\hKh .11"' •
to h;J\c ori~tmJih be-en colortulh r;n
The d.t\·cotfin \\J' un,U\crcd
dunng recent 'Jh.Jl:C' C'\".3\JliOO... C".lmcJ
out on bchJlfot the l\rJel Anuquuan
AUihOnl)' wuhan oa 6 ~ ~ m rrob..-
bordcnng the IO\H~r C'J'Ih!m "'"r< QJ T~

,., 58em 'o'oofllatbue·34em !IAAI
2015·985. 20t5·9ssn
The coffin consisuoftwo parts: a tall,
nearl) C)1ondricaland shghtly tapered
clay box domod at one end and ftat at
the other, and an anthropoid hd. lt IS
one of two known, antendau~d t)"J)e:S of
cl>) anthropord coffins. In this type, the
head and shoulders ore not delineated.
Tho coffin""' hand-made and built-up
usrng honzontally •nd slrghtlydiagonoll)'
supenmposcd rolls ofcl>y (the corhng
method),the contours ofdastina coals
shO\\~ng through the coffin's surface The
day used to produce the coffin IS a pale,
lrght brown porous fabric 'folio small,
:uoolly opposed errcul31 apenures- one
in the center of the domed cnd, the
other an thecenterofthc flat b~ -were
f.o.sh1oned, presumobly to allow for
the escape of hot orr that would have
occumubted wrth1n the closed C)1onder
when the coffin was fired, but perhaps
also emulating Egyptiotn funcr:ary
C)bndncal coffin W>Sinrtl31l)' formed on Shadud 1n the )czrcel \'JIIe> f"l:· :~l Th<
oncpacce, the hd \\3.S then cut out from rolfin h:ad been lo\\ereJ hllOlOntJUyonttl
the upper port" hrle the do)' sullleother- the bottom ot J \:il 1 ~ m deer, rc"Uni:UI.u
hMd, crc:mng a large enough apcnurc bun~l pu,up.htl) cuntuung the t-unJI
10 anscrt the corpse and :accompan)•mg conu mcr oand J~\CX IJtcJ 1uner.1n r;•ll
funcnt) g1fts, whale gu;uanu~cmg ught It held the rcmJm\ ot J 'm~lc. hunun
se31ingaftcrw~rd. Jndecd, the nnng·cut, m:lle in os \Uptne, c\tenJcd P'O'IUOn. the
curved hd fiu the orifice of the openong he;ad m the \\ C)t and tht..• teet lt..l the eJ\1
perfectly, not\\1!hstondong the shnnkogo He \\Ore o1 bronze d.J~gcr on ht" n)!ht ,.,Jc
of tho cia)' that etturred during the finng :and :a )C.u Jb 5octm ;a gold nng on ht\ kit
process Vis•blc 1mpresstons ofh,1Sted h:and . The ~.1r.1b contJIO'-one t\f tht h\C
ropes or cords, wh1ch hod been wrapl"-d ro, ;al names oi.Sctt l, nlmcl). ht~ throne
around bothendsofthe coffin \\hrle 11 ""' nJ mc ~1enma.1tre (tlg. 2.4) A h~\\ \m31h'h
still leather-hard, 1mply that coffin and hd ccranuc \C~~~~.mcludmga sunup J.3r,
were find in tandtm 10 what was proOObl\· 01>\\CII JS .JO IOIJCI bronte bo\\l, \\CrC
an open fire, :u :slow tempcr.uurc Thr also found 1n<1de rhe cofhn. AJdruonJI
ropes ,..,·auld h4l\'C ensured th:n the coffin funcr.uy gtn~ ''ere dcro5ncd on ;~nd
Y.ould not fall apoan under its own \\'Cighc tmmcdi:nd~ :around the coffin: An :almost
when ploc<d rnto the fire complete 5kull of:a bovmc WJ'- found on
The extenor surf•cc ofthelrd top of the coffin hd, \\h1lc e>trlc, sheer.
f~turcs a natun.hsLiC' human f;~cc frJmcd p1g,and fish bone• \\ere found diSpencd
by .t fairly md1sUnct wig, rcprcscnung, oaround the coffin, some rcco\(~red m
pan pro toto, the dcce:twd 1n its :a.sparcd boY. Is, clcul)' mtcndcd :as tood fUO\<tSIOn>
ancient Egyptian Osanan fonn. The image for the dccca.scd m the aficrhrc. A )01311
\\"'lS crc:atcd scpar:udy from the coffin groupof\\mc amphor.1c, some \\llh

IF•a. 231 The Tel Shadud coff1n upon dtiCOYef'Y

.__________,,.q._____________________________________________ IAA 2015-955

(F•&- 241 Sc.enb .n a cold fr• me beann& the th rone name of Set1 l IAA 2015· 1344
dipper juglets ms1dr, \\ere: depositr d ne21r
thecoffin'slower end.
Noubly, tess th:an three meters to
the southeast or the burial pittn ~<hich
the coffin was deposited, four adduional
contempor.u)' plam pn bunals \\Ue
uncovered. 0111 W1lh the same ea.st·
west orient3Uon a.s that of the coffin
and undoubtedly assoaatcd with itm
one w;~y or another. ln$0 far as it wu
obscr\'able through the hmitcd prism
orthe small·sc~le e;c.c:a\·~tion at Tel
Shadud, th1s ipau:al arrangement seems
10 be pan ofa diStribution pattern beuer
seen at the more extensively excavated
contemporilf)' buri:~l ground :u Dell'
d · Babh. there, sunil:~r d:aycoffin.s were
unearthed 3-s m apart rrom one another,
"1th the spaces m between filled wi th
simpler bunals
A pan rrom Tel Shadud (t coffin)
and Dctr cl·Baloh (ca 6o coffins), Stmtlor
clay coffins h.-.., been unearthed at
llcth Shean (a. so co ffins), Tellel-Farah
(South; 3 coffins), and l:tchtsh (1 coffins).
The Iauer four sues also prO\·idc clcou
t 30I
evidence for the ex1stence of;an Egypti:an
:admtniStr.lll\'e :and mdu:uy presence an
their midst, and ttthus sc:ems a foregone
conclusaon th:at eVJdence ofth1s k1nd \\-Ill
one .Uy olso be r<\'Caled ot Tel Shadud
It is ~d that th1s sue. s1tu.1ted an the
Jcueel Valley, m.JdW.l) along the ancient
land route leJdmg southeast to Beth
Shean, .at the JunctiOn of1hc Jcucel and
jordan V;aJie)'S, and northwcs1 to Akko's
Coutal Platn, with u.s acc:eu to momume
routes, \\i ll someday be tdenufied
v.1th one of the C2n.1anit~ topon\ m~
mentioned tn Seu l"s topographic lasts.
EvdB
llt(n encn·
Doc.han 1971; Dothan 1979· 99·100,
Macdoruld cc:al 19jl ,J:S, pl.S); McCO\~
cl all99J;~n •97l· 'l9n:, fiGS u.s~. ao
(l'omb 66) 1nd fop. 9,)1'1· •· 78-79 (l'omb
90)t Petrie 19)0, 6-9, pis 19 ; nd 14,Roo.o.c
1910, lJ, 39-.ao, pb )7· -ao: Tufncll t9SJ, 119,
pi 1:6, Tufnt lll9jl, j6, 66, IJI· ll, l.ll, pl>-
<l -. 6.
[52) Fragment of aaphlnx of Menk.lute
(Mycorlnuo)
Hat<· C d"' d m .. n (),-n'l ' I
Ztith ~;coh.o..., tn.• E Gn
l '• 17tml tAA 1 .::01C. 1 14 ..
A fragment prc,er.·mg the fro nt r J\o,;
of:an [~-puan sphm~ W.l \ found m
e\C:l\""JIIons at H.1zor The fr.u:m\!nt •
nude of gnci\S. ~ \ Jiuablc .1nd \ l"l'\ tur\1.
d3rl,. stone, \\h tch "J' U\Cd 1n f.~rttJn
sculpture rrcdoman3nll\ for fll\ Jl Jnd
dt\lne statues The mca~urc.-mcnt ,ot the
fr.agment \UIU!e\ ttho11 1he OOI!tnJI Icnt:,th
of the ~rhtn~ Yt.l \ arounJ t ..o ..m~ ''h1ch.
tJling II\tOlOn\h.ICrJtiOn the m;ucnJ)
from \\htch It\\.& ) mJJ c, ~uggc \t' th,.t
at wa~ a monumencJI \tJtuc rr,ldu~ro.cd
m a ro\·.1! \\OrkCihop m f.J..')pt. Ttlh. l 'io
supported bv chc tns..:n puon cnp_rJ\c.'J
~t\\ccn the )rhim: '\ PJ" '· \\Ju .. h
Includes the n.1me of ~1ng '-lcnlo...1ur~
(Mrcennu\) ~ndo\Cd tn .1 ..:.1rwudw~·• .&'\
\\cll3\ the rO)J.I !:f'lthrt~ 'BciO\CJ ('II
the Souls of llrlio5Xllts"' ~nd "'CI\cn l.1h!'
Etcmall) "
\ lenl.1urc (~l)·..:cnnu\) rukd Eg)p1
ror>S)ears (<3 l Hl- l $04 BC l l onJ \\J \
one of the kings .1~\0CIJicJ \\llh thr i!reJt
P}T:lm1ds Jt Ciu, the smallc\t and lace t
of the three G1ZJ pyram1ds " JSht~ bun.JI
place. The epithet " Bclo,cd ol the Soul<
ofll ehopolts" engn,-cd on the tr.1gmen1
suggcst.s that the stJtue ongtn.111)- stood
In thot <lly. l he "Souls orHchopolt>. ...
documented 1n Egypt :as one of the d1unc
group1 that DS.\IStcd the long m h1S u cc nt
to he.a\'en .1ftcr hts death, ~nd the) m~)
represent Ihe dl\o-lnlted dc.1d km[t) of the
cat)'· A temple dcd1uted to the ..Souls of
Hchopohs" ii mentioned on .1 numbc1
of royal sc:uues from dttfcrent pcnods,
and the Hazor sphinx may ha>-e originally
been presented to it. The Hator $phinx is
the earlW,st known 10)-al srulptun to bear
a reference to this divine group.
The inscriptions and stylistic
features of the fngment clearly date it to
the time ofthe Old Kingdom, and there
is htdo doubt it that was mode during the
reign ofMenkaure. Although a rebti\..,ly
large numberofstatuesofMenkaure
have suM\"rd, the fr.ogment found at
Huor is as yet the only known sphinx
ofthis kjng.lt is .also the only fr.ogmcnt
ofa mon11m<:nt.1l Old Kingdom royal
s<ulpt= found in the Lev.mt.
Thc most intriguing questions
surrounding thts sphinx conccm the
time and ciraunst:rnc:cs of its arrival at
H:w>r. The fragment ,..., found in the
destruction level ofCanaanitc Hu.or,
which is dated to the thincenth century
BCE. As the most extnvagant Egypti.m
objea ever found in a Canaanite city
of the oecond millennium BCE, the
sphinx was most probably a prestigiouo
official gift. !tis unlikely that itwu
bestowed during the reign of Mcnkaur..,
considering the nature of the relations
between Egypt and southern Canaan in
this period and the complete absence
ofOld Kingdom obj«ts ofthis sale
in lhe Levant,even in the rrgionor
the Leba~ roast, which had strong
oomrnercialand cultural contacts with
Egypt at that time (sec p.lJ). We may
the...fore assume that the sphinx arrived
at Hazar at a later period, when the
relations bc:t'¥1.-ec.n Egypt and soutMm
Canaan were such that a gesture of this
magnitude tow.ud a Canaanite city state
would noc be out of the question. The
most likely periods are the Middle Bronze
1321
Age, ..bich comsponds to the Hyksos
Period in Egypt, and the ~te Bronze
Age, which corresponds to the New
Kingdom. During the Middle Bronze Agc,
Hazorwasone of tho largest and most
imponant cities in southtm Canaan, and
nonhem Egypt \vaS under Hyksos rule.
As the Hyksos kings f"'quentlyusurped
earlier royal monuments, it is plausible
that one of them moved the sphinx from
Heliopolis toAvaris, and, subsequently,
sent it to Hazor.lt is more likely,
however, that the sphina was brought
to Hazar during the time of the New
Kingdom, when Huorwa• the largeu
city in 50uthem Canaan, "tho head of
all those kingdoms" (Joshua 11!10). The
distinguished status of the king of Hazor
in the ~re Bronte Age is indicated in
the Amarna Leners, wh= he is the only
Levantinc ruler refend to as lung.
While the sphil\ll moy indeed have
bftn sent as an official gin to the king
ofHuorduringthetimeofthe Ncw
Kingdom, it is even more h.kely that it was
dedicated at that time to a local temple at
the •ite. The dedication of New Kingdom
roy.al statues to Canaanite temples is
attested at Beth Shcon, where aloc:ally
made statue of llamcun Ill was most
probably dodieated to the temple of Level
VI (see no. 29) and, pc>S$ibly, at Mcgiddo,
where the bronze base ofa royal51otue
ofRamcssnVI, mOS1 probablyimponed
from Egypt, Willi round in a secondary
context (see no. $7). The usurpation
or royal statues occurred during most
periods of Egyptian hostory, and the fact
that the sphina bears the name ofan Old
Kingdom pharaoh docs not argue again51
its beingsentaunollicial gift by a New
Kingdom king, who may have even had
his own names added to other pans of
the sphinx on the orouion.
Like the fragmentary sphinx of
Amencmhat Ill fOWid at the site C.ee
no. 9), thi• fragment clearly under..·ent
dtli~r.ue mutil:ation, its paws h~\ing
bftn intentionally detached from the
body. Considering the di5COvery of tbl5
llatue in the destruction lev"! of the ~te
Bronu Age city, it ..ems that, as in the
case ofother mutilated statun found
at the site, the sphinx ofMcnkaure .,.·as
disfigured by those responsible for the
final destruction ofCanaanite lfazor.
DBT
RcfetmCft:
kn·Tot J006; Ben·Tor JO)}; Sowouzi.an 1~
Jewelry I Cree Meiri quantity and qualityunporalkled in the region. In this period,
Egypt ion oflicials and military personnelrosid<d in Canaan
From ancient time• jewelry served ro beautify its owner, but as pan of the Egyptian administration. These indiVIduals
this was only one a.p.-.:t ofits v.lluc and importancr. )cl'elry apparently brought the it jewelry, as well as the unique anistic
may provide an indi<..tionof an indiVrdu.al'ssoci~ status, fashions and sl)'ks thal were cumnt in EiJ'l" at th•t time, ~ong
shed light on its o"ncr's culture, and reftect relogious beliefs. with them to CanaOA. In addition, je....lry was comrnen:ially
It was propeny thot could easily be rransponed from place imponed from E8)1't ond also locally manufactured.
to place and handed do>•n as inheritance from gcnention to The local finds include ie•'<lry in tho imogcsofE8)1'tian
generation as pan ofa famol) 's accumulated wealth. Je,.clry deities, 011ch as Hathor, Bcs, and Tawerct. Other designs include
also played an important economic and political~. whether animals associated with Egyptian gods. for c.umple, the cat, the
traded or bestowed as a doplomallc gift. In additio"' ;...,.Iry was falcon, ond the snake, together ,.,th E8)1'1ian symbols, such as
attributed ,.;tb a bounty ofma~ical qual it;.,. The lone between the lotus, which is associated with t"'ation ID)'IIu and the sun
jewelry's omamenraland arotropaic roles is hard to draw, and it god. Another imponant symbol that was commonly used for
protection in Ei)'ptandhascome rolight M a varictyoflocal
appears that it often fulfilkd both funcuons simultaneously. Noc
sites is the rttJj.u <)'<,which is rcproscnted as a human <)'<with
only did the li\ing>'~tlthcmsci\'<S of jewels fortheirbeaucy
folcon·hke features and is mentioned in m)1hs related to Horus
and magic qualities, the deod also took their finest ornaments
and the sun aod. Aprominent myth in the Eg)'l'rian religion
with them to the P"• and some j<welrv was expressly
recalls the 111jury and I'CCO\"rryof the O)"r ofHONS, and thus
~ated for the JOW1'<')' to the afterlife. Jno'<lrywas not onlt for
mona!>; the gods w= also beauufied wuh ornaments and "'"re
the""''"' O).. was rel.ned to<"'tl)'lhing •vunded and hcol«<,
diminished and restored, and artnbuted with the ability to
bestowed witbotferin(t' of jewels upon of the temple cult.
prot.a,cure, and bring prospc:nty. .
Th• jewelry due bas (OIIlt' down 10,.. from ancW,nt Egypt is The tnptianslivinc m Canaan, and who _ , uhimately
but a fraction ofthe nches ofthis grcot culture. Egypti.tn jew<lry
buried here, cenainly wore their jewelry kJ!o,.-ing the rich.
was produced in a vanecyof moreno Is, includint~ shell, bone,
meanings it ,.prcscnrcd. HD"-evcr, it is difficult todcre~nc
tnet2l~. and semiprecious stones. Th~ mosc prominent mttal how the local inhabnants, ..ho ,...,. not of Eg'o'Ptian ongtn.
was gold, which was avai!Jble both in E8)1't ..,d Nubia and was ~gardcd these symbolic depictions. It may be assumed th•t
regarded by the En'l'tians as the ftcsh of the god~ ThiS n:e the locals regarded these jewels as more than just fashionabk
metal that docs nottomish was one of the motenals valu by ornaments and that thcyweR f•miliat,.ith at least some ofrhe
the Eg}'l"ians for its etemality.Jncorrorated into jewelry,~~ Eg'o'Ption imaccs and theitmeaninp.lt may also be~
with ocher symbo!J ofetemicy, it fulfill«! an important role'" that they in•'ested these.,.,.bois wtth new content, ~ted to
funerary contexts, astt was beh~ . ··-• to ·tncrc•scone's chances.of thcir,.-a)•oflife and their l<li~ious pra<ll<es and beloc(s.
. ·owclry is~pkte,.ult
aua.intng etemollife afler dcoth. Egypllan I .
£)mbolic content; a complex "'Orld of me...,gu ·~ m•"ru"ll'
is embodied ,.;thin these works ohn, wlu<lt wcre '"'mded
to decorate the body, ond, no less imponantly, to piOYlde
protection from the dangers that pt.ped the inhabitants of
ancient Egj'l" both in life and •fter death.
Egyption-Sl)1e ~clry has been uncanhed on loc:~
excavations daung rnainl)· from th ~ aronzeAjlC,whenthc
e tc
Egypcian presence in Canaon and control"''" thel•nd was ot
a peak. Such jcwclry has been excav•ted al, lfDOI\ll ocher '"~
Beth Sheon O..irci·Bal•h, ond ~chisb. The oore o(TeU el·Anlll
' • · • ..,;rcdirems,ofa
yielded gold je,.-..lry, includona Egyptoan·on5•·
Ecyptian Empir9I1J3
[53) Foleon-shoped oarroncs
Teltt'·Auu:
' • em .·. 3J
Th< <amng> are m the •h•rc of a hml
ofprq· ,,,lh out ...rr~J:J \\lf\P .tnd ;are
n:rnm~nt ol .1 ~o.f\.",.."tnt ~J~J cJmng
(0\ll\d :11 the site The .. rn.allcr cJ.mng as
"~in n.:pouer."" .mJ JC\::001~ \\llh
,,,_,~ 3nJ gnnul.lUlm, \\hu..h out lane the
bud's oo.l). The I>I},"<' <>mng, unhl.c tht
otherfilk""On·...hJpc.•J cJmlll!'dt~·O\crcd ;at
Tell ci·Auul.a\ dc"l"'rJtc-J onl) ,,,,h t'''''cd
"1rc .tnd dCle' nN .nduJ~ JUV~ullUoo
The urh~t c\ 1Jcn..:c t "~r the U\<' of the
gr.anul.tuon tet.:hru~c c.umn from th~r~J
nullcnnium Be~· \tc"-""f"'lJnUJ Tha'
comrlo.t«hntquc "nuttypocal <>I EI!Jl"•
and e\'<n th.>u~ thcf<' .,., eumpl<'
of <uch I<'•<I') dJlln~ from the ~loJdlt
Nngdom. 11 ~Pf'CJt'\ th;Uit \\"JS not
rm...tcnt m the ft:ll""n "'('<1101"'· ..
lcut until the umc ot the New Nn~om
E\'cn though 11 "dollicult tu d<tcrmonc the
~ ofbonl rerf<'srntcd b) tht c•mn~os
(anJ despite the IJet that Jcronlmg to
"""proposol, 11 os not a bird ot J'I'C\ Jt ;all,
but rather a W')'TI«kJ, the most "'dd1
accepted idcnutic01tion IS th.u of .ll~lron..
In the anoent f(:)-pllJil rehgJon,tht
f;alcon \\~S 1dcnufied ;abo\~ .111 wath the
god 1101\lS. Thos anoent celestial deol)
w:as .assoc:i.ucJ ''nh the 11gurc of the .,_.ng
from tht begonnong of E~·wu•n hostO<)
El)-1"-iananasrlc~nr-;ationsoii iONS
in the shape of a falcon "'th outspn:Jd
"ings, presrnted fronr•UI' "'th the hc>d
turned rothe stdc, ue~\1\ from uearl)
as the Old Kingdom noe dcpocuon of a bard
ofPl'e\' \'\;th oucsp~:~d '' tng>- tn ~rtiC'UIJr
(~•& 25) Rec:on51Ntted neckloeo of bud·thapod
c.arn.l•an bt'adl and a tbthot pendant I~U 90 17 426
llonos on the formal• talcon anJ rhe tlus penod shO\I men, "omen, anJ chilJr<n
J;OI!Je" '\d,hl'Clon the form o( • \'Wture \'\"t;JM@. amngs. and C'\-en mWTUl\ltS
"htch In I.Jcc:r rcnoJ~r, .IJYtCJfS on JCWtll), '"th poc:retd e>rs hJ1e been du<O\ored.
U>U>ll1 lCliUI'CS the tucrogl11>1uhno, held In the tomb ofTuunl.lumun, <>mnp
onthcbuJscl.m Thosh10rq:llphcomq1 "'morusetnt of the f>lcon-shlp<d rumples
from Tell d·Anut"ere found; in thll
the notMlfl ot eaemtt\·, lnJ from 11 dtn\'b
UUl>na:, the blnlos • hl bnJ, "'th the body
the cartot><he, the01al frame thJtendo<d
ofa bini ot p<q and the he>J of• Jud..
the name oithc Ell)l"IJn long It ffiJI ht
ltapp<>n thJt the c.'qtlislte l;akon·
.ssumed thJt on the l•kon·sh•r<J eamngs
olup<d <"""'~!' irom TeU el·.ljruJ ,..,.. ma.k
hom Tdl d·Arrul.the Cln.urute ;uosan
b) local goWsmoths from pole! th>t onllJn>tcd
!""',Jed >n aesthctoc onr<rpret>llon ol
Ill [g)'J'l- Thts<co~Jsnuth><mplo)'td
the Jhm S)mbol on the depletiOn oicitdcs
j;ddwoo!.ong o«<uuqun that>pp='Rtl)
•long the outsodc hOlders ot the ""'ilS- Th<
a me to the rqtiO!l lronl Mc5q)Otlmr.t •nd
technoque thJt the ptsnuth oS<d to mm S)manderellcdanUTUj,'< thJt <he\\~ the
theC1r<lcsosd&Jf<r<nllnCach<>m11f! In
anflucn«ol EI!)'J'll>llarl.
the brj:e umng.the con:les begin ncarthe
0~1
txnl's uol and contonue ~the '""'l>oand
the) are mJrl.ed b) • "'"''..!pi""" I.a.!
Rcfc:R'I'K"n
on thc:rtJquc, "~rc;a.s U\ the: small c;amng,
Ld)qu.tUI'W}O Nqbt 19:"0. ~ , ... ~~ret~
the) rrotrudehom theouthneolthe"'ng '9''·r'· X\',!,to('(110n;.&. r~mr.M.k.La)··
.-nd 'fum\ 1951, riJ. \1, :, VIII, ... W'CtiM H~
•nJarecl<arl) noc partolthebonhboJ)
E.t~ wtre noc a lr.M.ItuonJl Fol1tn :o01;T\I.(ndla91t.ZLtfc:r t~.61 ·o.&·
component olthe [j;\l•t~>n l"""'ll bo,,
•nd the ,.Clthll the) b<ctrn< roruJ.or
dunng the N•~' ~~~om h., been
aunbuocd b) some schobrs ro tht H) l!os
ant1ucn«. Numerous n:rrcscnt-;atlons from
1 ..
.
(54] Thirty pend>tll$
" • tt
19-- ,303
'UI",
n
H
AGo lA
1 Semi AA
The~f"'.'nJJnt .. v.~ tOWlJ m TomhR.u
llorbJtllumr>.•nJ 1t nul t.<•"llln<J thlt
th<.') \\CIT l'Jrt <I J sinj:lc ncdJJ<C The wmb
dq>t.,.,,t,JI..., 1nduJ<J J J>•IJ nn~ tnlllJ 111th
• \<.JrJh JnJ Jr.Oih<r s:clJ nn~ 111o:tl<d "lth
J ll•dncmbl<nun•b.>.>t Ll'hrcnJ•nt
t\nuJ~ tromt\\u~rtJJtl&JitJ\<~onc
rbt.tnJ thr oc.her 1.-onn"\. "1th .1 q~..J: 'I'~nuon
lo.'J'-o!JcrC\1 wth< rum'" enJ '" 1•1'1 the
pcnJ.lnt.. ""'f(' kkntlk.o.J .a\ Nolf!!! 1n the
tonn 01 • t.c>tu' t.JJ. kil lh< "'"'"'~"""' thJt
the\ •n: Jnrp1N 111 the tonn ot the N/tr
hu:n,:l1rh """" """" •~'~""!""" The N/tr
~!!" n:r«"Otlng th< he.ut .nJ the ...nJI"r<
•n.IJcno.•ll~th<•OO..'<I"'"' "Good" JnJ
• &Julltul• "~' J ("~ ...om~nl ol
t'!'"dl') tJ.......Ipttn '\C'\\ tungJom f~l"·
Ank'O~ the 1tf/f1 rcnJ.tnt\ h.lU.IlJ m CJnJJO
Jrt" .1n .1JJuu)(\JI \l\ IJ~ic!fk"CC\.lmrk\~oiJtN
h) th< L.ttc 8runu Age IIA. ''h...:h \\Cte
C\t.:J\,U~J U\ t.hl!tcmrtcat Btt.hShc-Jn
\1>11\ t\3mplo<ot Eg)l'll.lnJC"d"'
ll'k.VfJ'Of'"JIC clcmcnb 01t.hl! wnung sptcm;
• .,.,ng th<.c ar<•!>d" iJu.d hiCflllllrrh>
ot nugJ~.-~ 'J.luc, ~ wc11Js c;omplctc
tn-cnpooru. such JS ropl n.lfll<S .nJ
<f'lth<<'- .uloul Llt< 8ronz< Age sn«.
pc!>d•ntslllth< fonnotluno!;lll'l" h.t•<
t-«n founJ. "'""'~ th<.c ..,}It i. m<>Oilljt
"Lite." J,onln.mun~·s"b~•n." •n.lltdt
"",Jc-.s>!!th<con<q>tSOI·· ~hlloon" 3nJ
" lnfiml}."
OM
IU:tc~Jl«".,:
~h..-Gc.J\'('m •1ih.6J. 'flrc:V.F.~Of) 194S.n·-91,
rt XX.~ill."
(55] TWo ny-ahoped pondonta ofQ.urcn Ahhot<rofthe S<1cntrcnth
O)nJil)'IOdude:J cercmom~1 y,upons
•nJ three brge •nd tmpr<:S<I\C ~d the>.
Ahhocep y,;~s the mother ot Ahmosc, the
touoocr of the Ei~tccnth DI.,•SI} In
Ahmosc's ume-,thc foeei(!n rulcn - the
lhk>OS - wcr<: expelled from Ell\ pt. •nJ
fht"\C f'COJJOI~ \\hKh \\trC t('IUOd JJong_
~ ne,.,. en ot Eg\l'll~n htStOI') bC'g.1n.
"1th '"~ '"her t11 lh•rcJ pcn.bnts
The long·smothcrrc«l\eJ the to~<"'
NJ,,n~mg h) the ~me hNnl, ""~
of honor forth< tmpon>nt role sh<
.l~Jh:nll) rJn OJ the s.ame n<dJJc.:C
played tn the mJII•fl·roJmnl•n:n>-
Amulcc~ Ill the \h.lf'C ot ll1cs Jn: anesceJ
Th< m~tU!) •w>nltn the sh•rc ofa ft)
'" E~r• trom chc end ot the l'rt>dp1uuc \\"l.S undoubu.-,Jl) ol.S50C1Jted ,.,,th the
l,.:nuJ o~nd h.nc rome co hght m :a
nouon or .1 pcrs1.stcnt oattJck In :addsuon,
\Jr!Cl)' or maten;als· goiJ, <•l.. er, bronze,
the ~peed .and C\"l.SI\COC>SOf the II)
)C:IniJlrtCiCKI\ "one, Jnd IJ1cncc. Antm;al·
mJ.kc 11 ;almost am possible 10 k•ll or
~ho~rcd amulets .... ere u~u:dl) mc.1nt
nptun: - ob\ ioush bcnehci~l qu.ahucs
10 rf0\1Jc the "earcr\\llh rroltCUOO
for ;a wJrrior on the b;ltdchcld IllS
Irom Ihe JI\IMJithe) rerrcscntcd
Jtfticultto rule outcnur<:ll' the posSibthl}
and 1() lmp;ut ~nlC oflb bcnefki;U
thJt the thn rrom Tell ci·Auul ,..ere
~;hJrJ(tCn~11CS Jnd quJhllt.).lt mJ\ be
hcstO\\cd .u mthtJ.I') honors. ~10\\"tVcr,
J\!tUmcJ thJt o~mulct11n the shJ("C o(
o< on though the)· ar<: m•d< of~J.
tllcs \\trc mtcrnlcd to prm·iJe protection
thc1r sm;all ,izc suf'POI"S 1hc contceturc
1rom lh<.)C cummon nw.s,;an(Ci <Jnd •nsull
choat the')' ,..ere m;uJe :and ,.. err "om for
\UCh quJI!UCS J\ s('«d Jnd J'Cf"Q.)ICI\CC
TotuJIJnJ Konogr.artm:al c\1Jcncc
JpotroJUic JOJ JeSiheiiC J'Ut'f'OSCS.
OM
from the Nc"" "'-'"gJom tnd1c.uc thJ.t
Gold t\1c,. , .. ere iti\CO .11 nuhll.rl.I\\Jni.S.
R.tt~"'
For e:.:Jmple. Ahmosc Pn-Nd.hbct h,.u. 8U'lJn :oo~t ..q ji. !'q:.h 19~"- I'lL,.. ,-,~:1.
Jmon~=othe m.an) 10kcnsot d•sune11on M;.:Go\'aft 191C.t-.1)r< Ill C, rrtm "'l-1·
1h.11 he n:C"ei\Cd hum 1hc Eighteenth rh... XV, ,,,,61·66.Jo«b0f''1--; r.:tnC', Ml.._u,,
.mJ ~lurr.t\ 19l:.. rb.. I. :0. Vltl, :, ~-·uon U·
Dvn.hf) Ling~ ~L' t:.old Hies bcsiO\"ed on
htnt by Thutmosc 1. fioo Irunt the tomb
(56) Reconstrveted collar
Lach ·;h L1t( Bron.zo l18f1'-thcor'ltury
BCE) • Faoeoc:. I L • 3 em IIAA 13<. 3007
Thi.s collar w:as rttonstruC1ed from bc3ds
•nd pendants found in room E of1heloso
pha«: oflhe Fos«: Temple ol L:lch1sh.
The :arr.mgement ofthe pieces, howc\·er,
does no1 neccssoril)' reftectthe ong1nal
design.
The FOSS<: Temple wos bui1t01 the
begmningof1hel.a1e Bronte Age in an
abandoned moa11hat hod been pan of
1he cit) 's fortifica1ions a11he bcg~nn~ng of
the S<:rond m1llenn1um BCE.II hod lhree
cons1rvction phOS<:s and was dcsti'O)-cd
around 1100 BCE. The nch as«:mblage
uneanhed 1nJide 11 included Slone •CSS<:Is
:and imported pouer,, :IS\\'tll :as faience.
vessels thai showed an ES}l'llan artisuc
tnfluence Among the rem;uns ofthes.e
imprcs.sh~ \ 'otl\'e ob)ect.s were more
lh•n one hundred 1ypcs of beads. Many
of them ho\'C ES}l'IIOn p;mllels from
1he E1gh1ccnth Dynast)', poruculorly
from 1hc Amoma Penod, dunng y,h1ch
!he produclion off..ence beods and
pendants, 1nsp1rcd by ftorol moufs,
ftourished. The«: beads 1\'Crc US<:d 10
compose necklaces and coll.us1ho1
1m1t:ned tn a durable m:ateri:al ornaments
m.1de ofrcallea,u, flowers, and frwt
The«: festal prlands w.:re hungu
collon around lh<: neck and are aneSied
both in a.n1st1c tq)rtscnt:auons and by
archacologicol finds.
The rccon.structcd colbr"s temun:als
arc in the 5h:ape oflotus Rowers (one IS a
modem copy). They hn.., four holes on
the1rwlde sides and two on the1r n;:arrow
sides. Depressions in the shope of petals
were cui from the while posoe and filled
138(
,,,th ~~ )'tllow. and blue f:uencc, m
im1ut.ion of met:al inl.ud wnh precious
stones.
~l:lny of the collar's pend.mts are
m the form offruus and flO\\e", wh1le
olhendcp1ct 1he head of the god des.
oflo\'e, Hathor. Among the natur:al
motifs 11re grape dusters, comflo"e",
polmeues, ond mandrokes (other
botanical ldenuficJtlons ha,·e been
suggested for some of them) The
m•nd roke, pe1hops the mo>l signofic~nl
of these, has orJngc fteshy fru.n ..nd is
laden \\1th sc~s It gt"e\\ "1ld in ~n:.;~n
and wu cuhiv.Jied in Egyp1 d uring 1he
tunc of the Nc~N Kingdom, where u
wu anribut~ wuh crou.: S) mbohsm
expressed. for inst;~ncc, 1n 10\e poctr)
In the Le\-ant, :as \\ell, the mandr:ake
was associated \\l t.h sexuaht)· and
fertili1y, 3S >lluded 10 1n !he b1bhcol
s1oryofRtuben, 1\ho gn·o h" mol her
Le•h mondrokcs he fou nd in 1he field
(Genesis 30). II seems lh31 m •dd1110n
to !he S)m bolic meamngs annbu1od
10 each mouf, 1hc ftornl collar signified
the qcleofftO\•cnng, wnhenng, ond
rcblossoming, symboh..t1ng rtgcncnuon
and rcjuvcn:nion.
OM
Rdc~nen:
lkll 1917, J6-S9: Bo)u 199.S t Hcrmunn J:OI :,
Tufncll, ln~, and Hud.•ns 19-40.J-4 ·76,r1~
XIV, XXXIV·XXXVI.
 The Fall of the Egyptian Empire
The shon n:igns of the lost four phanohs of the Nineteenth
Dynasty, ending 1\ith the female Phonoh Towosn:t an:
described in Egyp!W, texu as twbulent times. The :.,rest in
Egypt extended beyond iu borden, with disturbonccs in the
Canaanite city otates and gaps in the activity ofthe copper
and turquoise mines at Timn.a and Serabit d -Khadim. The
fitsl pll.....,h of the ~ntklh Dynasty, SernalJu, who rukd
Egypt for only thn:e )"an, is credited with the suppn:ssion of
"'belloons in C.nun and the restontion oforder in Ell)'J't. His
son and successor, Ramesseslll, ,.-flo rukd Egypt for Jt yean,
""'s the last ofthe great pbnohs ofthe New Kingdo D .
hi• i d · ·· · m. unng
re gn nmauc pohu<.al, sooal, and economic changes took
place throughout the Eastern Meditemnean, marl<ing the
~nd of th~ Late Bronze Age and the beginnina ofthe Iron Age
on the reg_oon. The lran>ition from the Late Bronze Age to the
Iron Ageos generally dated to ca.noo BCE and overlops the
!Foe- 251Pholilltineou cMpoctod In tiM mortuorytomple of A
""'"-Ill ot M.cli- Habu. f:CYPt
1401
final phose ofE!l)'J'tian domination in C.rnoan. The political
and social de,-,loprnentsofthis period include the maui•·e
migrotion, from the Aegean and An>tolio, ofvariousethnic
groups identified as the Sea Peoples, who brought about the
collapse of the Hittite Empire and engaged Ramessn 111 in both
land and sea banles along Egypt's borders during the ei~hth
)'..'of his reign. The victories of Ramesses lllagainot the S.:a
Peoples are recorded in detail in textund reliefs on the ,.,us of
his mornwy temple at Medinet Habu (fig. l6). Amon' the Sea
Peoples were the Philistines, who in the early twelfth century
~CE, probably followmg their battles >~ith Rames...,sm, settle.!
on ~e southern coast.tl plain ofCornoan. Whether Rai11C>seslll
dehber.uely settled them in this region or they settled then:
oftheotown vohtion is unclear, ytt the stmegic location of
these coastal sitrs and the fact that some of them were former
Ell)'Pti:lll bases argue for the second scenario.
. The archaeological record in c.n..n shows the disrur<ion
ofInternational tnde and the ma..i~ destruction of many city
.
sutes ;u the end of the ute Bronr~ A,.. These disturbances camraicns in Canun durinc his reogn. The arrhaeologkal
were in all prot.o~ility associ>ted With the collapse and decline ewlenceinCarnoan yieldedonlyonc stela and a fewsnnbs
of the major powcnofthe Near East>nd theendofthe bearing his name. The following kina. Rameun V, rultd for
only four)_,.,., during which the copper mines atTimna and the
po\iticalequi\ibnum th>t ch•r.acteriz« the utc Bronze Age.
Archaedogicol n:m:uns from this period point to the settlerncnt turquoise mines in Si~i continued tD function- but not fDT long,
ofnew groupsofrcorle in dilfcn:nt p.:ons ofean..n, such as as the last royal name at Timna ,.... Jtamesseo V and at Senbit
the Pholistineson the southern coastal plain an.! the br.aclites in ei·Khadim in Sinai Rameues VI.
the boll COitllU)", bur the question of the people or circumstances The Ell)-ptian Empire in Conaanametoanend ca. 1130
BCE, durinc or allot the reign ofRamesses VI. A baseofa royal
respon>tbk fur the dcstruttion of the ute Bronze A,. city
statue bearing the name ofthis lUng was found at Megiddo
ttates in C.naon is stillunn:>Oivcd. Whole some accept the
biblical n.un.ti,·n ucont:.ining h1storic.al nudd and attribute (see no. 57), thclasttestimony to a New KingJom pharaoh in
Clna.an. Ttletrnmnalionof[g)-ptiandominion inCanuni.n
much of the dc•truction to the Israelites, others ascribe this to
the Ell)-ptians, the Sea Peorlcs, internal feuds,Of,"""" is most the second hlfof the twelfth century BCE ,.... probably the
result of a number offacton. among them the new populationS
likely, a combination offocton.
that had settled in the land, the domestic problems in Egypt,
The rcriod ben.een u . uoo and uso BCE, ,.·hich
~s!'Oftd• to the late Noncteenoh and early T"·entitth and rh• incftasingcmplo)-ment offoreign mercenaries in the
Ell)ptian garrisons. Almost all the ES~-ptian twa in Canaan
0)-nasues in Egrpt, sow, alonpode the destruction ofmany
suffered destruction sontctime durin1 the Jasa third ofthe
Can;~anitt rit)•lt,aln., the (Ontinu.ation ofCanaanite C'Uh\ll'e
m-,lfth «nrury BCE. probably b)· the local populations, who
at tites alontt the coast and in the nonhern valleys. Ell)'J'tian
took od\anugeofEg)pt's ,.-,akness and its onabaity to mainuin
strongholds continued to functi<m during this period, mainlj· in
control 0\er the rq:oon.
inland boses, such as Tel Sen, ~ish, Tell oi-Farah (South),
and Beth Shun. The wars oflbmcsses lllogainst the Sea
Peoples, olthou~h endong " i th the settlement of some of ltcff«nctS:'
licuk 1991,; Muar tool; \VoN&CUit91s.U.!); ~ins&can 199:a.
these poops in an:as under Ell)ptian rule, did t>0t seriouoly
olfect Eg)ptian control over p.1r1s of $OUt hem Canaan. The
arch~IOJIICal evidence reftects the elfon• taken by Ramrsscs
Ill to restore at least some Ell};>tian control, which had been
detrriorating Jin<e the l>te Nineteenth Dynasty. E~pt's
n:maining bases were ~'lt•nized by Ramesscs Ill, who
esubltshed a new1.urison at Beth Shean, where his staN<
and inscnr<iofts bearing his names and the name of the Joul
Ei)-ptian aovemor, Ramesses-user·kh•-pesh, ,..,,. found (see
nos. :9, 30). Bowls beoring hoeratic inscriptions that tecord
h.uvest t.ues were di~n:d at Tdlei-Fanh (Sour h), Deir
ci·Balah, Tel Sera,.Tel Haror, and ~ish, reHectonJ Ell)l'tian
administration of the local population (see no. J!).
The period followingthedcothofRamesscs Ill, bem-«n
ca. nsoand 1130 BCE,ineluded the bnefreign•ofthn:eof hlS
tonS. R.amcsscs JV, R.amesws V, and JUmesscs Vl,.111d totWtht
npid decline of EJ:)'J'tian domination on Canaan. Ramesses IV
ruled for tcven l"'arS, during which Ell)-pt's internal problcnu
increased. Indeed, there ia no conelush-, ""idcnce for Elll·pt~n
Esyption E"'piro l14t

(57] - of a atatua of Ramanas VI
'·'"r ddo N""' .<.n~:dom. 20th [)yna>ty
ca 1141-1133BCEloBronzoiL 273cm
W 9' em 0:5 3 em 'IAA '1936·1993
11ns Statue base onginally supponed
a St.ltue of Kong Ramesses VJ,the fifth
l.ing of the Twentoeth Dynasty and the
last pharooh of the tome of the Eg)'Ptoan
Empore on Canaan. Tloeoopofthe base
dosplays two grom·u, whoch ondocat<
that tho figure of the king wos pruonoed
in tho stndongposrurecustomoryof
malo figures in Ell)'Ptoan an. Tho base is
ccn'Cred at the top ond on all sides woth
inscnptions, ondudong three of the king's
fi\'e offic•al names- hts Horus n;~me
"Moghty Bull, Great in Victory, Who
Makes l.i'" tho T"'O L:lnds"; hos throne
namo "Powerfulls the Justice of~.
BtlO\·ed of Amun"t and has binh n~me·
..Ramesscs, Amun ls His Strength, Cod,
Ruler of Hohopohs "The inscriptions
abo include standord ro)'alepothets and
words ofproise assocoatong the kong "ith
1421
prominent creator god.s, such a.s Ptah,
Alum, Re, and Arnun.
The •n.scripuon~ show thou the
bue J_Rd the statue It supported were
produeed dunng the reogn ofRamesscs
V1 The base wu not found in its ong1n3 1
context, having been intcnuo n:ally buned
under a wall in :an :archaeologtcal phase
predating tho reign of the Twentoeth
Dynasty. Thi• findspot ondicates thao the
b>S< had b<en dohb<rotcly separated
from the statue and conccoled, probably
JU.S~ pnor to the destruc:tion of the city,
which OCC1ln'Cd during or ommediately
follo"'ngohe reogn ofRamcsses VI. The
statue a.ssocuncd ~ath the buc ha.s not
been di.SCO\'cred, :and wheth~r H \'1.'3$
buned elsewhere :at the l ite or taken
llW':lY remains unknown. It is, however
re~.sonable co assume th:at the sunue •
was <rect<d at M<giddo dunng the reogn
ofRamcsses VI, suggenong that Ell)'Pt
still m.unr.uned some control over the
region atlh~t umc. The eVIdence for the
existence ofan Egypuun he:adqu~rters
The Canaanates 1n Egypt1an Eyes
Rachelt Sh -. lien
EgyptiJn -.oc ct\ Ilk n~1 ;aO\.ICilt \OClct~ wucthnottntnc
l'ocighl•onn~f'."<"J'' were rcn:el\cJ b) oho Ell)-ptoanusenemocs
of'-=rcJth.m, moth r\\~ .cncmtC\of E~l" Ftomlhedawnof
Eg'\l'IIJO ht~U.Jf\, lf\C'(lt th~ rhJraoh\ mJO\ roleswutotrJmrlc hiS
cncmtc....., "' cru h l;han. to ~;mer thc.r ~'\Ill~ and 10 bnng about
thctrdc.-..lr\1\. lf'l Dc5trQ)llljtC~tCmtc\\\JSOf1COtthcJCUI~llhC
lu~ l'l!:c.-JcJ 1rlpcrform m oNcr 10 m.atntJtn the cuSten« t'£' \IJJI,
the~:<>.lJ,....,,.,toocmM.:J"""'" '"'kr Ag>on\ltheba.~nJ
o>foh" oJcolq:>,",. ca•oert~unJc"unJ one oltho cu«omar)
lll(<>h<'l n•ull~rtun '""""'.,..riO\ -thJo ot ohcl.ong '""nngh"
e~nuc.. rllC'or cncm.Jt"'" arc lm:JUCOtl) ol Cuuamtc onpn (hg tt).
rhc: cn~o.'()Ul'Jit:n.. JnJ 4.:)\.\".l\ton.JII~ ~lJ~"' ~tween Eg)'J'lUOS
.lnJ C.J0.1JI1Lil''"ll~·\. rtJ(t: ~h on Eb'\l'IIJI1 JnJ on c.uuannc SOI1
Thnnalo!houl Jll ut .tn....l('ntll-'\l'U.IIl hifotOC) pcorlc of\\c.~t SemitiC
1
onitmtnh.a~ttcJ the ~ilc Odtil JnJ ,...crt: n:~nJcd k the Eg\fltllOS
::u Mcgsddo 1'\ tcnuoo\ .tnd m~.:ondu ..t\e .a.. cncmtC'\ ()UnO)! rc-n<"l"' an \\ht...h the ..-:cntr:al rule tn Eg\'J'l \\"';1.$
wcJI... !.1!'1'1\,-ontnllct tho ~x>rJcrJecrcJ\C\I.JnJ,c:urtl<qllentl),
'ctlhc str.atcgtc lo.:at 1on ol the ..,11c.:,
wh1ch controlled 1hc m;a1n ro.tJ le.tJm~ Ihe Odw·.. renctr.lbthl\ l(k"Ti!.l...CJ The rtO'-tMII) ol thts .t.rn 10
CJnJJn, ''"'octhcr w11h 11!)-pt\ IJ<~ cl JcrcnJcn..< on ramf>ll, nude
from S)-na to \Out hem C.tnJJn, m.JJco
u of gre;at tmponancc IO the f.gypuan the l)(olt.;a J f".-n'll.lOCnt ~Ot JIU"J('t)()O IOC' (an.,unUt-hcnlsmcn
admilliSirJUOn. TI1i' m1ght C\piJin t·or tlu .. rc.l"4lf1, C3nnnno "oulJ nlolkc thclr"J) 10 the DcltJ 10
rerlcnt,h thcar ~turc~of gr.un. 3~ the btbhul stOI''\" rdlcct\..
Ramcsscs VI's dcct\lon to place h1.., \t:Jtur
at Mcgtddo, C\'Cn If It WJ\ not an l~'ypu.;an In 4'\l'liJO\'Iolt.dom htcr.uurc, the mlihr.uionofJ"C''Plc
stronghold. The \1ltuc ma~ hJH ~en ot \\"C"\t Scmauc ongm mto the Oclt;a "J.S pcn.c\\'ed u J ch;aoetc
dcd•c.ttcd IO .llocallcmplc, h~c J sutuc "ruauun oh•t had oo b< rq>a>rt<l.ln tho Prorh«l ofN<fcno, the
ofRamcsscs VI dcdtcJ.ted to 3 1cmr1c C.OnJJnlte> an: ponro•-..1 as • fcn>gn btnl thai brmls •n oh< O<IOJ
tn Nubia, an C\Cnl conunemor.ued In ohe Tcachon~ol 1\mg Mcni.Jrc 01 the Fonolnocrmediat< P<nod.
m 1hc pn,·;atc 1omb ot the Egypuan the) an: docnl•:d"' nuscnNr nomoJs fo=iood<>l "'oh hJr>h
official commas.saonN to coUT) out the cnmonmcno, J> a peorlc \\tll·•-mcd on >tlll(!l:lc• hlcned oothe
dcdtataon cro.:oJolc OhJt stall.s ots rl'<)·on the n\'Otb.mk.
DOT It ~hould be borne m mand, ho\\C\"Cr, thlt ~JU:matcs ruched
othcrpartsol Ell)'l" bcsodcsoh< D<lta. and thatthc) reached them
by mcansothcrth:~n mfiltr:!.Uon~nd thcuscor·,-ocncc \\'ekno'o''
Rc(~rcnC't"
b~utcd 19o48, l)j -t8, flp. J7o4 15; ..._ah.:ht-n
ofcommun•tM:S ot Can.unues dut mtu.bncd the N1le V.lJIC') .and
198J,l71, Sm~r 1988· 1989,•o6·8
matntJtncd thc1rmd~cnt Wcnm) for~ncr.m(Mb. AmOOit
them y,crc anJI\1dt1Jls ,..,nonmc aowod. as ~1'\~nbon EJ;)'fl';an
esoaocs. as ..oil .os merchant>" ho enotrcd anJ deponed Eg)'l" ao
,..,,u, tn\chng an CJD\';lrulogcthcr\..,1th thctf\\1\'d :tnd children and
nu1n1atnmgongoing ctes ,,,th Eg)'J'CI.lO' Cr.afbm<n and sp«i;lltsts
also wono from Canoan to Eg)'pt, a~nol) ao the J'haraoh's
tnlt1311\'0, tn ordertoperfonn wl.sao "hich the Eg)'pti>ns wm: less
WllcJ. CenJon memb<rs of the Cao=rtol< commwut)•"ho resoded
permanent!)' on Eg)'pt.-..n ooOJoncd proounent posouons on the
Eg)-ptoanSO'•nunen•
Adolftrc:nt type oftneounter toOic pt.a: dunng the Eg)'ptoan
camp>~gns on Canaan. These ttrmonatcd on oh• subiug;otion of the
CanJanot< porubuon to th< E~optoan ero..n, "hich oook the form
oftuJtoon os "'Oil a• the takong of the duldn:n of Canaanll< ruler>
to Eg)-pt for theor educauon, which guarontocd that~ "'Ould
grD\' onoolo)">l <Ut,<cu"henthc) rcnorn<dtoCanJJn to succeed
thetr faohers.ln aJJouon. the Eg)-pto.Jn >rmy fn:qurnol\ took nutr)
('rison<"-The fir<t cnJcna:ofulong ~..nunepnsonc:noo Egypt
comes 1oom te,uual ,.,.,.... dJted oo the Moddlo!Gnj:Jom. buo
"'th thecstaohshmc:ntofthe ompore,dunng the ume of the !'e..
lo.on~om. such rnsoners ofwar became commonplJCI.'. Som<
\\tre h>nJed 0\'0r oooutStandtng m~ourvcomnund<r> \\'ho had
aC"COmpanocd the kong on Ius campaogru. 15 a rcwanl ond a token
ofthe bn<r'sesoecm...hoi< other>,...,.., Jedoc:ued oothe gods
ato<mrks and on tlus "'O)IOrecd toworl<on 101">~ ronsuuction
1""1<'-uand oo<ng;op: on'""""' t)'J'dofm•ouallahor,toworl<
on ·~turc, and oo perfonn wU rcqumng upencncc "'oh
wc:arons. chariots. and~ These rnsonm
\\OR.' .--.noualll'
.~ inoo the Ell)'f'l13n popuL>.-; some .-en oook Eg)'ptiJn
"""" \\hich oeeasoonall) led to ohcirrc:lcase.
The anu-Canaonot< id«<iogythaoo~cnufied thoeanaanucs
~s the cncm•cs ofcn:';auon, "ilh 1ts dcrogJ'OI') hcenr'\·inugcr)'
Jnd tomi)lngg>rhoaxpn:ssoons. o< hJbl< tO[P\'0 the wrong
oonpn:S>IOO In eunurUng 00.. thiSidtoiog) ""' rc:H«ted in reolil).
('C11..lln contr.uitctM)IlS emc~ On the one: lwtd, C;a~ruto "tte
cJcrocted on moiJIC3Iucms and Ell)'J'(i.on monumcnos as bound
rnson•r>o "tukon the other hand. the) ...rcronra)ed on iuncrar)
conte>IS 1$ fn..., re<J'<"UNe mcrehaniS (>C.'C.' hg. J). The lustO<l of
Eg,-pc, "hosccconorm•\\"JS NsN. m100gothcrdun~ on rtllltr.ll11
Canumtewor\.ers,on mdc m C;arulnltccommodlttd. 3ndon tht:
e"<plotCJtion ofpnsoncrs of\\"M, is thus C'h.lr.actcru.l."d b)•ronrinuou~
mu1ut.amcd contJct: \'loith ~nun1ttS :and thci.rcuJNtt'.
Rcfc~
ArnOIJ!OIO;F.tu!Lnn"19?•f.tullncrt9•;tt,~...t»«!Oil !OIJ.
S..:hM..Xr !O\O, Sb.nv:000.
E&yptlan Empuel143

(58} Statuett• of a canu n1te capt•v•
The \IJlUCt\0 JCf'CI 0 INdC, bc•rJcJ
mJIC' (Jrtt\~,; kn lu,g. ka$a.mu lh.'\1 ,,,,h
"'"1"-' bchooJ ho bJd;.. Ihe ~""""J h,.rJ
u,JI\..Ih.GO.h:\Yu.: tcm.\u.u.trongua The
mc.•ltl ot the l~nd f1tl'"t''n.J("l\\t:rtu1
t~o. on•~UI'h:t cl(:mcnt ut [I!) ruJn ,ln,
'' 1th vh\ OU\ 'mbolh; Gfllli...-:Jn.. ..:.
I 'rr.:Y\1D~' !munaon anJ "'".a.l.n~.: '• tlH"
omJ~e tormcJ the ~r.,;il rho. '~I!" tOt'
"R.:N:I'onJ ' I """"·".,J thi\\)ml><>li•
JWX'f.UIOII..:\ l\lnlDrcrrncr\l:IIIOfl'Ot
thC' U'OJl!C..
(ll(lu.nd '-';lrtl\'n tn f'~fUOIO .tn \\CIC
+.."i'lfl'enttQ(t.J!l\ J"T<\1~ 1.' torc1gf11:f\
f~t:rt.:r .alh C.uuJmt~..~ 'ul'!fi.)W.. lnJ
l.tk ;,ln't-) 0 \\hO \\(~ J'Cf'-CI\.:J .J\
rcrrc'4;011l'lat the h,m.:cH•I Chl '' JnJ thU\
f"l,~J .~ ..·onttnu'JU.' thrcJt toJt\ me orJcr
JOJ tO the J..mg.thc ultunJIC rroU.~tot 01
th"orJc:r. rhc\ Jrc tn:qucntly il'~'Jtec.l
\\Uh ICOll'IIC ,mJ N)ll ~r.aph) StJtUC\
ot ~l\tnJ turcagn '.armt:s h3\t ~en found
'" f'\TJmnJ C'llrnrlc\C~ otthe OIJ l\Jngdom.
.tnJ 1\\0·Jtmcn~orul rep~ru.tuon4i ot
>U<h fi~''"'" ho•e come to h~ht on til<'""'
of lJt(l tcnlrle) ;mJ r.tl.ll"C.) .anJ on rO) Jl
turnn~. ,u<h 3\ throne~ anJ l!Jol\U)()l
ThctrJCJ'K.1ton on fooc.stool~• .~,\\\:II a~
on the N-,c~off'll\~ ,tJtuCS. rrcxntai
til< on., I-eong >)mboloc>ll' 1nmr!cd I'll
tile long. Ounog the \todJk "oogdom,
\ChcmoUU: hgurtnoOIIOr'etgn &:OIJ'li\'C'~
wrrc: C'O\rn:d \\'tlh CXCCf';JIIOO 1CAts (..ct'
M'· .t8 !9), Duong the 1'\C:\\ ~tngJom. dlC
bound cJptt\C) appc;anng in trntr'~ rebel's.
m 31C\:nodcriuang the l.Jn~t\ ,;cton()U..)
mtlttJ.rycamr.;~tgm.ln:qucnll) c\htbtt
lc.aturc~ that tndtc-liC thctrctltntc tJcnul)·,
>oJ thcor OJITIC'<c>r the OJITICS oftbc cues The C.ll>3rutc \\ Jrriors >r< depiCted
tbc) r<r~ol Jn: enclosed on m•l fr:>mcs on thel),.alm>M<r emplo•;eJ b) the
or eJnOU<h<l on the or bodo<> («< figs. 1, n) Egwll>n> to ponra) th<or Asi>tK nci&hbon.
The: onltmal setting ;and functton ""h poootcd bconh ond ch>r.>ctcostJ<
ot 1h1\ 'IJtuctte lh~ un,mown, Nlt tt ma) hJt"i)lcs ond clo<hoog tlut occosion>ll), ;as
h.I\C l\Cc:n p!J,cd tn .1 tcmrlc or a tomb. on thts rchc:f, \hO\' a dt\CNt). rcft(('tll1g the
dolfc..,ot gr<JU!'S COm!""'"& th< C.o.torute
mrr
popubuoo Jtthe umc Sc<ncssh<n•mg tbc
long bJttlmgencm1 grours ''""' <tJndonl
flctctc"'e'"
dccor.auoos on the w.Uis oftemrlcs
l"'enc lk'\!,. S A~'Ki\:tC''~u~c. June 1;,
.1:01,, lotU!.. dunog the '-•" l<io~Jom, oe<"'"OIUIIy
commcmor.auog ruurulu b>ttles t.lt
pnnunl1 ~uogthert..or.>olu;tlle
11CioriousdefenderofEI!Il'""'J thtr<b)
(59) Relief frocment depictInc canaanotes
tbc d<tcoJer ol the dl11nc .ml unhl)
defeated In httle
,.'Ofldonlcr
Ol uyn;l •y
Thcn\Oftii.U\ temrteot~IV.
1.... 4\NC\.o~ .:tolf'lt~lrr.ts.tof".oe
"be"' tlusfr:>gmcnt>t) block\\nfound.
..,. 6 em\•, '1Scm1Tr.et.'~.:t ' •'Jn
>«rru nc~cr to ho•-.: been comr'e!eJ.
t.l m c.f Art '•\'WI' • R~f'S Funo an~
Its found>UOM mduJro m>O) reused
E~" •dSH~•>neuGHI'll313.tS021
~loct..s from e>rloer temples. r.>OI!'"ll 10
J>te from the n:i~ ofThutmose II oftht
The ~~ht .."'OoDOi tht\ rchcfh;a\t sun1\td
Eoght<enth 0\nJSI\ 10 tlut of R.unesses Ill
thJOU tOthet.kl lhJt the t r:>~COI
ofthe'J\\cnueth O)'II>SI) This block""'
\\01' n:u.\t'IJ MJ1:'\ulf.IIO[: SIOOC 10 the
01\!liO>lll dated IO t)l( ""~ ofl\>m<SS<S
toun..JJttonJ ol tht:mortUar') tcmrtcof
ll, t.ll bJS<Joo sl)hsucgrouods.n hu
R.am~\CS IV 10 \\C~tcm The~' \\here It
been recent!)•owgncd 10 the Eight<enth
\\;aS rrotC\:tC..J unttl USdli('O\C""dunn~
0\'IU>I)', most probJbly the n:ol!" of
'''J\011101\S b~ The ~1ctrorollt~n ~1U54:Um
Ameohotcp II The !.mer conducted two
oiArt an the carl) twcnucthccntut). lt \'U
mtl.tLJt) clm~tgn.s 1n Clnnn, buttt LS
onj:~o.UI\ r•n of o large r<hcf <ho\\1ng
unc:c:n01m "hcthcr or not thiS rchcfdcpKU
.~n Eg)'J'CtJn L.tngsubJutn& CJn.unuc
;lll·~l bJttk on tbc Le\';ll1t.
cntmtc '"bmJc.l"1\c Can.unttc \\Jmoi'S
DDT
Jr< Jer~<IN f•lkn uoJertbc hon<o< thJt
rull the l.m~·· ct...noc; ~"" oftbc bell,..,
R.cfcrrn«'
hood kl!'o JoJ G<"IIJb of tile ho<>cS an be ltJ\'C'~ 19!9· J\9·..a0.. i\~ .:t..a. kachnt :OOS..
""'"""the urrcr nght m;upll of the blocl..
Cooi"<OIIOIUI J<rt<UOII> of tile \'!Ctonous
rtw•oh on bJttle >hoo tbc long>hoouog
JO"'\'S trom hi) bo\,, '' hKh n1uSl m,, c ;also
been the ~.sc on thiS rchc.f. constJcnn~ thlt
the thrc<' f~llcn warriors :ue ~trud.. throu~h
\\11h JrN\\5-
The Goddess Hathor I Rachali Shalomi-Hen
Hothor w:>s one of the most important Ell}-ptian goddesses. She
was known by many epithets, ruth as "Lady ofthe Sy.:amore,"
" Lady of the Sky," "The Golden One," "Lady ofthe Vulva,"
"Ladyofthe \Vest," "Lady of the Desert," " Lady ofTurquoise,"
"Lady of B)·blos," and "Lady of Punt," to mention but a few.
H._thor's earliest secure .appearance in Egyptian an is in the
group st•tues from the Fourth Dynasty Icing Mcnbure'• Valley
Temple (..,e no. s>), where she was dcptcted as a woman
crown<d >\1th bo\ine horns in 1>hich a sun disk nestles. Later
on, she also assumed a fuU zoomorphic form, manifested as a
cow,or,on rareoccaslons..a woman with a bovine he.td~nda
sun disk between her horns. Another representation ofHathor
was the so-called Hathor emblem- a frontal human fate
with bovine ears, often framed by long hair that occasionally
tennina~ in curls, The Hath or emblem usually decorated
musical insttwnenl$, 5tone capitals, standards, or mirrors. It
was the most common tcpresentarion ofthe goddess in Canaan
(seeno. 61).
The name of the goddess Hathor in ancien! Egyptian
was wriuen with the house hieroglyph enclosing a falcon Q a
composition !hal meant "The Howe of Horus." Horus was the
most important falcon god in aneient Egypt, a deity with whom
the god·king of Egypt was fully identified. Metaphorically,
"House" in ancienl Egyptian meant •womb." and thus H;athor.
on the bo.sisofher name, was perceived as the royal womb.
Consequently, the queen ofEII}-pt. the mother and conson
of the ruling king. was also identified with H•thor. However,
Hathor'• role as the royal womb was not confined to life on
eanh. She was also the one who gave binh to the king in his
manif..tation as the sun god Rein the afterlife. Playinc such an
important role in royal binh and rebinh, Hathor 10011 became
dosel)· associated with motherhood, fertility, and sexuality,
on the one hand, and wllh the "Wc<t," that is, the Realm of the
Dead, on the other.
In ancient Egyptian mythology Hathorwas the female
clemen1 in the body of the creator·sun god Alum. According
to Egyptian cosmogony, the sun god anted himself in the
Primeval Water and then masturbated and swallowed hio own
semen, bywhith he impregnated himself and subsequentlycave
binh to the fint pair ofsexually differentiated twins- the god
1481
Shu and the goddeSJ Tefnut. That,... the beginning ofcreotion.
According to certain ltxtual traditions, Hathorwas idenutied
with the hand with which Atum 1.11isficd himself and thus had
an active rolein the creation ofthe world. Consequent I)·, she
was tided ""Gocfs Hand."
Hathorw.~salso known as thepotron... ofmusic and
dance. AI such, the mmil (fig. 17} and the rutrum (tig. lB) were
two of her most significant atlnbutes. The ~~~ntit was a lleary
nockbcc C'Omprising multiple str>nds ofsmaU beods with a
counterpoise on the back, whoch balonted the W<'ight of the
nec:klate. When shaken, the mmitrottled. The tisr"'"' was a
rattle with a handle.
DcpictJOMofwomenolfering'"'"it nocklatesand '"'"'
in order to rnivify the deceased are known from tombs dating
as far back u the late Old Kingdom. Ho..'ever, rcvi•ification
of the dead was not only a mauerofrottling. ln an old ancient
Egyptian myth the sun god Re bec:<>mes l>'eary and uhausted,
and in order to restore his powers, Hathor stands before him and
r<>ealshcrgenitals. Relaughsand risesupagain.luppean that
the erotic element in the culticdances of Hath or wasCJ\Icialto
rcvivifioation, and that suth dancing took plate in tombs as a
mearu ofreenacting the myth in order 10 reestoblish the poweB
of the doceased in the afterlife. OanceB invoking Hathor,
dressed in very shon doths around theirwai$1$, performed
high ltickJ and backbends, their genitals exposed u p•n ofthe
dance. The dancing w:>o atcompanied by music, hond·clai'J'ong,
(r'l- 27) Menitnockl&co (Foe. 281A typieat Hathor 1111t"""
and the usc of '"'tanct·likc dappers (see no. 6l). Occasionally,
mirront 1\'hach wen- solar clements, "-ert' aho ~din lhe ritwl
dance; ~>·hen • hanJ·>hapo:d clapper was hciJ against a morror,
the di•ine unity l>ctwecn llathor andRe was achi<!ved (fig. 19).
This may be the r<a><>n for the deposition of monors in tombs
and for the frcqu<nt Jc,.~nof mirrot h•ndles on the shape of the
Hathoremblcm (>ce no. 6o).
Y<t queen>hip. motherhood, fertihty, music, d~. and
sex we"' onl)· rart of the comrtex tharxte<of H>thor. She
was fint and fon:m<><t• femonin< goddess, "hoencoml'"sed
in her various, appcar.uKCI :and manifestations, :all asprcu
offemininity. Th,. fundamontaltroit all.,..·ed Hathorto be
honored and re•-ncd bydilfor<nt people as theiro...,.goddess,
and at the ~me time, to merge and t•ke 0\'tr the attrihules of
prominentool &OOdcs>es. An eumple of this m"l be""'" in
llathor'stide "LaJy of llyblos" and in the f•<t that a temple was
built in her honor in the remOte and arid lite of the turquoise
minn at S<!nbitei·Khodom on Sinai.
Hathor ofS<!robit ci·Kbadim dc>erves specialattentiocL
Her temrle ,... . tint crc<tcd in the tim< of the Middle KingJ0111,
and it is widely acknowledged that at leasuom• of the \\-orkers
in the mines wore Western S<!mites (see Appendi• I on tl>c
origi111ofthe alphabet). One of the voci.e offerings left for
Hathor in her temrl• was a small, erude $J>hinx ""h the
Proto-Sonallic inscription "to II.>'ala!" (see fig. Jl), Apart from
the importance of this find from an <pigraphoo sundpotnt, this
(Fi& 29IScoM olcullic d_..,. wrth ..,;no<a ond elappOrs
sphinx bears the first wrinen Mde~ for the identification o(
HathorWlth the C.naanite goddess Ba'alot.
Such S)'JictetiSiic procnses in\'Oivina Hathor arc evidenced
on other Canaanite finds, asweU. Alrcadt in the Middle Broruc
Age, Hathoric figures appeaJed in Canoan on sanbs (see nos.
tJ, q); in the Lace Bronze~ they were abo applied to cold
pendants, c13y fomale figurines, jewels, and 1cwelry bous (Kt
nos. 6s, 66). A11hough none of these figures can be identified
as th.c ofHathor with any degree ofcertainty, since none beaB
an insaiption, they must haw be= local fertilil)i vegeution/
lo\-efmothethood goddesses, who were m<rzed 11ith Hathor
and took on some ofher anribuoes. Mter all, Haohor's role in the
ancient Egyptian pantheon ..-u elltlcnwly brood and J>O"'erful,
and she mu.sthr.'e inspired the pictorial,.prescnution oflocal
Canunite goddosses, who IIC\-ertheless retaoned some o( their
obviously local hue. It is important to stress, h"""'"''•that
the local objecU 1>1th Hathorit figures are difl'ercnt ftom the
Egjl"ianobjecU bearinc Hathotfigures that were imported
to the Lc\..nt. ll is impossible to ascertain the reason for the
importation ofsuch objecu u the hand clapper in the sh•pe of
Hothorthatwasfound onShiqmona (sceno.6J). Vet it is dear
that ofall anacnt Egwtian deities, Hathor wa the one mosl
present in Late BronzeAgeCanaanon both local and imponed
obj«ts.
Rcfcft'nCft:
Bkdn 197J:Gdlam t99f,Cir1.\'C'l·lnM11 JOIO;MOfrisJ:on; PiAch 199);
7"'!'1916.
£ayptlan Emp;rol 149
[60) Mirror ,.;: • ~r·loco handlt
The nurrot"uan ~"""' ot pC'Jt
"-)mNhc lt\CII\C't"tn Jn,acnci~rt.
II)') mbol~1 rd.ucJ h' lh lund atm.
mJtcnJI. and lonn 1 he marrllr \
a~ihl\ w n-ila.:t un.a~;c' •mrlacJ to 1hc
Ei=\J'CIJn'\ dut tl "01' cnJ~,.,,,C\f '"uh th~
!""'<' Olhi~,IM rolt>h.:J mciJiironl
\\ha~..h '' ,,;aio nuJe.u.~wu, ~n'n'c '''
corrcr o~nJ ""'"a'aon.ilh '11\cror i:olJ.
\\J\ .I''M."- IJh.·J ' ' •th the: \hiOmJ! goiJcn
'"''nor the ~un. J' ,,!IJ th( mur~,.lf\
rounJ or dlsrtH. .lltoml
E~ ruJn nltrn.w.. ''ere do'(: I)
J\Wt.:IJ.h!J '' tth chc <Uit ot •tJthor,
''h" "~'). am~""i-t other de~tJ.tnauon\,
Ihe ~\lJJ<" Olll>\e Jnd lJ,:JUI), 3 .~\
~,,JJc'"'· ;anJ J J;JUghtcr ot chc ..un god.
\hrmf\ \\ere rcgul~ul~ u\CJ m culm:
Jl:tl\ aucs dcJn:au~J. 10 her (,ce fig !y)
lf;uhor \\JS OIIcn rcprc~ntcd 3.) ;a cow
m Egypu.tn an • .1nd her prim:a I) ~pnltol
,, ..~ JhumJn to~cc wtth ctm \car\ (sec
p. 148), "hoch rorms pm olthe hJnJie or
tha\ marror, hhcrc u I) ~wmountcJ b) a
plf')"NS pl•nl The morror Jo>l. obo'c the
pll')l'U\ rna)· hone suggc)ced the ns1ng
!.un 0\Cr ~ P~Mrus ndJ ;a ~mbol of
erN lion. ~hrrors ,,cn: u~ b) both men
;and \\ OnlCO 10 dJtl) hfc, ~nd lhq· \\CJ"C
(ommonl) rt.ccd J.S bun;~ I gJfiS 10 tombs.
Thu d.:abor.atc \ll,cr m1rror W'J.)
p;an of:a ln~Jsun: compn\ang c.\"quasuc
bunJI g•ltsof,upcrhqual& t) Irom
the tomb of lhrcc forcagn \\'1\CS of
Thuunosc Ill. Among chc gths, ,.,h,ch
•nt.luJcJ m;ag.n1httnt ~b of1c"clf)
.1nd tunc~l) equipment, \\Crc ttcms
ln\4.:ribcd \\lth the \\1\"C\. nJmcs .lnd
1heu111le, • 1\ong's \\"ole." 1mpl)1ng lhJI
the) bclongeJ 10 the ~ng, h;uem The
n;ames .uc \\'c~t SemitiC'. ''h1ch ;argues
lor the ''omen\ Can.unnc ongm. It h;u
t>ccn <U!t!1<Sicd lh<) mJ\ hove bo:cn the
dJug.htcrt 01J c.an.13nate ruler 10med
to Thutmo"tC: Ill n '"Ccondal)· ,,,,cs m a
rchu..::al mJmJt:,c. LJlc the oahcr bunal
~Ill> I rum the 1omb ol 1hc~ lo,. 1gn
\iuccn,, th•) mtnord•<rl.a, .. \\orlrru,nsh•p
\lt Ihe h1phc ..t qu.tht),lndsr...ttlng thlt u
\\.t" produ~..cd '" thC' ~al \\Orlshop-The
thr""c n.1mc olthr keng en~nbcd Jlthc
tmnt ot the p-.tl'\ru>pbnt \uggcsts th.lt 11
\\JS • tt•ll prc...,ntcd 1'\ thclonttlooneof
thC'\\Omcn
OIIT
ltth:n:l'kC""
11.1\n I !IN. lt·,lJJ,'f'U~I lOOl. rKl 1o6.hlt
1&9· CDIJ P.lh:h lOOU
(81) Holhor mu k
t rl L h 9 ·lrcnA,o•A
\1 t1 '"tnccn'IJ')Id(8 F.t~nce H 5'""
\'. 51emTn 1"'"'"-''AA'''J:t. 803
The m.td;.!S m.tdC' ol blue;trecn f.aien~.
;md .tlmond·~apcd C)~S :uc dnwn on
It tn bl.adc. It m.t) h.t\1: ongm.all)· been
proJU<N lrom three >ep;>r>IC pJru:
thr fJCC,thC' h.11rd0. ~d :IIOOihC'r ran
bdO\\ the chm ch.u shCMs s1gns ofh.t\lng
bro~<n oil. The mJskdcpoCIS lhc {JC< or
the j:O<IdcUIIJthoron oncofMr n>O>I
\.""Ommon rcrl't'sentoiUOnJ In ~IU.ln: .t
\\om.an's 1.1« \\llh ~.·ow's C'JrS (the em
h.a\e not SUf'\i\eJ ). Ili'J'OSSible th.ll lhc
m.tsk dcror.ucJ 1hc ha ndle of a usmun
(Ci!ICmOOIJI ~ttle; on the role Of music
on lhecuh oftbthot.scepp. q8 ·~ 9 ). 11
w, the panth•• h•d b«n •uoc:hcd 10 lhc
chon Wlllhc handle
The t\,OSUf'\1\108 fr.~gmcnli of
the m:ask v.cn: dt\oCO\crcJ '"the temple
ofJbthorat T1mn.t, ncar the rock waJI
on \\h!Ch lhe nuo• h•d been hewn The)
\\ t rc found ;along\\ nh other ob1ect.s
brought to the temrlc as \'011\·e.s. \\htch
" ·ere :llso b1oken It is posoeotblc that the~
fragments were rcmO\cd from the nuM
dunng the n:novomon or cltJnmg o(
lh<lcmplc, \\Miherb\ Egypuonsorb)'
loc>lonhobuonts Jftcr the Egrruons"
dcr.tnUtt
AI T1mnJ, the goddess H.tthor \\U
<ailed "Lodj of \1<1~31 rrurquouc1-
~n c-rn.hc-t k.lcnr..c.tlto the one 2tt(1:tcd
ror lh< godd<"'S •• Sc:r•bu <I·IJiadlm on
Sonoo h« AppcnJLt A). The temple ••
Ttmn.l. ltle the one :et Scr.1b11 d·t.J\Jdtm.
""" 2 temple of duunc mtncso but at
Ttmna the Eg\"J'llmi nuncd corpcr, not
turquo•.se. Jncontruc tothc large and
tmprcssa ..e temple Jl Scr.~bu ci·Khld•m.
the ccmplc 31 Tamn:e \\ilS 'm.tll, n:lchang
J toe.tl.&rc.J ofless th;tn jO sq m J t liS
pc.tk.. H.tthor, the lad)· of the trcJSUfC'iOl
rbn:agn llnds, \\ ""D the goddcssth.tt the
Egypu3ns \\'OrdupcJ v. hcn the\ ome to
mtnc for ..:orper 3t Tintnl 2nJ turquoise
Jt Scr.~bu cl·J\h.tdtm. f.Jien~. \\hl'-it wu
ohen g13.U'\I tn sh.tJcs ofbluc-rurqumw.
WJ~ \\1JCI)· wed 35 .a D\\ m.ttcri.tl tn
the produCiion ol gofls 10 1h1> ~odJ«
It l i possabiC" th.Jt the close rci.Jtionshar
bcrw«n Honhor .1nd fJtC"'-~ w;b bJ.~
on IM bluc·!l""'n rolorol llus motcn.al,
Jnd on lh< goddeu"s rol< .-"The Lodr of
1\lrquotSC ·At Tunn.t,llnothrrd•mcnsaon
\\.t,3ddcd co 1hcconnce1wn ~no...:cn
B.athor, faience, .and 1he Nuc-~rffn
.sh;~dc, ~u1ce the cor~Xr th.n the Eg>-pll.tnJ
 m1ncd \\"J\ ''""' adJUh~ th.u 'J\e f~jcnce
its color.
Hath<' L• I<"Cm~lmg tho
11'.0
present on~.· arc k::·• Irom Eaghcccnth
D) n><l\ (luurtconoh ontu" BCf)
Egypt, '' her~.· th..:~ ''~rc ''1dcl)· u~cJ
u ~mulct\ 1 hl") -.,ere.: rcgudcd l \ the
embodamcntl)llhc: t:o..!Jcs\ .1nd ''ere
:.ppJrentl) J\\0\:tJ.tt:J ''uh tCruht\,
SC);"UJIIt~ .lhiiJ~Ifth, JnJ fCIU\C03tiOO
on chc ~.1\1\ PI H.1th"'r\ m\1hOIOI!IC'31
role tho muthcr otth< LonR >nJ the
C'Oown ot the sun~ Rc. 'uch m.1~~
o hcn d ccor.ucJ cQiumn cJruJb. JnJ the
h.tncJic\ ot nt1m'r' 1nJ urtr.r.
R."l
~kiTfkC'
Ounn f nc-Jm..tn 1~8. AI.' 01; ru~.. h IY~\,
W ;-u,1n N ftot~rJifi:-A
(52) Scenea of Hllhor worship on 1
jewelry box
L11 •• teBron .. t.• - t:~Jr.(LJI•'
8ron1•11:. o H;-''1 u.1rt1 15thcetntu')'
BC.l.Ji6;t"o .t~"d .-.codlmodMn)IL 2&tfT1
',\ 1utmH 13,..rn IAA12001·13C'
An almost comrlctc ben d«oratcd '' uh
31 <ngr.l\ed bone pbques was found
on the floor ofon< ofohc rooms of tho
Lout 6ronze Age r JIJCC 011 H:uor It \\~S
embedded m debn s on.J ash, th< ~suit ol
the mtcnsc fire th.1t destro)'t'd the rJIJcc
J.long ,.. uh the enure c.Jn;a;anuc cny. rhe
ongon>l m>ten•l ofth< box.,.,, prob;l~i)'
Wood, Which diSIOtqtr.UC'd :tnd h;at been
restored with modem ,,'OOd., Ho\•;C\'t'r,
the fJct th.u most of1hc bone ani ;a)'S "en:
disco,-ered tn thc:irorig•n31 pos11100.S
allo\\cd for;~ccur.uc restor.auon The
bone plaques daspl;ay scenes ol .1dor.mon
152 1
ofth< llothoromblom. Bo.esofthiS
t)pe \\Crc uscil for stonngjc\\clr) ;~nd
other smJIJI ucms. ilnd lhus th•.s box most
prob>bll cont>mcd the C)·ltnd<o se•t. ond
gl:an .md scnu·prttiou.s stones bc:~ds th:~t
\\ere found scaucrcd around 11
Tho front ofth< bo.,, Y.htch IS
the bt:<l prcse"·ed p•rt, prtsonts two
hum ;an tigurcs facmg one another, nch
<urrortong •ia'ltelfothor emblem. An
•ddouon>l Hothor emblem a"-.d m
rdacfl) attached tn the ttnlcr. The b.lck
ofth< bo,, ~>hooh IS not as Mil prtsc:rvcd,
Josrl•l"> • somobr scene, but both figures
l>co nght Thesodcs of the box depu:t
t\\O datfcrenl «<ncs: One side feltW'I!1
tl\O humJn figu•c~ f.aang one another,
cJch c.lfT\IOg a s.u.,fia;al amnul towa.rd
• ccntr.li ltgun: (now lost), prob;>bl)· th<
reupoent of the olfrnngs. The other <td<
dospi•l~ si• cobns on thelow•r p.lrt •nJ
1sphan' \\1lh 1 hbauon \"1SC '"front of
11 on 1ht uppcrr;~.n. The mu~norofth~
bo' os d«ont<d w11h small squ= bon<
pu:ces crt'~llng <1 chcckcrboani p;uttm.
There arc some amgu!Jriucs in the
amngcmcn t of the plaques. for complc,
the hud of the left hunun figure on
the tront of the bo't li daiC'Oitnectt'd
from th< bod), •nd tho pl•nt·hke object
on th< H•thor<mblom held b) tlus
hgurc IS cnt&.rcl\ out ofpbcc- Simibr
,,.,.gul•nucs ()(CUf on •11 four sodes
ofth< bo•. sullll<Sllng thot not >lithe
pbqucs ongon>ll) belonged tat;othtr
.1nd th:n some wert t'(~d; rreswnJbl)'.
ahe plaques 1h;1t now consmute the bo'
onll'n>ll) fonncd port of another or
K'~nl other boxes Ttui f'hcnoctKnon is
;~.lso ;a teeMed on other bo);ci ofthas l)~·
Egypti;an mRucncc on 1hc
Jecor.auon ofthas bo' as e\idcnt, )Ct Lhr
oconogJOph)' ond st)l< clc:uly on.Jont< ots
Dn:a.annc product1on The pl1nt moufs
surmountang ahc H:u horcmblcm.s are not
found m the £g)1'tun depoctoons of this
emblem ond were possobl) insporod b)
Middle Bronu Ago SC>nbs (see no.q)
or Synan C'')'lmdcr ~als In :adduion, 1hc
llothor emblem dolfors from the Eg)"PIIOn
ones an us "'angJ).. f.aci;al c'Cpt'(S510n,
found 01lsoonother Clna:anitcdcpicuons
ofth< symbol. The form ofthe sphnu os
di\'el"gCRt from the su.ndJ.rd Eg)'J'U.ln
sph1ru., rc:scmbhng spturo:es appc~ring
on ~toddle BroniC Ag< C.nurut<
SC>nb. Fin>ll)'. the bnnch •rpo•nng
:os se<ondol) moufon>ll four sodes of
the bo'( is 3 C;m.urute mourcommon!\
found on lonl Middle Bron:< A.-
sc=obs (Stt no t.l).
IVM< tlothor, the cdutul mother
goddess. ..ho ,..,, :also the beou11fulond
sensual goddess oriO\-c :and mu~ac, wu
on unporunt goddoss •n Eg)"PI, h<r role
1n southern CJn;~;an is sull uncJcar, :and
whcth(r the: C;an:;a;mnc:s ,·.:n(r.Jtc:d her
:lS an Eg>l'thn goddess or :aSSanlilatcJ
hcr\\ith a loal goddess lS unkn0\\1\
Jfc:rdose :a.ssocll.UOn \\-Uh the n;atural
r<SOUICOS of the i.<\'3nt llm~r (' LoJJ)·
of !I\-bios") >nd turquoise ("LaU)' Of
Twquo•sc"" m Sm.u) nuyc,pl<~an the
:adopuon ofhcr symbols 1n CJ.n:a.Jn anJ
C\tn the assim1btion of these ~mbob
1nto the KO~rh>' ofaiOC'31 CJnunue
~;odJes. (sec nos. tJ. 6s. 66). The~"""""
of the figures supportmg thetbthor
emblem on this box suggcQS \"C: ncr.ltlon,
\\hcthcr the emblem rerrcscnt.s Lhc
Eg)'J)I13n HJthor or her Canunitc
cquw01lcnt The f;act t.h;nthc 1)111rol
:~uachcd to chc centerofthc front JnJ
Eayphon Emput l153

(ceremonial r.1ttl~). dos~ly associOI<d
With th~ gocld~ss and her ~mbl~m in
Egypt, seems to potntto the fonncr.
Th~ box was found in th~ final
occupauon le't·el of~nnniu~ H:azor,
d.a~d tot~ thon~nth c~ntury BCE,
but st}iostoc argum~nLS bas«! on somila.r
boxes from Egypt and the Levant
argue fordotong It with on the r.~nge of
the sixt~nth - earlt fifteenth century
BCE, c:orrcspondong to th~ l•t~ s~c:ond
lnt~nncdiate P~nod and early Eighte~nth
Dynasty in Egj-1" Considering the high
value of the bone plaques dec:or.~ung
boxes ofthis type, as indicat<d by their
t5&l
common rec)"ding, such boAes, when
found on laterc:ont~xts, should~
considered heirlooms, some ofY.-hlch
were probabl) kept for gcner:~uons.
DBT
(63) Hand·aheped clapper decoratod
with the H1thor emblem
St. Qm' n t L tte Src:,ll'''"" ~ .• 1..~n- i~th
cuntury&;EJII.Oryll .. ~Crt I :.AI
198t 248
The up oftho.clappcr is in the fonn of
J hand wuh J br~cclet :u the wnst Such
objects J rc somcumcs kno''" ai hJnd
wands. BtiO\\•thc bncdct IS ;a lf.1thor
emblem, o~nd, :u \I~UJI tn these mst.lncc),
H:uhor :lppc21'S,..,Ilh a human face, CO\\
cars. and long h:ur fr.tmtng the (.-Jcc,
cJch paruuon of which ends an lll)'p•c-al
H.ithorcurl. H:nho r's (.ace is .a btt crude,
2nd the OI OUll I• orl f1U shop 1\ far foom
~xc~llent, )CIIt '" c r th;.t thl~ cl.:~ppcr
" 35 m~de '" lt!'l'l I ( tl\ \\hen u \\.J.S
•mrortcd IO CJru n' not knO\'" · but
d•ppcrs of the '·'" h3J'<' J nd style \\ere
m•de on l:.ll)pt Jo t • t~foghtccnth•nd
Nineteenth l~ n.J\t t11, thu' ,~rc 10
~\\Ume th.1t ~~ ~ ciJfi'Cr ,,,a\ tmponcd
clcxc to the lllll~ ot lti rroJucuon The
c13prcr ''J' h.1unJ ln .a L:ah: Hronze
Age II rontc\I , JO the\ h. mat\ ot J rubhc
bu1ldtnJ:t .Jit<~njt \\llh (!Iher unrorccd
ObJCct\ d;;IIIOjt ln>m 1h1: 1-JinC rcnoJ
lnform.11100 on the rrC\.I~t tln~J\j'Ot li
not, os )el, Jl Jola~le. The clappcr.found
broken. \\J\ rc:consnu~.:tcd trom mJn)
tr:a~ment,. rh~ onh other u..1mrlc
dt\l·o, ~rcd '" J,r.Jd ,, J cl.1prcrfrom Beth
Shc.m.
IIJnJ ·>h>f'<'J cl•rl"'" " ere ~d
on Ell)pt., eJrl) a' the Old 1-on~Jom. Rc(Cf'(ntt'-
ts den thJt ciJM'Crs "ere not limne-d to
Thq ""''~ onen riJ) tod m culuc ~bntts 8\)um.tU 19SS. no. IOI,C.tpd ~nd Markoe
1he musocal sphe"' The usc ofcl•l'l"'" t996, Craoar.ndo :OOjb. Etc>mh •99• ·
on hon01 ol the goddc<s Hathor J nd
an culuc dJnccs for IIJthor, on the one ;6· -14i bcaJcr 19:"'9 · 19 · JO.
\\Crc c&thcr bcJh:n IOI!cthcr or ustd
hJnd. ond Hathors role os • goddess of
a.cam nets. Th<Y"""' pla)ed b)
mu.s1c, fcruhr), motherhood. btnh, anJ
musauan' Jnd dancer"' to keep ume, (~I Rfn& decorated with a Hathor
rebonh '" th< 3t1erl•fe, on ohe other hand.
wuhoot J n ) ot.Mr mus1C21 ms1rument.s, ststrum
added an opotropaoc qu>lot) to these
•nd often rcpl•ccd hand cl Jppon~. "' ., AJII"' to.e-.... K.~£dotn.,.lte1E:h
obJects. It os thcn:ro"' possoble that our
Thts funcuon dJC1JtcJ thcardcs1gn a.s 0\.n.t>t/ ( Sth- l,th centuf')> BCEl I
crude Sluqmon• comrfe wos brougho
a hum3J1 h;and In the umc oft he Nc'' Gola tS.zti:L J.tc ml'i Ucm11AA I
to Canaan b) on Eg)l'n•n " hosough•
Kangdom, cb ppc:rs ''ere sull m.:~dc m the t9J2· t810
H~thor's protection '' h1le 11\\<Wfrom
sha~ of a hand, but o11en, the tlathor
home UO\\C\er,ShtqmonJ lS 3C'OJSUI
emblem wu Jddcd, :u 10 the Sh1qmon~ Thos gold nng bclon(;S oo the porulor
SltC, JOd 3.S 5UCh, It haS)1eldcd J \\e.llth
ex;amplc Thecomb•nallonot tla1hor type of heal)' me1>l sumop nng ofth<
o ( om port«< goods from oU"'' " the
and the hand refeos to the godde>S"< Eil!flt~nth DpuSI) thai"""' us<d
Med1tcmnc.1n. his thus more h~CI\ th2t
epithet "God's HJnd" ~ nd poinrs to her pnm.;ml)' as ;an ;amulet (~ no. u ). ltS
the owner of the cl:~ppcr from Stuqmon.l
role m the \CXUJI arouSJIofrhc crc;nor- bezel dasplJ\"S 1 surrum (;accrcmoni.JI
WU .I Ioc~ \'ho" UUnJWJ.r"eOflhC
""un god .1nd her p3rt1Csp.lUOn tn the r.ude) \\, lh the humJn f.ac~ and cow's
obJect's e• act purposc Jnd sognoficoncc.
crc~tion of the \\Orld (sec p. 148). From corsofth< goddess llaohor, the most
RSII
"'nncn dcdu~ations on cl:~ppcD, 1hcir dosuncm"< spnbol orthos goddess. The
o~ppc:u'3ncc an funcr.uy conre-<U, .anJ sutnun as fbnkrd b)· rwo sc..ucd C'JlS
lhe1r prc~encc among m:agics:~n's ge:~ r, st

ponra1-ed t..ck to back, their h eadJ
turned lr.aclcw•nl t0\\'3nlot. The Hathor
sistnun 15 frequently found on Eighteenth
Dynasty sc:uobs, cowroids-amuleu in
the fonn of cowrie shells - and finger
nngs, where 11 is occaSJonolly depicted
10 assoaauon v.;th cats. The conn«1ion
of the at With the Hathorsisrnun
seems to relate to the rolt ofH:uhoras
goddess of women, female sexual it)',
and motherhood. This aspect ofHathor
identified her .,,.h the Egyptian goddess
Neb<t· h<ttpet, the female rount<rport of
the creator god, whose most dastincti\·e
charactc:rutic w.u sc:x\1.3.1 energ)·, and
whose association wnh the cat wu
probably due to the ammars exceptional
procuati\e pov.ers.
The ring, \\fueh is dearly a n
Egyption product, "'35 found in a Late
Bronze Age Canaanite tOmb at Tellel·
158[
AJjul, md i<ou ng t.hat Egyptian amulets
besldessc:uabs "e"' used bv the
C;maanue popul:mon during chis period,
in emulauon ofEgypuan customs.
DBT
Rc(C'rcncn
Kccl 1997o 186-1;, no.1.4;. Pttne 19Jl.
pl.r-u.
[IS] Gold pendants
The gold pendants described below were
p;an of a domesuc hoard rontoatning an
i mp~SSt\·c collection ofCan:u.mte gold
JOWcll), which wu found at Tell ei·AiJul.
Such hoards often include valuable
items preserved for long pe:riod.s of lime,
includrng heirlooms h onded down 0\-er
the gencr.m ons.. This milkc.s it d1fficuh to
enablish the obt<cts' dateJ. Ne\'.,nhcless,
the archacologrcal evid ence from the •ito
and p>rallels from other >lie< •u~
th3t the two pendants dltc from th
suet« nth through the cart)' fiftec, t
century BCE, ron temporal) \\lth tl
early Etghtecnth D)'nosty in E(!\ rr
DBT
[65a] Pendent
Te ei·AJJu' Llt(lo ~.' dd c 8fon:o
LateBronzct&«trrr.\.2 16tta ~ '
century BCEll Gold H ~ 7 em ;,
1AA I 1~35·3842
Th1s pendant \\3.5 produced rrum 3
trianll"largold sheet, the top <>f \\hr,h
was rolled ro fonn • su<pen"on loor.
It belongs to ta rrcogmzed l\'flC 01
C:an;aamte gold pcmJJnt dcpi cun~ .1
highly schemouc nudelemole m I runt•I
\-1tW portr.a)td only b)"J f.Jcc, brc.a,h,
na\-cl, Jnd pubic tri:ang.le The tJ,c,
"hich rs '!CUlprcd m rclicl, d t>pl•)' l•rtt<
c-ars ;md is rcmimsccnt of chc ltJthont.:
face on Mrddlc Bronze Age C.n••nlle
sc:rrabs (see nos tJ- t4) A drop·<hJpeJ
ornament 15 depicted o n the forehud
and another be.trd·hkc ornament ;arre~D
under the chm
Thellothoric face on the pendant
~uggcsuEg)-pllan msptrallon. )~t the
schem:uic prcsent~:~uon of the body i.s not
known'" Ell)l't, and thi>l)l"' pendant i•
cleorty ofC.naan11e ongrn. The female
figure represented on such pendants n.
sometimes identified os tlu~ Can;tJmtc
goddess Ascartc, who WJS associ:ucd
wuh scxual11y and fenrhq The ligurc
m:.y .tlso be associ aced with the
Egyptian goddeS> IIathor. the beouttful
and sensual goddessofiO\'e, joy, ond
music. There IS, hooe\'cr, no condu3oivc
Thcponra•obofthe nude goddess on
(65b] Pendant
C!\~t.lcnn hlll..lc-nul} ~u\..h hgun:' ""h the Canoanrte gold pendonts, on the one
r .,.1 J··~.- 3eeronzo-e,,,y
tllhC'f ~\-.JJC',\o lhoulth It i' ~fc tO honJ. and on the EG)l"'•n Ramessrde
u •• StQn .. ttA.£e\m C · Hit."t-~''' l~<:h
.l)SUnlC thJt Ihey ;ymbohlC'd crOUCI~m scebe,on thc:other,sho\\ 1nternung
cer1.J"'IBCE1 Gold i H 9-t'ZC.'ft\'t 7 2cm
~nd \C\uJht), ~nd, prob.;abl), ferullt). rcaprocJI culcur:al inHucna:s bet'\\ ten
"-A I t935-~P•3
Cnn,1cJcnng the con~piCUOU\ portf':')"JI Ell)pt ond Canun During the ~IIddle
ol the rubt< tnJngle on penJonts ofthiJ ~nd nrl\' Late Bronze Ages m southern
Tl\IS. rcndJill IS sinubr Ill Share 10
t)l"'• 11 h.s bc:cn suggested thq mJ) h••e Cannn, the imllgeofthc Canunne
the rreYtou> one and :abo depiCts"
bc:cn su>pendcd trom peh ic gJnllcs. os nude godJCJJ, "hcthcr derrcted '" full
,..hcmaucfcmole figure b) mconsofa
oppo<c:d to necklo«<- II hJs JI>O been figure on ~bsor in l sc:hc:mJUC form
frontJI f.;acc, breasts. na\-cl.anl.l rub•c
iuggesu:d the)' served.» cuhlc or \011\C' 00 rcndlnt.S, W3S msrim:f b)· attnbutC.S
tnonglc 110.,..,...,, che foce of the figur<:
belnJt ircm, of
ObjCCU. 10 .Jddnion 10 0 1 the E(!ll'tt•n goddessll•thor Thrs
on thtJ pcndont hu a Hathor hatt>tyle
P'!DOn.JI ;adommcnr. associauon is also aue..sted on the
""h out-cuned Jockssunnount<d b)
Egypuln rri\""Jte stcbtot the R.amCSS~de
41 sun da.sl.. _another attnburc of the P<:nod ond ma) hO\"< been msru-ed b)·
R,t(('~fk:C'\..:
goddess Hothor. Although dtspla)1n~
t'CJ.hll97'>t"l, no. IZ9,h, . .a. l"rtnC' 19J.I• 6, the coarhcr fused imJgn ofchc Cannrutc
dear 3ttributc.sofH:~thor,tdentafinCIOO
no. ll.pls ;»lll, >.tV a nude goddess in the ~•nt
ofrhc hgure wtth thrs EIJYI'tion goddess
rs chJIIengcd b) the stond•nl deroctions
Rc(crtfK"t:~
of the C.nnnitc goddcs< ~eshct Nc-&l'-tt9:"0o.&:,no lJhli& .t: ~ntt9.~.6.
wuh da(uncti\·c ll:~thonc annbut~ on no. 9. pis '"'· XI\~ 9
Ell)1'''"" R;tmcssrde stcl>e (sec no. J7l·
Enpu~n Emp•rtlt59

(116) PlaqiHI flcuriM of a nuda £odd...
Tel Batash Lato BronzoAgeiiA(I4th
centuryBCEhl'ottOf}'IH.12 4cmW S.Jem1
IAA 2001·2232
11us figurine pbque, found at Tel Bat.:>sh
rrimno), displa)'S a nude female figure
mnd.ng rn frontal view and holding a
lotus flol'er .n each hand.She has the
typial Hathor hairstyle that exposes
her !at&• ears, and she is adorned '"th
an elaborate necklaee and bra coleu on
herwruts and ankles. The figure has no
facta! feacures, indic•cing thai the mold in
which 11 was shaped did noc concain these
details. The facoal features ofsuch pbque
figunn<s were often added after the plaque herannbutu The l.,ter seems more
was remo••ed from the mold and be foro
firing, as seen on a plaque figurine (fis. 30)
160)
(F•c. 30) Pottery plaque ft&unne made1n the ume mold as tn. one<
from l et & tash, w1th add~ fac•al f.atures.IAA P·7
m>de in che same mold as the Tel B•t•sh
plaque.
This pb que is a well·known type
ofCanunitc Laic Bronze Age figurin<
found m fowtct nth· th•necnth ccntUI)'
BCE =hacologic:al conccxts Ill souchem
Canaan. Like the Tel B>tosh ploque, mosc
examples ofthas type d1sploy • nude
female figure with che H•thor hatrscyle
holding a lotus flower in each hond, •nd
m>nydispl•y larg< tars, probably insp1rtd
byH•thor's largecow's ears These
Hathonc attributcs argue for the div1ne
nature of these figures. Howe\'er, u is
unclear wheth<r the figures represent the
Egyptian goddess Hathor, oq ust borrow
hkely, as in che case ofthe <artier and
l:ater representations of the Can.a:anitc
nude goddc:!tS \\llh lt::nhom; JttnbUt(''
(see nos. 12, t 1. J8, 19). Al<o, chel>r~c
e:us of these Can:~.mne hi!ure~ .trc .tl\\~)'
human ens, a.s opposc:d to 1he CO\\ 's C.J"
found mllochor's 1m•ges 1n ~lt)l"JnJ Ill
C. noon (sec nos. 60, 61)
The nude hgurcs portr.&)"--d on the~
C<ln3anue pottery pl01ques m~y h;a\-c been
the mspuomon for the dc:p•ct•ons oft he
goddess <l!lo.hel on Egypuon R•mc><tdc
see!••· " here the goddoss1s ponr>)..:J
with • n ribucesofiiJ!hor,chough cle>rl)·
identified 3S the C:ln01:mue goddess
Q.dcshet (see no. 37).
DDT
Rc.fc.rcn«
Mv~r loo62,ZS1 4 ~ ,
I 161
 Appendix A: Egypt and Canaan m the Genesis-Exodus Narratives

II"~ ·nt: :,~1 \ t;.r~cJ 1h.u 1hc h1hhc.11 \toric\ 1ciJung to Eg)l"l
.1nJ l tn.a.Jn an lhe ~J,..., <11 Gcnrw.. and £\odUeii ''err put mto
\\nllng 10 the fir I miJI..•nntUm UCI::, probJbJ) not bc:fon.~ the
\C'\.:"fllh ~o.Cntun l\Cl' \ cl J(,OfJIOfll\l nlJO} ~hOIJrs.thC)
"''"10110 Jcwlb.ah.tt Kt.:m h>rcth..·c:t ...omc LnO\,JcdJ!eofEpl't
.mJ C:~n.un m th.: sc,\.'!nJ mtllcnmum BCE. The qut"\l!On of1hc
ht,hm, ''} Ill thdc ,h,nn. m p.1nu,:ul.u, the \h>C) 01 Jo~crh '"
~ ~\ r• ((.~0('\t,.S 'N ~0) .anJ thJt Oil he l\rJclllc~ m Ett)''J11 anJ tht
~:\(lJU' Ct \l.Ju, 1 1.,), h.a<~. mtnl!\Jcd ...,.hol.u'\ tordcco~Jc-.. Do
thl''C' JH\JttnB n!l1e"\."'l J..:luJI ht\IOO\.JI C\Cnh) Ami 1t ~''hen
nlt~hlthC''C' C\C'nl\ hJ\C 1.1lrr.cn r~JtC~ The'< qu~UOO\ ,lf'C' mil
1hc ..utt,..·... t vi muc.:h Jc:bJh." •.1' rhc C\1Jcn(c •~ .tmbtgu()U) :and
''f"C" hJ Jukrcnt antc-rrrcuuvth
It hJ\ oltc:n been .1rsucd ah;u 1hc: cenlrJhl) of l.he~ srone,,
c,re,:tJ.Ih the rr.ad.tu"n olthc l.\llJu,, to lsr.u:l's ~h.-denmtton
the Romesstdc Pcnod (thonecnth·tMitih centul'\ BCE), and
the SJtttc Pcnod (sc.enth·•utth centul") BCEt. Tht5 l•c~ of
consrnsus s1rmJ from ;arguments 0\er the 1dcnutiauon and
thcrcfort daung of Ell\ pwn per>onJl n•mes (e.g.. PouphJr,
Z.:.phenJtl'>n<ah, and Moses), p!Jce names(< g.. Ptthom •nd
RJ.tmscs). and tcnn~ (c..g.,luurmmm lm.J.gio;ansJ) ~rrc.mng
tn the btbhnlacu.. Do 1hcsc tcnn.s rcl.ltc 10 Eg\'J'( oftheSJIIu.
l'<riod, \\hen the btbhcal t<'tts \\Crt most p1ob•blr comptlcd•
Or ~re they Jn.1chronum1: corttsponding roc;arher histon'"JI
rcnoJs 10 El'l'') [\CO tt the tcmu COlO be aunbuctd Y.llh ;a
rcuonJblc d~c or ccrtamry 10 one or 2n0lhe1 hu:ton'"JI
rtnod,l\ It not ('10\Stble thlt the C\COU 10 \,hid\ thC:\ n:tcr
tool. r!Jcc e;uhcr? The du..~ton below sheds hght on the
rro~JemJtiC Olturt Of the C\1dCnCe .u"\cJ the C'OOif'O\"CNal ;t31C
of:.tf.llf'\ 1n 54:ho1Jrl)· tncr.nurt

c.uAAC'h lhJtlhc) l:OOtJln ~~ lu\c some h1.stonc.tl clcmcnh

I ~'r'''"'J!'''Jnd. OIJ Tc,t:amem ~holar ).1mc:s tlorfmctcr,m
hr' Jttcmrc to\:'ltJl\ltih rhc lt~drhooJ ol.htstoritJI nuc.:let m Joseph m Egypt
the btNh:JI J(l:OUOI, poscJ )\ICh quec.uons .1) Is the rtcturc
The deS<.cnt onto Egrpt by people of C•n•an. «rcci•lll on
portrJ)eJ b) thc.!oe ,tone\ oompJublc \\-lth \\hJt ''c Lncn\ ot
ume)offamtnc, JS namu:d tn chc Slot'\"Of)O\CJlh an Elt)1''· i~
E~') pu•n h.story1 Otd the people of Cm••n ~.,to Egypt lor rehef
corrobor~ced b) both JrthJeolog1C.1l .1nd te\tuJ.I C\ldcnC'C". StnC"C
Junng umec. ofdrought ;:and 1.1mmc, Could :a Scmuc )UCh J\
the bcgtnmngofrhanon•c ha,con.lhc t'l.tlc DcltJ hJ' attr.lctcJ
Jo)Cph ~ elc\·JtN h> a J"')IUOn ot rrommencr, J5 u:rorreJ m
the p•<tor.~l nom•ds ofStn:u •nd C•nnn, \\ho fr«~uentl)
Gcncc.t) 4S~ Old t.hc E.i-')"PliJ.O) press fo•e•Jtne(') mto turd l.lbor,
settled tn thccJSt<'m O.,lt> "'l"'" 1M btblt<>ll•nd of Goshen.
a' portn)cJ '" Ex.oJus 1, Dot he gc:a,traphtc.al 1ra1un:s .1nd
M shown :.bo\c (s«: rP· 4 1·~), the lnflu.:c ol ~nunue' tntl.l the
plJ.cC n;;~mc~ tn the Hebrew Btblc JC'COrd \\1th Eg)l'tl;tn ptJcc
r;a~tcrn Dch;a Jncrtut'd dunng ES'-rt's mtrrmcdtJtc pcnoJ, .
n•me> •nd &COI!r.tph\'1 lOJ dunng the Second lnttnncdi;ate r<:noJ, ~ J)'ft.I\C) ol
Arfirmau\c Jnswcn 10 chcK" qucsuon.s b;asc:J on
C.uuJ rutcorlg1n, the H~lsos.rool..~."OOirolofnonhem Ell)-rt
Jn.:h3eologte.ll JnJ rcxru.ll cnJcnC'C" trom l:g)'J" :arkl C.1nun
tOr more thJn J hundred \ Cl r> Could the J~rh stol)· rdiC\.1
su~cst th.u chc stone) rc:lla.t tinr·h.uul "-no\\lcdt:c of Egypt
the 11) l.$05 l'cnod' FIJ\1US Josephus. quotin~ the Ellll"'•n
and. tn .111 rroNbtltt),I04.:IuJe ht~loncJI nuclet. ~t.lll) ~·hoiJrs
hJ\"IOn.ln M;snet.ho (~c p. 41), tndcal ~J)(K;iJCtJ the r«'f'IC ol
hJ\C .Jttemptcd 10 c~r;abh)h the: m<bt h~tl) tttnr fr:amt'S tOr
br.>d on the bt~hc:ll <tOt'\ \\ith the II) ~"'' ond dJtcd the J<>«rh
the C\'cnts dc~bcJ ThctrroncJu,tCN'"ti range between the
stol") to the reign of the H) ksos kong Apophts. Modem \<.-ltob"'
I.J« Mtddlc Ktn~dom (etj!)U<enth centUI") BCE), the Se•:ond
howe\er, Jte di\Kicd on l.ha.s is.,-ut>. Whtlt! some \ 1(!\\ ,u..·h
lnremtedtJIC Pcnod ()c\cntccnth -~txtccnth ccntUI) HCE),

(F1g. 3 1) V1ct ory stol o of Kmg Momepuah bearrn& t he oorhest rof trtnco to tht name lsr.:ael.
Egypt•on Museum , Ca•ro JE 31408 I t&J
det:lils as the wluntarydescrnt ofpa$1oralosr. from Canaan into
Egypt, the high position ofJosq>h in 1M Egypuan coun, and
conne<:tion t>ot>--eon tht namesJocob and Yaqubhar (a Hyksos
king; see no. 12) as support for a connection .,_,rwoen tht biblical
Josq>h story and tbt Hyksos Ptriod, otheno regard theJosrph
story as aliterary\\'Ork with litllr or no historical value. Still
others consider the indirect evidence of Egyptian o:ulture and
customs reflected in the story as suggcsti~ ofa eertain dtgree
ofhistorical reality, though tbtydo not noce...rily .,_,li~ thot
josq>h was a histori<al figure. Many Eg•;J>tologists howe argued
for the ute Middle Kingdom - Second lntennediote Ptriod as
the most likdy historical setting for the Josrph story. Others,
howewr, hove pointed out the evidence fot" h1gh officials of
Semi ric origin in New Kingdom Egypt, arguing that a New
kingdom setting for tht Joseph story should not .,_, ruled out.
StiU other scholars have dismissed the historicity of the story
altogether and consider it alegendory tale composed in the
context of!M Jewish diaspora in Egypt during the Exilic- Post·
E.:ulic Period (sixth-fifth century BCE).
Israel in Egypt and the Exodus
As in the case of the Josrph otory, IOITie scholars ""'" argued
that the b•blicaltextofEJcodus 1·14 in literary source\\ith little
or no historical value. Others, however, have presented what
seem to .,_, <onvincing arguments fot" historical nuclei in tbt
text.
The only mention of the name Israel on an :an<ient
Egyptian monument is on a victory stela of King Memeptah
ofthe Nineteenth O),asty, dated to his fifth regnal year (ca.
1107 BCE; see fig. 31). The stela commemorates the king's
militorycampaigns against thr Lybians and ends with a short
record ofa campaign in Canaan listing the conquests ofthe
cities ofAshkclon,Cezer, and Yeno'~m, followed by the
statrmenr .. Israel is wasted, hiJ sctd is not."' The names oflhe
three Canaanite cities on the otela are followed by the rypical
hieroglyphicdasslficr offoreign cities, while the name Israel is
followed by the cLtssifict ofan ethnic group (fis. 32), indicating
that on ethnic group called lsraelexiskd in Ca.na.tn in the last
decadeofthe thirteenth century BCE. Mcmep<ah was the 50ft
and heirofRamessesll,of<encalled Ramesses the Great owing
to his tong reign of67 years, his numerous military campaii\IU,
and, especially, his large, impressi~ monuments erected all
over the Nile Valley. It was Ramesseoll who founded the new
copnal Pi·Ramesses (Domain of Ramesses) in tbt eastern Ddr.,
identified by moSI schol•rs with Raamses in tht biblical text
(EJcodus t:u).
A:J mentioned above, the Ma.nelhonian tntdition assoc;iatcs
the Israelites in Eg)-pt with the Hyksos. The conversion of the
Hyksosexpulsion into an exodus story has been seen by son1e
scholars as possiblt "'fleeting a genuine historical memory.
It has also been interpreted, hO\\..,..,r, as a refkcrion o(anti·
Jewish propaganda in l'tolemaic and Roman Egypt and the
association ofsuch p"'f'aganda with traditional El!}-pllan
antagonism toward tht Hyksos. Yet it ioofgreat interest that tht
site ofAvaris (modem Tell ei·Daba), the capital of the fl)·ksos
in the eastern Delta, is adj•cent 10 the Ramesside capital Pi-
Ramesscs (modem Q.antir). Moreover, tho RamcSSide kings
wrre conscious of the Hyksos capital, as indic•tod by the so-
called four-hundred you stela erected by Ramessesll, which
commemorates fow-hundred yean ofthe cult ofSeth of A•·ario
at tho site. 11>e prominence ofSeth at Avaris and h" special
role as patron ofthe Ramosside kings are auested in 1'0)'21
monuments ofboth periods (see no. 42). It has.,_,.., s~ested
that the four-hundred year Slota may ha.e inspired the biblical
tradition of tho Israelites' four·hundredl"" sojourn in Egypt,
namely, the time span bel\\-een the Hyksos Ptriod (the Joseph
story) and tho reign ofRamossesll (the period ofoppression).
Howe\•cr, it has also been proposed that the four-hundred-
year period does not noccssarily reflect a historical reality,
but rather may point to a collective Canaanite memory of the
Hyksos and the Ramesside Ptriods that bttped mold braehte
traditions in the Iron Age. The pat impact ofcotlectiwe
memory has been discussed in detail in the caseofMoses, the
leader of the EJcodus a<cordingto the biblical text, whose name
iscleally an Egyptian one.. Yet there is no evidence for Moses'
rxistenre outside the biblical tradition. The special status o( ·
Moses in tbt Judco-Christi•n tt.odition has .,_,en discussed by
Egyptologist Jan Assmann as a model for the crucial role o(
collective memory in a people's perecption ofhistOI")', whidl
does not necessarily hove to rely on factual evidence.. It h;u,
howew:r, .,_,en pointed out that the ttxt ofEJcodus1-14 includes
infonn:ttion that is verifiable. Semitic slmves arc: .tnesced iR
El!}-pt fiOOl the locginning oftbt sccond millennium BCE, In VICW o(the archaeological evidence from Canaan, it
especioll~ du11ng the Nc\o K1ngdom, when prisoners ofwar_,., has ~ccntly """"suggested that the biblical nary of Egyptian
brought to [g>"J'C in lt"'at num.,_,n and were regularly subjected oppreuion and the deli,..,......, from sl.aw:ry refers ttl Canaan
to fom:d l•bvr on the rharaoh's man;,.., building projectJ. rather than El)-pt. A<cording ttl this theory, the period of
Although there is no consensus "'garding the identifiwion of bondoge com:spondsto the long El)l"wt OC<Upation of
biblical l'ith••m and Raamses, many scholan •s.soci•t• 1M story Canaan, whilr the otoryofliberation relates to the freedom
of Hebrew sl01·<> cmrlo)-od 1n the construttion ofthese cities that ensued upon the downfall of the empire. It has been
wuh tht ron'\lru'-"'ion proj«U of R.ame1sn tt. in panicular, further suggested that the sutrering experienced undct the
the con<truction ofhis new earitaJ, Pi·Ramesscs, identified by Egvptian )W b)· all the tribal IJIOUps ti•ing in Canaan accounts
moot scholars, as a! read)• mentioned, with the biblical Ra•mses. for theccntnlityofthe EJcodus 1r:td1tion in Israelite soriety.
MorOO\..,r, Elt)"J'Iian trxts continn tbt materials and techniques This ~U~t~:tstion,like many others, rcllc<ts the problematio
. emrJO)-od in brid< building as dtscri.,_,d in the b1blkal text. The and challenging nature of the 1\'a!bble archacolopcal and
story of brad's sojourn 111 Egypt has therefore been frequently tntual eviclenoe, which does not olfcrdtfiniti'" """"..,..to the
associ•ted ,.;th 1hr ~ign ofRames.~s 11, and the EJcodus with questio.u that h».., concerned scholan for decades and ,.;u
most probably continue to conecm them in the fitture.
1bt rei~n ofMcrneptah, considenng the mention ofls~ on
his victory stela. Howew:r, one of the main drowbacks of this
lt<fct<RC<S:
( proposal;. the archaeological evidence from Canaan. Fmi<hund L<tl<o 1997, Holfmci« 1996; Levy. Schn<i4er, and l'n'I'P>
Tbt sm.11l 1101\Agel sites in the Canaanite hillcountryth>l ..Js.zot,.
•~ generally auril>uted ttl tbt tari)•lsraelitesdispby a material
culture that ha• noas.sociation whatsoew:rwith Egypt. lUther,
it shO\\~ a distinct resembl.lnce to tbt local Canaanite material
o:uhure, \\inch strongly •rgues for the indigenous origin of
the population at these sites. ConSidering this evidence, it has
been ougge<1ed thai the inhobitanls of these sites ""re mainly
dispossessed Canaanites and scmi·nomadi< groups. such as
the Shasu and Aplfll, who took advantage of the ...,.kerung
Elt)-ptian bold on Canaan and souled in the h•ll country
where El)-pt had linle or no control. Supporting evidence for
the Canaanite onsin of the early !srachtes is suggested _by
IF•I )2JTMname-.. II\SttibodontheVICia<yottlaol
~hefs doptctinc Mcmeptah's Canaanitecampoign, whiCh are KJn&Mtmtptlh
considered to.,_, illu<lrations of tbt t..t on his famous peb
that mentiOns Israel. Three of thr scenes depict battleugainst
fortified cillts, with A.shkelon spociticall)· named on one; the
other t¥/0, in which the dries are noc n.&mtd, mayrepfC'5C'~t
the b•ules ofGczer and Yeno"am. The fourth scene, show•ns
• battle in •n ~n field, has been interprcled alan illust~rion
of the part ofthe r..xt referring to the Israelites. The enenues
depicted in all four scenes are presented according to the
standard Eg)-prian fonmt used to r<prescnt eanaanucs. I
fatc considered to argue fortbt indigenousorigut of the earl)•
tsraelnes. It should.,_, not<d, ""'""'"r, that the as.sociotKII1 of
thiueenewith the text referring to thelwaditcsisd~<putcd.
EI)'Pt•f'd Can.Atl in the GeMilt· bodu• Narrattweal165
Appendix 8 : The Birth of the Alphabet from Egyptian Hieroglyphs in the Sinai Desert I Orty Goldwa 'er
The firu >lplubd an the world,..._. im-ented at the <bwn of the
«<<OId millmnium BCE byC.nunite maneB an the Suui Dtsen .
Thi• >lplubd IS the ong10 ofall the .aipu we sull use today on
Hebre>w, Araboc, English, Russi>.n, and most modem langu>ges
ofthe westm~ world. The alphabetical S)"Stem \\...S tm"<!nted only
onee, and all the >lphabetoc:U senpiS we know to<by di:\"O:Ioped
from this fim 5)~tem.
from the end ofthe fourth miUennium BCE up to the
in\"<!nbOn of the ;alplubd, Aneoent Nne Eastern sc:nbes used
saipu that eomrn~ hundreds ofSlgns:cunetfonn script
\\...S used m Mesopotanua, and hierogl)1>hic .aipt- a pictorial
script- m El!)"pt. A sc:npt is a set S)~tem of signs that os apable of
tnnsmotting lingui>ti< m<U.1ge<. No clnr e>i dence of the use of
sc:npt• dating prior to the second millennium BCE has been found
outside the Ancient Near East.
In order to rnd and write the pre-.Jphabdic scripu of the
Anoent Nne EaSI one had to momoriu hundreds of eh=cters.
Funhennore, the manner in \\hoeh these characters guided theor
readers from sign to word was often tonuous. Some El!)"pti>n
..-onts ,....., ~ted b)· hierogl~l'hs that depocted the"ord"s
meaning. forinSianee, the 5)mbol for the word "ox" was 'li=il, and
the word for dais, or platform, wu depicted thus: £1. But when
a,.,..., me>nm& rould not be accur.atel)•<On\"q-ed by a smgle
J'IC'NI"e• u is the eLK for most v."'C"ds in :tn) l~guilge, a senes
of S)'mbols was enlisted for the t.uk. H0\\"1:\er, these pierure<no
longer >en-eel theororigin>l functoon, :u they now rep..,.nted only
a IOUJ1Ci or acombm~tion of sounds. Tosllustnte, d "'exodus"' wt re
an El!)"ptl.1n word, ot might ha'" been deported as "ox-dai>" - ~
LJ _.,; th the him>glyphic characters functoonong as a ehain of
con~nts, since \" Owels wtre not ~prt~ntcd tn Eg>-'Ptun K npt.
To the>< two SJgn<. the Egypnan .aibe would ha>"O: appended at
lea<~ one more ggn, wltieh on our fortion>l example might ha'e
been ~ ThiS is an unpronounced sign, which was not pan of the
phonetic chain eompri<&n& the word. Instead, it functioned as a
cb•oifierth>t indicated the semantocategoryofthe word, in this
t&el
case signof)ing "movement." Our word would thll!i """been
,..,.;tten ~.II A . but today we would wntr ot '"th •n ><t<n'k
to denote tlut thiS is a modem ronstruct and not ~n Juthcntu.:
£1!)-ptoan word (• 'i;:;!/1.1\) Unloke man)•modem t.ngu>~<'
EID"Ptun did not hJve a set wnung dorection. Th~ word • ~-1 ./\
(from left to nght) rould JUSt a< w~U ha-·e been wnttcn £\.. • •
• (from right to left). Th~ only rule w>Sthot te>ts were r<Jd "'""'
the S}mbols, mcanmg ~och hoerogl)l'h laced the begonning of the
line. Thisst'Cms somewhat counterintuili\C to modem rc.1dc" (.a'!!.
u likely sccmtd to many ancient rc.1ders, :1~ well).
Funhercomplic•ung the E!M'toan Knpt, the hicrogl1 ph
depo<ting•n ox (\>=;!) eould funruon man addttton>l " "l: ., •n
unpronounced ><manu< dasoifier denoung the <Jt<gory "<ottle"
foll01•i ng nouns sueh ascowor alf. Asongle S)mbol could thu' h.-c
three wsunct roles tn the EID-pto:on •mung S)>tem: as an oJ""'lr•m
of the depicted object; os a phonogram repre«nung the oound or
sounds of the word ot depicted, • nd as an unpronounced cl• urhcr
The new wnung system invented by CJ.n::~anne ,,.o~cn
tn the Sinoi Desert \\as • remarkable Slrokc of gemus Instu d
of using hundrcds ofsigns, there were n01v frncr th>n tho~ to
memorize, :tnd lhe.se Kn-.:d to mdatc single sounds, and wuruh
only. Thos small nwnberofcharacteD sufficed to represent eoeh
and ""f)' word in the longwge. Funhermore, mste•d ofapplp ng
a eomplu set of reading rules, the alphobet offered one, fu.ed
method of readong.
Who Were the Inventors of the Alphabet?
Cont=y to the prcv<lilmg scholarly consensu.s, aeeordong to " hoch
th~ alphabet w.u om-.:nted b)•members of the eduated, «><.ial·
ath\11'2.1 clue, I argue 1hat the 10\-entors \\ere :a group ofdhtcr2te
expen miners It v.as prectsely their lock of prior knowledge of JIIY
ofthe reading and writings)'Stcnu ofthear ume,coupled \\ith :1
life on the morgon> of the estJbloshed cuhural world oft he Ancient
Near f.N. t~..at lrccJ them from the shad<Jesofcom·enoon;al
\\1.sdOnt ,u\J "... Ut(J 1hc CTCotUOO of~n Uctt rl)· 0 0 \"d \\nUng
S)'St~m. '\lmrlcr nJ more J('('twblt than the cx1~Ung 5)'S1t rm.
Th-: ln\t'ntor~ ,,: the"'"'' ~rt \\Crt Ctnnnnc~- peoplt
"ho<po.•L.r•, !\ ofC.nunott doalcctsused acroos the 1.1:\-;,nt
"ho M•rl<cJ tvt th< I I!) pu>n> m the twqUOI>< and copper mines
m M)Uthc:rn Sm.u,tn Jn Jre3 knO\\TIIOd.ly as Scr.JbU cl· l\h3dam h
wosthtre, m>unJ '~·I" BCE, almO\t lour millennO> ot;a. that th~
m><nteJ the •lr.h•to.:•.
1hc' ~ J"OJn rhorJoh\-cnt Lll};ee>pedotoonstothe
m<>unWnt•'l' •• -..,,.~ot ci·Khodom These e\pedmonscomprised
not toni\ nunen lout•l-.o El!)l'toJn Knbe<. treo>Ur}offieul>,
rh\ ,il'"UOS. M'~J trn, JnJ \,UlOUSC'T':ltt.smtn, such 2oi ~tonenusons
;~nJ WaiJ~n. :h \\CII J' antcrprctcrs..donke)'-nr.l\~n dmers..
and t'\CO M:~lfl'tlm chJnnt~ ,.. ho ,.. ~re prob;abl~· n:sponsa~le: for
rre>entin~ "'L'fl'!On 1-t"'-Alon&'ode the taskofmonong. tho<Wge
Jnd uncJ wori.Jor.c U\eh>f!:ed "oththe dutyol louildutga
laf!!e temple on th< mount>ooltop. The temple " asdcdoc•ted to the
'io<tre\\ol TW\f\JO>>< (ll.l..,Llr Thnp:) thegoJde>S ibthor\\hooe
~tc.\ln~<""" ...,.,..hi
llundn.-.1>ofh><nll:l)l'hoc inscnptoons tellong the <t~ of
the variou' t \ f"tdatton) ;and the ~ucresscs tht') ento)'ed, clunks
to the tole>.on~• of the god<. wer~ found •n thut the Iorge temple
rn:c~nct on the mounti1JOtop. Nwne:rous Rmtbr ln.scnruons
"~"'found nt >rthe mones on the d rlfuurroundrng the temple.
Thos ' ""'of on>rnptoons lc:ll b) the EI!)"J'Uons suggeSts that the
worlr.as 3tthc nunc.s we~ not sb\-e.S Fu.rthcnnortothey tell US
that the e\pedotoons ondudcJ numerous C.n•onit<s. "ho .,-orL.roJ
;~lon~de Lhc Egypu~ns In \'anous CilpJC'1Ue 'S Thq· "c:~ not onl)'
miners bm :;also CJD\'J.n dnu~rs.. hc.Admcn. m;ason.s, ~ soldu~rs.
1\"e "'en know of one C.naorute pnn« named Kltebeded. "ho"
(A&- 33) The C•naan•tl prtnce Khebeded on • stela from Serobtt
el· Khadlm. S1MJ
depocted ""h hos donL.ry and a>oi<IJnts on a stela beanng El!)-ptO>n
an.aipuons found "'thon the temple preonct (fig. JJl
HO\\e\cr, the mount.tlntopw:u .tlso the srtc ofan..scnpuons
that dolfercd signofiantly from the hundr<ds ofhierogl)l'hic
onsaipuons These"""' fint noueed "hen Hilda P<tric (v.1feofthe
rcno..ned archaeolocU< Fbndm I'wle, "ho <>CJ\"Oied the <tte rn
1905) Jcadcntlystumbled upon >1:\eral Stone fragments bearing
\ Cf) crude, ~" kwud signs ncar one of the mines. These ~igns
lool.ed ~fooled attempt>at <0p1ing Elt)-ptian hicroglj-phs.
l'etne ingeniowly identofied these awb -;,rd SOgnJ t i an
olphabetocsrnpt, <&nc< thcyrompri>ed • \ef}' un:ill repenoir<, )"<I
he was um~le to n:od them The Knpt "» deophered '" 1916 by
the f.lmous Enjllosh Eg)-ptoioglst. Sir Abn GJrdiner, "ho odennlied
the langu>g< ol the srnpt as C.n>anote.
Smce then. ;~ppro.'cim;~td)' th.im' tnscriptions i.n th1s ltr.ln~
alphabeuc Knpt fta,.., been documented '"and orounol the
IURJIIO'>< nunes, ut thet<mplc preonct. ond along the dtsen
rNdsleJdong to them The temple ooself, ho""'"'•)ieldcd only a
few onscnptJOn> on four smoll \ "011\"1: oterros: a sphinx (fig.).1) and
<tJtuetu:s. Coomdenng the loaoon of the bulk of the on><riptions. II
1or Ba "a/at"
IFII · 34) Small votive sphfruc: Mar'"l d~tUlotY ,,scnpttOI"'I. OM '"
hleroctypht to HathOr and the e ther In the Prot~S.M'ttc alphabet
to Ba'etat, from the Hathor temple at Strabtt ei· KMd,m. s,na~. The
ButJth Museum. E.A 41748. TraniCf•pUot~: B. Sail 1881. 1&2
Tt•• B•,'lh of th•AiphlitMt lt&7

..,.ms thatthey,...,,..ttched by miners and not by saibes Of other
high officials of the temple, as nuny sdlolars have SUI1&CSI<d.
Some of the signs in these insaiptiotu bear a remarltoblc
.....,mblance toceruin Egyptian hicrogl)-pltic pictognms
that appear in the temple of the Mistress ofTurquoise, which
arc dated to the reign ofAmoncmh<t Ill (ca. 1840 BCE).11le
suiking similarities betwun the now signs and the hicrogl)'plu
are, to my understanding, a good indiation that the new
alphabetic characters u.scd by the Dnunites were modeled
after the hioroglyphic repcnoire ofEgyptian insaiptions found
in Sinai from the reign ofthis king. Hen«!, unlike mcnt scholars,
I follow Gardiner's lrad and conclude that the alphabet was
in•1:nted in the Sinai during this period. Moreover, the foweatly
alphabetic inscriptions th;u ""refound in Egypt and in the Land
oflsrael, then Dnaan, are all later in date. It should thus be
eoncluded that the Sinai alphabet was the first alphabet in the
world.
Despite tho resemblance betwun the alphabetic
characters of the new Kripc and hiorogl)')>hs, it is evidont that
the alphabet in~<ntors could not read Egyptian. This eonclusion
is born out ofthoir indtscriminateUS< ofvisually similar, but
nevenholess distinct, Egyptian pictograrno u models for
a single Canaanite letter. For inst.tnce, two diffef'C'nt snake
hteroglyphs were UKd to represent the Semitic lett<r "N" ('-;
IUUI for Mluuh [snake!>: the cobr.a <'I> and the homed viper
(-). No educated reader of the Egyptian scripc would have
considered these symbols interchan~ble, as they h"" V~<ry
difforent meanings and sounds. But for the Dnaarutes, a snake
was simply a snake.
Fllrthennore, tho Dnaanites broke tho cardinal rule
of Egyptian character oriontation by~ersing the required
direction "ilea writing their inscriptions. As noted earlier,
Egyptian hieroglyphs were always read "into"the symbols,
meaning each hieroglyph faced the beginning of the line. But
the Canaanites chose the re\'Crse diteetion, which seems to
be the "intuitive" one. Finoily, unlike the Egyptian writing.
tradition, char2Cieriud by a strict adherence to typogr.aphic
convention, mo~tofthe Canaanite inscriprlons exhibit
haphuard char2Cier siu and lack of row/column alignment
(fig. JJ).
What, then, were the condotions thot led these expert
mineR to im1:nt the alphabet in the Sinai desert? The
'I
C»>
......,.
/·~
lp
N'• J •(V'\...----
' ~
-~~
: ,·1->
tlut/6or'tl~.,t
"-·
•
(fi& 35)1nscnptlon on a block ot.otuo from S.r&bit oi·Khadtm
dodic.tod 10 tho &ocldtiO Ba' atat by No'am tho Ch..l Mi...,. ('I n'm r~
nqbn). Tr•nKr1pt1on: H•mitton 200&, 335. Trantl1t1on. B. Sas•
Dnaanues, whom I beltc,.., were illiterate, were suft'Oilndcd b)'
numerous Egyptian tnKriptions. After all, the Eg)'ptians amon~
whom they lived and worked were almost ob.essiw in their
predilection for writing.11le Dnaanit< worlten would ha,..,
understood that the picture scquenc<!S they saw about them
""""wed by the Egyptians to communicate "1th their gods and
to tell of thcir succe..es. They may ba.., even attributed Egyrt's
succe>s to the effeetiw communication Egyptians had with their
gods through scrip! and pictures. n..,y obviously understood
that by writing to the gods one could ask fortheir ~ssings. II
"'ems that they were mcndy drawn to the ideo ofetching their
nomes into stone, thus <temalizing themseiV~<S and their P"'l""
before the&r gods.
Work in the dark mines was obviously punishingand
perilow. for these men, the bclicfin the presence ofgods and
the •pprehension that the &ods d<termincd one'sdcstiny must
haVI! been p•lpablo and acuto on the barren mountointop, prey
to merciless winds and scorchong he:u. Under such condotions,
eontaeting the gods to seck their blessings was an existential
need. The Dnaonites sought 10 writelo their own deit~ -
&J'tJ/4r (meaning "the Lady," the Dnaanite appcll31ion for the
goddess of turquoise, HathOij and tho Canaanuc panthoon's
patriarch, El. lnd..,d, most of the Sinai inscriptions in the
Dnaanite alphabet consist of the names of deities olongside
personal names.
11le Dnaanites adopted only"""" two dozen symbol•
out of the hundreds available in the Emtian repcnoire. The
pictures they sel«ted dcpocted objects that were meaningful
to them, sueh as an o• head(~ ttluftn Dnaanito for the letter
"A" (ttkjJ ; the plwala/ujim is found in the Bible);ane)'l: (--.;
...,.... for the letter •' "['<r)'in)~;a house([}; bayit for thelener
"B"[btt[l; >n tcr 1 - ; nw)'i'" for the letter "M"[mmo)); a EJ)'plian hieroglt'J'h for houso,on the other hand, wasditl'erent
head (Ci'!; n>>h f"' the h:ucr"R.[mllll;and an arm f,._;,ttd (n ), but the Canaanites,.=probablyuna....,.ofthis.
for the 1..-tter •1• ()n.IJ). 11lus, the Canunites interpreted the n..,hierogl)l'h """'•which represented the verb "10do"
hter<>gi)'J'h pi<U>j:rAmS according 10the11 own undtrstandtng, in Ell)'pli.an and was pronounced "tri," was identified by the
in a manner th.ot bore no relauon 10 their mcanina in EJ)-ptian Canaanites •s an e)'I:. Justlike the other characters, they chose
scriJif. Unf•mili•r as the)' were with the romplu ntles of
EJ)l'li•n wrioong, the Canunites put the hictoglyphs to use
for their seript to represent onlt the first eonsorunt o( the
Canaanite ,.wei for~- '<r)ia ('),
in an enllrelr uci~rn.1l manner, as they io\1:n1ed a new scnpc The hierogl)l'h; , "hich is fowtd •n Sinai in numerous
Et:)-ptian inseriptions from this period, was probably tnterpmed
for theIT !an~:u•~e: ancient Dnaanile. follo..ing are .....,rat
cumplc:s: by the Dnaarutes to be a man c.alhncout "Hey!"- possibl)· :as
klentif) in~ the Eg\l'llan hic"'!ll)')>h 6 u connoting their foremen did when they )-<Iled at them in the mmes. They
"hnd" in Dnaanite (..,),the Dn.unitts ad"!''td i110 therefo.. callcd the letter* "lido" ("H").
rcpre$Cnt the fint <unsomnt ufthe """' ("R"). Thus, the Jn se\-tr.al ast:s. the Canaanite im-entorsextmded
char.Kter ~ in the new Cana.:mite script bcc:aJM a •fre-e their systom be)'OIId the repenoite ofEg)'plian llicrogl)-phs,
agent,"nolon~cr bound bphe meaning of the im•ge. The wine simple and convenient pi<tUreL Acase in point is •
wgn could ondic:r.te the "R" oound in anyword,re~udlcss character depictinc the palm ofa hand (!l - wdcnown in the
ofitsori~inal mtaning. The EJ)l'llan ,.ord for "head" was Eg)'p!Un scripcs- that matked the Canaanitelctter•t:.; the
J'fOIIO'II'Ccd sorntthon~ li"" "tep." Bill this w.u either unknowll lint consonant ofthe word uf(palm of the hand). Sunilarly,
to tM Can.unite lft\enton «of no imponance to tMm. They theDnaanitelettet •Q• (b,) depicted a schematic monkey
sp>l<e a Canunite dial«!, and re•d ohe pictogram accOtdinj:l)'• (f/01), the lcnet "L" (\) dcptcted a shtpherd's staff(lllltlmttd;a
since they JOUght coY.-ritr to their 0\,,.n dritirs in their nati\r , tenn pteset\ed in the Biblel, derivao,.., ofthe Semitic roctlm#;
and the letter "SH" (today's.r/Wo) is ~blv deri\'l:d frOtn the
languoge. As the in\'enton of the new Can..nite script were
ancient Canaanite,.-onl for"bow• (qtlilninmoclem Hebrew).
untrained in the discipline ofEJ)l"ian wriung, they wrre
n.., names ofthe Canaanitechara<tcn rellected their
in<:arah!eofdra"ingaccuratehicroglyphs(lhem>steringof
whodi,.'OUid hn~ ~red skill and a Jf<"f dral ofkaminsJ.
shape at the time when they,...,,. lint concei•"Cd. The names
ofmostofthe Heb..,.lctttn still harlt bad< to their ancient
Thislackoff~ledualion might hrlpuplain "hysome
pictonal orittins -tither as an Eg)Jifion htcroglyph or as an
characters changtd in •ppearance u the)· transitioned from
originally adopted picttft- in the seript im~nted by the
Eg)'pltan to Dnaanite. This is ai'P"rent when looking at the
Canaanites miners in Simi, the Pro<o-Sinaitic script. Thus..u{
Clnunitt characrer for the letter . R... in compari50n to the
(~innox (o/uj);btt ([J)is o house (loa) it);"""(' )is a toggle
hierogl)-ph G) on which it was t>aud.ln on inscription th.>c ,...,
pin;)...,(,..,) is a hand ()'ttd); l:.o{(") is the palm of the hand
ttched in Eg)'pl in the Canaanitt scriplse\'l:rat dendts after
(.,/);"""' (--') iswatet(IIW)1m); 'o)'lll (.co..)isane)"f>U,.);
thO\C ofSera bit ci·Khadim, tht Dnaanue "head" ch.,.cter had
mil (C'l) is ahead (rash); and soon.
e\'01\'td to reftcd the f•shion>ble Canaanite hairdo of the day-
It isolnious that these lcneR'....,..., ..ru.h pointed
the"mushroom.:ut": 1?.
to both their sound and their shJpe, al10011:d the CanurUte
11le Dnaanites idenutxd a bo>.·shaped hicrogl)l'h
ear.avaneen. soldiers, mincn, and uadtsmtn who used the new
(Q) 01 1 schematic representation of a howe. They nomed
scripc and kept itali\1: for ..,...,rat hundred )'Cal'S (at lust unnl
ic btf, meanins"housc." And just as with theotherS)mbols,
the thirt..,nth century BCE) to instincti\'CI)' ....U thci< shapes.
thos one represented only tht lint eonsonant of the word for
Br usina the lint consonant of the name ofthelttt<rs (aii)'SI<m
house -1>911 ("8"). Once again, the char.actetw~• cloYOK'ed
termed "acmrhony"), thew unochooled Canaanilos could write
(rom the "'ai·,.'OIId object il represent<d. In Eg)'Pii•n, this
their namcund the rumes oftheir cod>l
symbolropresented a stool, 01-hich was pronoun<ed "p[oi[."The
no. BlrtllolthoAlphabet[1&8
 Up until the thirteenth century BCE, thiS scnpt "~ used scnbes, who roluvotcd the Eg)'Ption ond ronciform wnun
Bibliography
almost exdusi\·el)· tn Canoon, except for two inscnptions trodiuons. The \'Old le O by the dcclonong superpowers in
found in Egypt. All these mscripnons ore bncfond odhere to a Canoon wu filled by loc:d, Canoanot<-S!'<'along peoples lr•
similar formula· pn•-.te names (at times along \\ith epithets) the penphef) of societ~ . nomods, farmcl"i, and others," ht~
(6g. J6) or benedicuons. This SIJ88<sts thot the new, olphobetic COOJ.Iesced In t o Jsraelnes. Moabttcs, Phoenia .1ns, ~nd Ar.lm
Knpl was not~ ror administr:lli\"C: purpost:S. but nther The se peoples cstoblishro the new Canaonote kmgdom \,
eonunued to sene as a means for mcmoriali.z.ang names and for which bcc<Jme the lcadmg powers m the :~rca N;uuroll ~·. thL"K Abbrcv l.allon\ Albnghl, w. r. Aiton, B.G
communicating With the gods. kingdoms made offic1al usc ofthc1r anc1cnt C.lnaonote alpha~ 19..a t l"M[~"J"((-ClRU11LIC iklr"tlb.wUn l99-6 Aik"vm ft:JphiU 3Jolk' \"n.l.ttl ,\fatnwU
From them n tr:wclcd to the Greeks, and l;ucr to the enun· i\O'f. \.(lflt I f [~tiiiU &ISOU• • o: ..J F-. Sltuhno zur AlrlUolop< W>d
RAR I;.n t,.-LJ, "IRt·rum 1951 Th< 'nulkr lktlo·Shan Sttl<ofS<tho< I C<>ch1ch1< Alll~l"tn• ~ ll<oddtong
western \\Orld. Today we wntc llcbtcw in thc ArotmJIC \"nrt. .:.a-,!.
RASOR Itt t n.r/ 11: '"""'...'" "h.,._J,cf CIJQq·l! qc)BC}.IIASO« I!'
anoche r outrome of the =anc1ent a lptubec m\cntcd 1n Sma1••, Onmr f1 om~ 196-1 Tht [l~tctnlh·CtntUt) Pn.n...-.:~ of A'ilon, O.,aod Bic1~k, M.
lfJFAU P ru•hnNttiJdfr,I~.J•J lt\bl.>.znJ lh<Cit"""""c' oHI..WI< llrurtu to u Trl/CJo.~·. vtu. Tlo<CLuslfo• -"""
though the shape ofthc le ucrs has chan ~ted con.odcr.~bl) ho•
~· .,-rtllrl·liJJn~df}ot U:.trr<\'i.mn.L
37) Thus, despuc the ust trJnsformation'li thJt OC\.-urn:d in t J"'"'
8\F£ ~
"'t"Onntt.d<
UIJ~l.J oi/Uiru~tt.mt
&ISO« tc6 18 • 6
1965 huth<r t..~hl on the 11.,10<) ol \lodJ~
Hebrew script Sit= ots exodus from Egypt, ne arlr e\cr\ llch BruNe 8\ ~~,~ JIASOR 179 · ;S _.}. Ar~h-D;an;h.an, N.
J I cop· "'"
l O ij The ~her \'~n.~onot t~SIOf)' Ofthc
CAll ( .vo~J'f'"..l,ttAIIllt'llt llotQr)
le tter used today conceals on onc1cnt ~gypuan h1erU)1lyph Slorm.-GoJ'sCom.tw ",tb tbr Sa Ln the Lidt•
{FIJ 36} A Proto·Canaan•t••nacnpuon from Tel Gtztr bUnn1 the £A I t)f'l•·'" -\r;.IJ.J~ Aldr<d,C.
namelclb ll/ 1 , ... . ,•Fr.,_,.,.,..., 19 71"""'., w l'fw""""'• C!IJTIW• /tm? ., of[C)lJWR, l .;anuc. mJ
J -4 .\ U i j"! O· Jl.
IIWTO-I ItllJICT<.\1~

Rcfcrci'K'U J~U I• llni.JIO/ 4.&Vftl f (J('fi..Jtl tN D;pw Jik rtrwJ ' "' ,.ark.
lntm rhDIU t97J AUtn..itt~r JJ'IJ 1\tjtrtlh. ~tv.· Yod.
Goldwus.cr 10 10 ; N.Jvch 199::", 5.t.b 1988 Barbotin,C.
}AO~ /4 u nf..J PJ tlw "''*'"''"" (Jnt"rtr.d 1007 LD ~~tun l1Jfht1tMI.lM 1\t~~r1YI IJrqvr

_
This ouonstruction ofthe1nvention of the alphobet offers .\O.,_ut 1 Am•r~n. R
Dmnt.t l \oJ~ P"Jni

-
19-~ The l'.;untcJ Pocttf}"!.r)IC'Of thc E.1tl) St.4lW RJI}otJn tt
~n-eral insighu into this communication m 'Oiunon within the /4 \[R >vn..lll.1(o\1J6VJrl \to~rLNmt
An Evolvina Alphabet HrotUt 11 rrraoJ tn r.a1ts1a.nc. Lt·"~"t 6. 6s -""

.....,_. ..... _.._ ...

di>cipline of the h1storyofodeas. First, th1s invention, wh1ch Rtii(I•IIU
19;~bAn [el"J"(a.n J,ar fn,:mtnt " ' th the 8-.J.mcu ,R.O.
/ARC I" ; ...ntJf-J t lv "'-""'"•.," ltntJ I\""It
doangcd the course ofhostory, w:u borne ofrehgJOUS and -..~ ~.ltne OI ~from A.r;ad IC}!.1 ·1 ~ U. a,S.J """'"""' I'I'OI'VIIIIIM \t~LlJI. Qtd.l"m
Ct"nt•T 1'1 f IJJ'l
16 .. J<nl.>lkm.
emotional impulses. As such ot dJtfers from the 1menbo n of JCA / .,nuJ oj i A~f'I"'" M~
J. u rrlolltJf \ t Jr lotrttrn \luJU'"f Amir.an, R., P;ar.a.n, U.. Shlloh, Y.. B"""'n,R..,
aoneiform script in Mesopotamia ond ofhietoglyphie scnpt on ~ 'fl < ,A A A l< /SF_\
J'>SCA Jo .nul"/ Ill "">'IJ /vr rl.- \l..tJ"of Ts..Jfn r, \' , and Jkn•Tor, ~ BaK h.L
1994 Somt ltm'llJ"U on the IN' Ol '\tOM
Egypt at the end of the fourth mille nnium BCE, which answered 19• 8 C.ult loiiiJ I, TI><CitJ~ ""'"" ""l<ovwr
I O('fl.lltA'II"~WftU'I
D 0 ~ B ::1 """""' anJ Plcrtt.l Stonn on EJ!l". Tl>t
administrotive needs rrloted to w collectio n a nd efficient
control 0\-er n:iOIUttS and production. Second, the alphabet
'1 't ' 8
E
0 80 (")rllu#1lN,.,uJ t t Ont'flt.tlllf
OL.A On,mro~:w t...-..elttntJW o\IJJJn tJ
a.J f.n!J&o•:u 4:<C"J fVfl ·f'i'A.v .,.,.r o{
£._-r, JNnotU.196.:-•966 Jcnu..akm..
/rtllf"f&,UJMotf}owUif{I\'.J16114,»Nt~!\.
!19·.J;'"

is an example of a brilli~nt imention that emerged rrom a

"-eak segment ofsociety, far from the rohuraland polo tical
centers ofthe day. These people monaged to preserve their
~ ~ ""'
"!'
..,
'~ k
E
K
il
~
PFQ. r•lnr>N / 'f'l<w•r,.. Q.uJnnf)
Q.DM' Q)<Jnnl] o{ll.-
AIU"flllllt", l it ro.~lnllnt"
IUJ Rn-..t~ ~~lit"
Dt!W""""'
uJ

Arlloncn'lch, r
lkU. \1~
1917 Rtp)n.ll \ ;aruuon '" roll..:hrt'mt 1\."'Ctf:l)
of1h< •9th O)NU) c.JumJti.Utnl""'(W
"1 1"1. M t.:l TA Tt'IAm•
1996 l.nlftd.I~J~•VU'1J~ IJ1t'hf'UV I . .&9-;'"6.
..ttchnological" annonuon fo r ctntuncs, thanks toils Inhe rent
.,
-"' - , , w r.ans kn -~h. S.
aece.stbilil)• ond simphcil)·. The innovation providro these
'\ N l 1981T~ll )c:J\Ir Crrr:-lstwl lj . l n·:O cttchnt.,
margmal ethnic and social groups a means or communic:umg
"'"' 0 0 0 0 l1
Amold, O•~
l OOJ Tilt ~""J'»{vJt.l 0/ .U..lnll C(JTfWrt
En$1osh zto<lrxt)
19SJAMooJJfor .t GodJ~rbq\.~ IE/1~
,.;th their gods ond ofetem•lizing the1rown nom.. " i thout the
mroiatoon of the scribal elite
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1976 New EgyptionSeals with T1tles and
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1971 'I'M lmpoa o{Et)7"0t1 C.....U.. OBO 10.
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lOll"""""',....,..,. ollurh Jilll'* okr
OXfplii<Mo Amlllm< '""/INI(/1\ti<IJIIIIO.
Gachnan,.
Hisginbotlwn,C.Il.
1999Tht Stot~~«ofkamcucs Ill from 11<1h
Shean. T~ 16: Uj·JL
1000 E.opti.rniutio~r IVUl EJit.t EM ..uno. U..
~/Wnti>tr.o.n.-........t
AcRIIftntoJIItNHICNttJIIJm,m.;.l Pmpltn'y.
CultiU"Con4ll~oftheAneoc"'Near
£ast2.~k1en..
HiU.M.
.zonStanae~: ltepertoin: and PuiJIOIC.In '"
IN l.q./ll o{A-roo Yt.,o{IM l'tf<rnn
Dunn-t.,.,c4. F Seyfried. lj)·61.11erlU>.
Hoffmetc.,J. K.
191911c<onaiderin1EIVI"'•P>ninlhe
Tmninalionof lhc Mwldle Bn>nu All< in
Pllescine:.t..n..t 11: ,,,..,J.
1991 James Wcin~ecln's '1:8)-pe: and the Middle
Brunu Atc IIC/I.alc lkonuiA Tn...,ioft":A
Me:)Oindcr. LlwrllflJ; U7~14.
1996/mulo•f..oJ>t: Tlll£o...,no<rfo#tl!l
Atulonlll<i!J ofIN E.n..Jw !Ndtrioto. O>fonl.
Hoffmeler,J K.andAbdeH1.x-d,M.
>OOJA New M~or.J\·Sioeoorhe"W•vsof
llonu" • Telld· I""J •ow-:ooo: /lo
l'rdimtn>')"R........ /f:A 19;169·97·
Hoffmeie-r, J. K,.. and Moshi«, S.. 0.
JOIJ "A Hi"'"'"O)"OUI oi"ElC)"J'l":Tht Maon
Rt>od from t:¥)1" ooC.n.u11.ln Dntrr Root/
Arr~'"""'""'F.tJPfoM..,_,,ed F.
FOnltr •nd U Rt-uner, .. •s·s•o.
t;otn.
Holladay,J. S.. Jr.
1997 Tbc E."•em Nolr Della durinJ lhe llyk-
and l'rc-ll)"laoo l'mods:T.,..·a nhS)......,.../
Socio<n>nomo< U..tenund<na. l• TMllrt.<:
~ Ilu!Mi<.Uorul AK.....,.oll'mr«t""·
cd. E. D. Orcn,I•J·1S'- l'lul..tetplua.
Horuwitz. W.
1996 An IIU<fll>cd Cl>y Cyhn4etftom M!>ma
Atc llnh Sl>r.~n./£/ 46"1ol-17.
Ja--.rw.
1964 TM -At<Mlln. 54oaJ·~ SIIIJ~o{Lmfl
VHV. I'hol>ol<lplua.
Jamn. r. w., and l\olcGowm, r. E.
199}TM/.oJU-:rEt)"f"-G.,.;_.,
/InA SN.Mr; ASiwJ7of Lmf1 V//w VII/.
PIUla4elph~a.
Jolui-W. It.
aoo6 A H<.d of AmWJ. In 0/JJ«ff,., £Jmut7:
E:o,.W•"""""""'tr-IMW. NuldMn-"":
Collt<tion. cd. C. A II. At>dmn and~ v.. o;,k.
tJA-41· Mailll.
Kaplin,"'· F.
l<)loTIW"()npi..W[)illnllvtitMo{TrlJd-
Y~toll)d w..... Stud in ill lokd11....,.....
~·6a.GO<eborJ.
Kaplao,M.F.HorboltJe,G.•ndSayft,E..V.
191> Mulri· Dioap!inaty Anal)"lisofTcU d•
Yahudiyah\Y>~<.Arr-.,.14'U7·4>-
Kaplony,P.
1001 The '[• -~·l unprnoions -lleviocd.
laC.D"f"oMIM/.nul;~""""'"""tr-IM
.fiA n.-p. w EmJ jnl AlliltM- KE:, cd.
E. C. ~l. Ylft den lnnk .... T. E ~.~7-9L
I.4ndoo/ f'lfto\"orL
ICfti,O.
l99JO C:..,.,tkrSUoopds"ffi·--
"*'IIIN/1•""'- Eullnl..l· Fnboula
199!bScampSr>ls·Tht-of
l'>kslintanW~lnSNIJ•od~
........._ -E.osf,ed. J.Cloo<lnd
w...rnhol., 91-~ tcrwo~.....
1997c..,.,.u.St...J"b""lfl·........,....,
fiii,U,_;/...,f, ,....,.,_,_,../. OBO ScnCI
~11 FribourJ.
, 004SooneoftheEuiJCIJGRJUI"ofLo<allr
rro.IIJCedSanbsf.-l'>ksiUW. I o -
0/IMSm>N/ AtliltM..,.BCtr- EDr<•Nwbi.l.
c-,t.Nitit<'"'"""'~.M­
IIISI-ollmp/it-cd. M.llieulo .... E.
Curny,7J·tot- YicMa.
1009Seth·IWI lind Seth·llul·~-­
iotr"""'-ll< Lip...... l•'""""""' """ ...
u..~,~-~-~
-ltriflfor~I.. JCiK/Ikr-6!· ~1•
eo~ c;. ThttPcU .. ar. s;-107. comn,....
>DIJc-twtkr$1,..~·AJIItllttU- .
r.~oi~~ut0/hlwl.l1olul"f: 8.u.J rv.oao Scnct
~~~rribolarJ.
ICfti.O.andlkhllnacr,C.
I~GodJ.~-·-.,c;..J
-/wod. M~nftdl'olll.
..
Kill~bftw,A.
•oos Nlkoll'toplnt.NI ~""
~o1Stwl7o{E~
C:.........a, ,.,,....., ..w em, Itnwl,
rJoc>-UooiCt.~arociBoblical
Slu4ieot. Nlsnl&.
1007 The Canunoc Scon11< l&r Rcvuitcd.
Ia "IJ1N W O.U.o{fbwl".- fsw,rM
W~oMIIU1"'7oftMEMitm
IWitmtllltMU.-<(:;q-CWJ,«<.
A. l<n·Tor et aL. 166·1&. fmu>lm>
Kitdwd, K.A.
1967 Byl>loo, [8)-p<. .... Mm io the Ezttr
Srcond Mollrnnnttn BC.~ )6:J~S+
197J~/OULrif<"""'//"'-­
....,.pltrul, Vel. L o.(Of\l.
t!IIJ~I,.,.,;,.- 11'-ir.oi..J
,.,.pili<Ill, Vol. VI. O.Conl.
199Ja ,._,... ,OOS<r1plioas, "/"noul.utd..J
-~ Vci.Lo.(onl.
199Jb1Luootuilk/""",......Thwi41<d....t
~:--'c-. Voi.LO.Conl.
1994 IC.~Mmilki--Thwi41<dorul
.u-.unt·~\'ol.l~ ........../1.
""""'/..,.,....... O.Conl.
Klc8uD, II.. atld tao-. D
Jool St_,..., QooJnV~Ur""""" E:.D"J".
Lc>oldoo.
KnlchiCD, ~ M.
19Jl~ttianon!ioedanJW'\Itxle:
fOy.ll ~- d<bu14e !"<roque .......,;.ic: Lt
01& 4e l"aa ode s<tiU ld<couvonc l killr
5/lan.-ul"l""""'olt~
trt{Hanoi¥t~tr$Wm!6~u-4!.
..........
... . ,.,.....·"""'-
Lal>oury,D.
1991 "' 51_u.,.,.,......m:EMtti
~·.....,...., ~·
-/li-.Acs)-pri«a r..od><nsios.
no. A.u. Li<s<- .
10091lo)~ I"'nnit .... ldtoloitr- l\ooMicoll
ondSi~ oftheSUN.uyof~
lll. lnTII..,...,.//1.-A&.""'""*'•ntLH.
CliNaod D. O~.t~t.AnnA!toor. MI.
~bovhdl,J. .
19S7 AA E:tDl"i>n S.<lc { - Q)ot>eib<h. Ynlio<
1C loi~IO(tlc~.
Lei~ H.
tf&G t-t\JJ.I#)'an.i FC'UI 5-.~«<I.&N ltronJir
PalcslinLtn 1\"0rics./EfJO! >6HI9.
a ;br.ogroc>hY I 175
Lcpsius, c. Jl.
11.49·1159~ ... .4:>.,..........
Allaiopim. u vo1s. Bettin.
J..noy, T. £.,Aloft, D., Smith, P,. \'t'kutM-Ut Y,
Rowan, Y.. GoldMfJ,P.,Porat,N... and.van
den Brink, E- C. M.
11195 Elll,.Um<:anoanilclnt...aioa at Nahal
Tilbh, btad ki·4JQO-)OOO BCE): An lnt<rim
Report on the 1994..199S E1Cava1ions. USOR
J07:1•JI.
Levy, T. E., Sclulrid«,T.a.lld l'nlpp, W. H. C.,
aiL
1015li7'MiiE>o<touU.~
l'mp«fiJOr. Tm, AI<MniOfY, Coltwr, IWI
~.Cham.
l.ilrquirl, c.
1979 Mrimt E10'[1t1M Mim>nfrom 1lo.Lrrllnl
n...,l,_tlt 1M Middlt KintJ..._ MWiich/
Bet!...
1991 Gr:anubtion and Glass: CluondoainJ
an4 S!)iisU.: lnvntipuons at S.le.:tcd Sites, ca.
zsoo·t.~oo BCE. &uo.R 190(191: 19-94-
1996SioncV....taattwnid d-1.= EJVPiioft,
Ezyptianisin&, or Non•Ei)-prian~ A QpHtion
to the Sites ftom the 5wlan 10 Iraq to li1e Greek
Mainland. In I"Unid ti-L« ul, tn· n. Bcnn.
zoo} Tht Tomlo o{Titlr<F_, Wim of
1Wio-n.III.NtwYO<t.
100S£opliluo51-Vtutlt:KI!;...W.•tlt
lluiiMMJIV.NtwYO<t.
Loud, C. A.
1919 Tht M~lowin. Oricnt.111A1titutc
I'Ublintlocu J:L Chicogo.
I~M'Jiddoii,Stu>Moft9JJ·t9l9·1 IIIlis.
Chin&O-
Macalilu:r, ll. A.. S
1911 Tit< £/ranwli<Hio{Gtur190l·IJIOJ •""
1907·1-. Vob.I•J. London.
Maalonal4, E., Statl<ey, J. L. and Honlin1,
C.L
19Jl&r~·l'<ltf II. Lond011.
Matn~~, E- S., Poralh, Y, and Paley S. M.
1001Thc Early Middle lln>nu All< lla PhaSCI
at Td lfdw and Thcit Ezt<ma! R<l.atiOM. AO'L
II;Ul~44-
17&1
Mar<\Uo E-M, Pontb, Y, Schield, R., Seller,
A. and Paley,$. M.
1001 The Middle KinJ:>Iom EJM>IWII'o!t•ry
from Middle Bronze A1<lla Tcll(lh&r.AO'L II;
:tOJ•19-
Martin. C. T.
1963 A H<W Prioxe of8)'blo&./NE51;. Lli·4J-
197' En-ptia """"""""""" w l'riNt.-114...
Stols l'riN1JN111Jofllo. MiJJlt K••~- •""
Sm>od l•"""'""'tt /'rrio4. Oxford.
191.4Ciau u, IWn<o and Tillcs.lnS<tllrlbfcM
TlltiTC4otlrib""""IOHul..,llltMEorl}Str.U
M~lnuti- JC, cd. 0. Tulncii.140•47· • vols.
Shldi<son Scanb S.•ls ,_ Wuminstcr.
1996A Lotc M1ddlc Kin&dom Prina! ofllyblao.
lnS<udiaU. Ho...-o{IV•UiA"' Ktl(15.mp<M,od.
P. De< Mlllll<han, J9S·99· llouOII.
Mutin,M.A.S.
>on £n.,...•-TYP< Pon"';., w J.ou -..-.
u-v. Contributions 10 the
~,.Soonlimo
CluonoiOII' ofll>e Eu1<m Mcditcrutwan !9.
V'ocnna.
aoi]Thci.MeBronzciJB...,..c.yfroml.evdl
K·hnd 1(·7-lnMt:ri<IJo V, TIIUOOf·>ool
StiUOftl, ed.. I. Fmltcbtein, D. Uuashkin, and
E- H. Ctino,)4J·4J7· Joi<JftO!!r>ph Scsi.. o(lile
lnstitiK< o(Al<bacal"')'ofTd Aviv Uni\-.nioy
)1. Tel Aviv.
Muw.U·Hp!op, K.ll.
1971 Watmo N>oti<./nnlltry c. )000·6U ac.
London.
2001 c:u.r.rcd SidU.~Swonb and Scimitars. In
Ofl'ouw l'l.uu: I'IJpmto~IM~IWI
HuroryofM--iiiiWIS,....hn<rdNio
o.mdO<IIniiiHo...,ofllil7rrlt8in~,cd. L
Al-<llilani WerT eta!., 11o-17· London.
Maar, A.
l91oUU.VIiiHu.,TtiiQ!utlt.P•n0v, Tht
l'fuiUtilw-.,.: Attlliurllll'r •"" Colt
Objtru. Q!:dcm I:L )<NSO!cm.
1006& Clay FiJUfln<> ~nd a ZoomotphiC
v....L In """""""(Ttl S.IIUit/ FUtcl 11q><wo Ill,
ed. N.Coftn·lnbar,S. Corodctsky, E. Hown,
A.Muar,andJ. P.lnida,1Sl·,U.Qsdmt4S.
Jerw.atcn~.
- b Ala Q; StratiIV>pRy and Atrl>itoctlft.
ln.Ex<"""io"'«Ttl&nii·Sitbltt t969·r994. Vol.
I, f'lwtt tNLIIk &tlltu At< II/I lotio.Mttlinwl
Prrio4, td. A. MIDI,61-ll,. )C'f\l.lrakm..
10ol From uootolso ICE: Rc-rrurbon. Na'amat~,N
SomeScl«tcd Ardlacolopcall...,... In liN</ 1911 Economic A'f"-':noflhc [IE)'J'(WI
Ul1'hwttiofl: f'rD"' l..ut' lrvft..~ J( ID ffVflllrl Occvr~ltOn n( CJ.n.a,ul
1£/J&! a;.z-ls-
(<. uro·IJO ICE/, cd. L Grobl>c,I6·•H- He,.· •9&6 Jb.b1n1tr.d He~,: TM TraM(CTof'a
Yoric/I.OndDft. Social Ttrm to the LAte rill}' 5rh<r<-/NE5•J:
10u The IB)-ptizn Ga...-TOWIIMIIcth Z71•Q.
Shean. In EKJI'f, c......,.,., lmul: HIIIIH)',
IMf"'WI""" ~- ""'""""• cd. S. H•r,
O. l;;okn,zndHShirlcy,tJJ·I9- ~
1991 Am.amJilcttcn. TM .4ndwtr84/M
Dlmolwry, t:d. 0. S. frtNnun, •~ •;.--Ia. New
'l'oric.
LoU-·
aooa Tht t""'J"CUn-Cin.unlce-
McGovern, P. E..
1965 lltlntVtin ~
1•......,;., ill• CAmr<>polll. .!Itt· Sllelfitld.
C<>nnrond<ncc.lnNownw~Tll<
JJ<ri•-ofl•tmwr-..111""'-,ed.R.
Cohc1t lnd R. 1\'..onl>rool<, US·Jl. lbko~.
M<Covem,P. E., ~.S.J.,and Swann, Nllwh,J-
C. G. l997Eori)·Hu...,o(wAJrlwM:No
199JTheloteBronu ES)-pti.lnGam- at lfUroJwfW)If IO t\'1'11 SfM,te( f..(ll(:'rlpla,r tlllfll
Jcth Shun. Glus and Fai<tnl'rolluctioto •nd ~pit)'. aq.nru ohnd tn cd. J<,....l<m-
lmpon1tion 1111i>e utc Ncw~Uttj:clom. MSO.t
290•91:1 ..11. N<abi.O.
1970 Tilt llottnh ofc.IJowt fr- TtU d · 'ADw/.
MeCow,., P. E. Jllld Harbolllc, c. Studies in hlcditcmoncznArdu«llul')' IJ-
1997 "Htboo" Trade Cotltl«<ion• bctw«n GOI<borJ.
T<U ei·D•b'o (Ann•) and the Lftons:"
Ncuuon ActintioftStud.yo(the~nunJte Ju. H<Bbl, o. and Mouowitz, S.
In Tht/~HnoHiJUJrVo/4114~<11 11J6t The ·r......w- ~·., •OtfninJ
J\onpmim,cd. E. D.Orcn,141'J7. Pinl.d<lrh.._ D<poul•" o( I I ) - a.t.SOI! 114: ll· l6.
Monn,W.L Nibbi,A.
199'- Tht"""""" Lmns. a.Jumorc. 197S [jl)pri.ul ~/(.A 6t: JI•4L
Monia,E-P.
•oos TMN<Iti,_ofl•ptowlu"" fofilit.Ny
Nlchoboa, P. T.,andShaw.l.
1009- EJO'J"WAA MollnWll w
.lldrnlllld tlo.E>-.I•tiDao{Fomp l'oii<J'"' Tnluto/oo Cornl>ndl"-
EDp<'tNorrl:iotJom. l.eid<n.
1011 r.ddlc Dollsznd r.rfontWIC'< /AliCE: 47- Oftn, E-P.
71·10). 1197JT1otl<l-c-f"7"'"'·-
Lcw....
Mul!in~,R.A. 1976 Ttlltsii ·SM.,'•tTtiSmr'l: A fllloli<.MCII7
1oo6 A Corpus of E1&)11C'CfMh O)'!Wiy MW £/ttoftlo< /<I<Jf9· Bem/>ebo.
EI!YPfuo-S!)ic Pottery ftomTd Be<h-Shcan. 191.4 eo.cmor'• Rnid<nci<s 111Calullt under
In I WiU ~Uoc RiddlnofNl<lnl/ Timn: the H<W ~on[tdom:A c;.,. Sl..!yoi[I)'J'I•••
~~Jwtllllori<<IISJwtlitrilt,_ Adminui,..-./SSE:A •~ J1•j6.
ofAMiMIM-.r. . wo..__ ofHu SLrnn' 1997 The "Ktn[tdom ol Shlruhm" ond li1e .
ll)l<tol KinJdota.ln Tht 11)_. ~ Hulontll
llin/ul<fJ,cd. A.M. Muir and P. dcMII'OOI<hcdi~
141·6:. WoftOtll Lak<:,lnd. .,.dAn~·" Pmtwlt'l'tf,ed. L o. oren.
zu-IJ. Plula.l<iphoa. _ ,1
1oo6 The t ...bli-oflit),_,. ,..,.... _
Mumane,W.J-
Admen~tion on the ·wa)<sof ~·:An
1971 Rr.n.wo(Hol>odoo 197:L/I'iE5J7/J;
At<h&col•ol r.,.,..ectiw from Nonh Siftli. ln
277·71.
•919Rhc<ori<alllutory1Thc JleiiMiftlo( r.-....,Sl-. .. H-of·"~..,...,
cd~ [.CumyctiL. ...._ !1,179"91· 0LA
Thuunose m •a F'tnl C&mra•gn in We.lcm AKA.
/AI!CEJ6o IIJ·I9- ..........
I
II
Onwi,T.
1,U ~ M.., .-1Hts"""" Hislolltftufro- 1M
c..u.-n-. The bml Muocum,
~forM Dot]oao
Jcrwal<m. J<nwlnn.
Orr- ~
19-11 A lronu AJC Ccm<IA!tY II o.Jwat d·
lllllfltal).._ Q.OAr IJ' 7J·9L
c.
Patch, D.
J.OOSI Mirror,.,11b H;athor·f~ UandJco.ln
H.....,_from Q.wnt ,.,.,..,...,cdC. II.
lloehrif:.UJ-l:L New Yot\.
zoosb Cl.appcr.ln H•r...,..,: ho• Q.wnt,.
~.<ti.C.H. Ito< ..... 17J-Nrw\otlt.
Poy!cy, S. M., ........... Y, &lid Stqlill, R. Jl.
1911 The '[m<q lltfer AtttucdoJtcalll<leon:h
l'l<>jt<t t91l.: Noon and Nnn. 1£/ J.l/-" 2)9·61.
Pelrie,W. M-F
•906 IIJ*I• ...trio. lrr•t/luOIVf. London.
19]0&Ilhlttl!AindooL
19JI"""""G.wi~Ttllti·'Aitw/.London.
19Jl"""""~!l. Ttllri·'AJJMl.LondOft.
19lJ~CUlt !II, Ttllti·'Aitw/· London.
119l4"""""c.w. rv: Ttlltl-~ IAindooL
Pct:M, W.M.F-.Mackay.J.H.,utd.Munay,
M.A.
11952 ci.,of~""'"""" AMiMfc.wt v.
l.ondDtt
Politii,T.
ltOOlGold•od~~.....
. So<ioJ lmr!i<aUOCIIOfll'mtiJCTecltnol"')·at
the BrotU< Age McdM.,..,....,._ lo l1lt S«WJ
c-tmofT~41c:.ow..t<:£D.,.u.l
r"-/<I#Or£Mf, J61o-IJfOIC.~of4
O..Jmrot<H<IJ• 51. EJM...t H•IJ, ~
,.... Sq<ttUtr...... cd A. ~ $hortl.and,
161-94-0.fonl.
.............n.t-.a.l.-11. .
amr~<ll~p/lyof_,..,
£JO'P'-H~T-ItNifr.oM •
/'oltOiut,l'o Vol. VIII,OI>jmlo{-"""
,........ o.rcml
1-4,_
1966 Tcatnd'......Utcmcntdc lolo~S,....
4.1'177-17-
1975 klttun....... !.tNM d..At;,y.*f"~
61-69. Wi.Wdcn.
PWak,C.
IIOIIU t,. Trade. In""""'
·-The Ullllowwt Sllipwt<dtand Lito
&fb]ltot< M.l'Nd<,
orodfJ¥1-Jilltlo<Starot/MIIInuitoMJC,<tl.
~AN<, lt.llmul.and ~ M. E.at>o.~~ The
M<aopoliun M.....,. o(Art.ll<w Yotlt.
• - Conoontte J.ln.ln """"'lltJ/J7Iotl' All,
l'hllk.IWI~U.IMS«rrMM"""""'"'
JC, <d.~ AN1, X. llmul, and~ M. £....._
J17·1o. The M•tropoliun M......., ofArt.
ll<wYotlt.
Rcdfonl, 0.11.
1970The Htl<tol !m-alioa in Hislory and
T...u.-. ~J9'l·JL
' " ' £f1PI, c-... .... ID«<..""""" n.....
l'mc(tOft.
19971T<a!UIISottr<aoflileHt-l'<riod.ltl
l'lltiiJb-:lkwHutONol.,.,~
hnpmt'NJ.cd £. D.Oml. 1·4-4-l'tlibdtlp!tia.
199,-11 A Gttc lntrnptiotl (,_IC&mal< ond
[J!-pti.ullnvol>'l'!IWftt ittWnccmA>III dunnJ
_
the Euly 11tll P)'1WC)'· )AOS 9'r. r,o-1)'.
100JI'Ilt,.,...... "'"" of7lolll-lll. Lci<IM.
>oo6 The Nonhenl W&n o ( , . _ IlL In
~ni:A~~.ed.£. H.Ciin<
and P. O'Connor, JlNJ Anti All>«.
...
1990 T"-c-,ltrr~l'llt"""' l1lt
I1HIIb, l1lt ~ 1'IT.- J.ondcn.
RoeJiris,C.H.
>ooiR<il<fFrapcntwMh~
Encmi<s.ln IJqoMILob)-M, f'nllk,.,.,
~u.w-.t .II~JC.ttl. ~
AN<. lt. ...,..._ ;md J N . £\...._ l6J ll<w totlt.
ltodo<nb<rJ,II.
1911 TlotCf1PIWI'MW.t TnttJW"' n-..
Lonolcn.
-.A.
19JOarll-tl'llt~_.lluw7
of&rll.-, Publio:>tionool"thc l'alnc,..
-·tM-
Sc<1ion o( the M....,. o(thc Uni\<nityo(
l'mns}lvonia.l'hiJl,dclploil.
19J6tt~of~~ .
S<MoboW4$M/r, ....
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19811'11tCm<ti.o/rMAlplr.obn <1M lu
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or
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Sclmcider, T.
JOIOF""'i...... inEI)l'"~
Evidence and Cullllnl Conten.ln Et)plilut
~. cd. W. Wendrich, ...J•6).
Blxkwdl Slud,.. inGlobal At<haeol"')'.
Ox:fon!.
Schnwr, S.
1919 Di< GOnin auf den Slcmrebicgcln aus
l'aWtina/l.,.d.lnStudino :1< dno Skm~•
- ~/snldll, cd.O. Ked, H. Keei·Lcu,
andS.Scluocr,l9·207. OBOIL FriboutJ.
zou Dit lh•"f"'plri<1\ll.ilriJw/IINds ...t U.
AluOrinol. Die Sp.ilbnxwuiL FribowJ.
Schulman, A. R.
1976TheEI)-ptianScallmi""$Jionafrom'En
........ :4t~ u: 16·>4.
1910 ,....., EI).,Uan Sullmpmlionsf.-' En
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1992 Sufi Mote Scallm,..,..ions ftom 'En
BcSO<.In 1'lltNtk Dtll4 ia ThiNuiooo:,..,..,
Mi~Jmnh.ro ac, cd. E. C. M. von den Brink,
l9l·417, Tel Aviv.
Sehulz,Jt.
1992 Dit lllnrWcllw•1 ...t 1kdttWn1.U.
KMI>oulno SUrt"""n'UI· 2 val&. Hildcthetmcr
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Scidlmayor, s. J.
toolExecntionTtlU.'T'MOifot'd~U.
ofMMtl £m>t, cd. D. I. Redford, 417·19·
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1781
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2000 Elt)l" and the Ouuide Wond. TN Oxfo;ll
llur....,oflu•nmt £.orr,<d. L Sha,.,J...·>p.
Osfon!.
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1979 The Conquem ofstwuMn and ~l<ciddo
lteeonsider<d. /£/ .,, l · j.
SioccJmann, A.
19]6 A CapMalOI the Form ofh~"VNS n.....
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I.-ISOR 269: NO.
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1996AHadiHSSphiAaoCS.....tnollftOm
Heliopolis in the £c).,U.0 Museum, ea...,
IE ]7796. 1n.sn.t.nia H....-o{ll'oU..,. Kti!Y
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1967SpiJdl·l'ld.urilonosiJ<MCoiJiotiools'"
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1970 lj<J"Sh· Sword and SlrziJht S..-onl·-
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Tosi, M,uulltocad,A.
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TuriR.
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19$1 l..r<Noh IV, TN &N:r Alf.: ..,.._ Loodon.
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 Copyrights and Illustration Credit s
Photographs·
Collecuon oflsr.>el Anuqumes
Authonty: Photo 1: The lsroel Museum,
Jcruglcm, b)•Ehc Posner: nos. .._,, 6-9,
t ta-b, 14-1s, 19-lJ,tS, Z]-]4,J8-.p, 44-49.
p-SJ, 61, 6.4-66, figs ]-101 11- IJ, lJ-16,
l1 1 JO.
Collc:ctoon ofThe lsroel Museum,
)erus:olem Photo c The lsroel Museum,
by Elie Posner nos.sb, 13, Js.soa-b,
figs. 18,15.
Photo • The lsr.>el Museum, )eiUS.llem,
b)•Nahum Slapok: figs . 17, 10
Pho1o The Israel Anuqw1lcs Authonty,
by Dan Kinner fig. 1).
Photo The lsncl Antiqumes AUihon ry,
by Clar.> Arnot! no uc, fig. 14
Photo c The IJ~cl Anuqwrics Authority,
by Moria no Solzbe'ller no. 41.
Photos e Royol Museums of Artond
HIStory, Brussels (Ill-JAil) •fig 4 ·
(. B1blc • Onent Museum, fnbourg,
S\\i tzerland, rounesyofOthmar Keel:
no. .sa, fia 14
Photo Zcv Rod0\'01ll, dr.>\\1ngs by Monon
Negrete, rounesy orthe Leon Levy
Expedouon to Ashk<lon nos too-b
Photo by OlafTauseh, ,; , Wikimedio
Commons: fig 11.
1801
c The N;nion~l ~tariumc Museum, HJ1fJ,
Srudto Wa.rh:sftig Vcnui:an Ltd, courtesy
of the OOcl Anuqumcs Authonty· nos. 11,
14· 6J.
lmoge <op)n ght ~ The Metropoluon
Museum of Art. lm•ge source; An
Resource, NY: nos. 16, 43· S9· 6o.
Photo r. Kunsth1slons.chc.s Museum,
Vicnn:a, Muscums\·crb.31nd; no. t;
Photo c M~ du Lou\Te, Dost. RI>IN-
Grond Paloos I Chnstoon Dtc•mp> no. 18
Photos • W Arnold Meo1er (!OOS) no;
16, )6.
Photo c Erich Ltssing Tr.anscnpuon
8. ~SS 1988, 141; fig JL
Photo~ Ben1:amm Sau,1r.1n~puon
modified by Orly Goldw;mer oftcr s•.-
1988, fig. n · fig.33
Photo rounes)•of Mr. Greg Gulbrandsen
fig.)6.
Photo " r ond:wonc Mu..~o delle Anuchul
E~e dt Ton no no. 37·
Photo o Mu Yowney Photogr.>ph),
New York.. no. .s8.
Photo Lconod Podrul t. Erett l>rOd
Museum, Tel Aviv: no. 6 1
Orawangs
~lap~ ad01ptcJ. from \Jriou' <,QUr~c:'
" The Jsr.atl Mu\oeurn. Jcruc...alc:m. b\
NOJ Fmlo.clc;tcan: pp t.:· U
The 1\rael Mu<tt:um, JcruYic:m. b~ r,tn
Stlrlo., ;Jdaptcd from A~o.n, rtl'4:hC\ \IU"('Unl
und P.lp)"ni'\.J.mmlung, ikrim. no 11ft~~
ftgt
• The 1\.rJcl Mu\Cum. JcruYicm, .hbrtcd
from de ~1lro\.Chcd1• :001,:8. k ~t'-1
finkcl\tcm fig. .!.
LC'p<tU\ 18-19. TJfcl"c:ri..c'. P.1nll, Vol I\'~
r •Hfig 1
The I\~CI Mu'<um, Jcru~ll·m, h\
E~tcr St;.ulo., .1t1cr Schac)ll !006, h)t i n~ ~
' The l'racl Mu<cum, Jcru\Jlcm, h\
Ester StJrk :mer Bac1.1L. 19y6, h~ u h~ . ft
' The bncl Mu<curn,Jcru,Jic:m, b~
f.stcrStark a her 1\ccl !009, Fag,, t,S h~ !Z
l The 1\r.tcl \ hueum. Jcru'i.1lem, b)
Ester Surk Jllcr Doth,m 198!. hg 1 nl!. !6
The l;rocl Mu,.,um. )tru<.llem, b)
~lcrSurk figs 2;"-!9,J4,Ji·
Aaron Hwkc :and Man an rc&l~toeckcr:
fig 19
AflcrCotdwasscr 20UI201.J, ht: 2 hg 31
AftcrGoldYt uscr l:Oto:fig JS