Higher Engineering Science Resources PDF

ENGINEERING SCIENCE
HIGHER
STRUCTURES AND MATERIALS

STRUCTURES
There are three main types of structure - mass, framed and shells.
Mass structures perform due to their own weight.

An example would be a dam.
Frame structures resist loads due to the arrangement of its members. A

house roof truss can support a load many times its own weight. A two
dimensional frame such as this is known as a plane frame. The Eiffel
Tower is an example of a three dimensional frame structure, known as a
space frame. Electricity pylons are good examples of frame structures.
Shells are structures where its strength comes from the

formation of sheets to give strength. A car body is an
example of a shell structure.
It is very important with any structure that we can calculate the forces acting within it so
that a safe structure can be designed. Early structures where found to be successful due to
the fact that they stayed up and many early structures are still with us, but many are not.
The science of structures has been progressively improving over the centuries and it is now
possible to predict a structures behaviour by analysis and calculation. Errors can still be
made, some times with catastrophic results.
In this course we are generally going to consider frame structures. We shall learn to
recognise the effect a load will have on a body and what happens if several forces are acting
on a structure. When a force acts on a body we have to be able to calculate the effect on
the different members. We shall by the end of this unit be able to calculate the force acting
in any member in a simple structure and, from this determine, a suitable material and cross
section needed to carry this load.
Engineering Science: Structures and Materials (Higher) 1

FORCES
All structures are loaded or exerted upon by external forces.
The many different physical quantities you will encounter in the field of engineering and
science may be split into two different groups. The first group contains those quantities
that have no direction; e.g. mass and volume are examples of scalar quantities.
The second group of physical quantity posses a direction as well as a magnitude and are
known, as a vector quantity examples of vector quantities are displacement, velocity and
force.
Vectors
A vector quantity can be represented by a straight line drawn in the direction its acting. The
length of the line is proportional to the magnitude.
The diagram below shows the vector for the force produced by gravity acting on a 10Kg
force.
F  mg
F  10  9.81
F  98.1N
F
In most situations you will encounter two or more vector quantities acting on an object or
structure at the same time.

Adding Vectors
In the structure below, three forces are acting on it.
The diagram shown below can represent the forces in the above diagram.
FL1 FL2
FR
FL1 and FL2 represent the force exerted due to the mass of the people. FR is the reaction
force. This type of diagram is known as a free-body diagram.
The reaction load FR is found by adding the two downward forces together.
In any force system the sum of the vertical forces must be equal to zero.
 Fv = 0
FR = FL1 + FL2
FR = 810N + 740N
FR = 1550N
 Fv = 0 - this is one of the conditions of static equilibrium.
There are two other conditions of static equilibrium -
 Fx = 0 - this states that all forces acting horizontally must be equal to zero.
We shall meet the other condition of static equilibrium later in the course.

Resolution of a force
In some cases the loads may not be acting in the same direction, and can not therefore be
added together directly. In the situation shown below the force is acting down at an angle.
90N
30º
BEAM
This force can be split into two separate components. A vertical component FV and a
horizontal component FH.
FV F
30º
FH
To resolve a force into its components you will have know two things, its magnitude and
direction.
Trigonometry is used to resolve forces.
opp adj
sin a  cosa 
hyp hyp
Where - hyp = force (F)

opp = vertical component (FV)
adj = horizontal component (FH)

The diagram above can be redrawn as below.
FV
90N
30º
FH
To find the horizontal force (FH)

cos 30  FH
90
FH  90  cos 30
 77.94 N
Horizontal force = 77.94 N
To find the vertical force (FV)

sin 30  FV
90
FV  90  sin 30
 45 N
Vertical force = 45 N

Task - Resolution of Forces
1. Resolve the following forces into their horizontal and vertical components.
a) b)
10N
6KN
30º
60º
c) d)
200N
70º
40º
25KN
Sometimes the components are known and it is the force that is to be calculated.
2. Determine the tension in the two cables.

Note - the horizontal components of the two cables will be the same.
30º 45º
25KN

3. A lighting gantry in a small theatre is fixed to a sloping ceiling by three independent wire
ropes as shown below.
When the lamps are set in position, the vertical loading on link A and link B are 2.5KN and
5KN respectively.
Calculate the magnitude of the force in each of the three ropes.
CEILING
1
2 3
LINK A
90º 60º 60º
LINK B
4. Find the resultant for these force systems. Find the horizontal and vertical components
of each - add them up to find the overall component forces and then find the resultant.
a) b)
10KN 80KN 6N
4N
30º 60º 70º

20º
90º 12N
100N
30KN
15º

MOMENT OF A FORCE
The moment of a force is the turning effect of that force when it acts on a body
LOAD
The load acting on the frame structure above will have a turning effect on the structure and
cause the supports to support different loads.
Principles of Moments - Revision
The Principle of Moments states that if a body is in Equilibrium the sum of the clockwise
moments (given positive sign) is equal to the sum of anti-clockwise moments (negative
sign). This can be written:
MO=0
This is the third condition of static equilibrium.
Worked Examples
Example 1
10N 5N
1m 2m
MO=0
(5  2) - (10  1) = 0
10 - 10 = 0

THE ABOVE EXAMPLE IS IN EQULIBRUIM
We can use this principle to find an unknown force or unknown distance.
Example 2
6N F
2m 4m
M  0
CWM  ACWM
F  4  6  2
4 F  12
12
F
4
F  3N

Assignments: Moments
The beams shown below are in equilibrium. Find the unknown quantity for each
arrangement.
Question 1
a) b)
F 2N 2N
6N 2m 1m 1m
F
3m 2m
c) d)
30N
2N 5N 20N
30mm 20mm x
60mm
75mm
40mm
2kg
F

The following beams, in equilibrium, have inclined forces. Find the unknown quantity.
Question 2
a)
1m 2m 420N
45º
b)
10N F
2m
60º
4m
c)
2m 4m
50N
30º
F
1m

BEAM REACTIONS
We are now going to study beams with external forces acting on them. We shall resolve
forces into their components and use moments to find the support reactions.
Definitions of some of the terms you have met already:
RESULTANT The resultant is that single force that replaces a system of

forces and produces the same effect as the system it replaces.
EQUILIBRIUM Equilibrium is the word used to mean balanced forces. A body

several forces acting on it which all balance each other is to be
in a state of equilibrium. A body in equilibrium can be at rest or
traveling with uniform motion in a straight line.
Conditions of Equilibrium
In the force system in this section you shall apply the three condition of equilibrium that
you have used before. To solve the force systems the conditions of equilibrium are applied
in a certain order, the correct order is shown below.
1. The sum of all the moments equals zero.
 Mo = 0
2. The sum of the forces in the y direction equals zero.
 Fy = 0
3. The sum of the forces in the x direction equals zero.
 Fx =0

Beam Reactions
A beam is usually supported at two points. There are two main ways of supporting a beam -
1. Simple supports (knife edge)
20KN 15KN
2. Hinge and roller
180KN
200KN

Worked Examples
1. SIMPLE SUPPORTS
Simple supports are used when there is no sideways tendency to move the beam.
Consider this loaded beam, “simply” supported.
10KN 8KN
0.5M 0.8M 0.8M
RA RB
1. The forces at the supports called reactions, always act vertically.
2. The beam is in equilibrium; therefore the conditions of equilibrium apply.
The value of Reactions RA and RB are found as follows.
Take moments about RA

M RA  0
CWM  ACWM
(8  0.8)  ( R B  1.6)  (10  0.5)
6.4  1.6 R B  5
1.6 R B  6.4  5
1.4
RB 
1.6
R B  0.88 KN
There are two methods available to find RA
1. Take moments again, this time about RB, or
2. Equate the vertical forces (since the beam is in equilibrium)

Equating vertical forces
FV  0
R A  R B  10  8
R A  18  R B
R A  18  0.88
R A  17.12 KN

2. HINGE AND ROLLER SUPPORTS
Hinge and roller supports are used when there is a possibility that the beam may move
sideways.
20N
4m 2m 2m
30º
RA
40N
RB
Note: The reaction at a roller support is always at right angles to the surface. The direction
of RA is assumed. If any of the components work out as negative values then the direction
will be opposite the assumed direction.
The reaction at the hinge support can be any direction.

(Find the two components of the hinge reaction, then the resultantant)
There are three unknown quantities above: -
1. The magnitude of Reaction RB.
2. The magnitude of Reaction RA.
3. The direction of Reaction RA.

Redraw as a free-body diagram showing vertical and horizontal components of the forces.
20N
4m 2m 2m
HRA H(40)
V(40) RB
VRA
The vertical and horizontal components of the 40N force are found first V(40) and H(40) -
V40  sin 30 0  40 H 40  cos 30 0  40
V40  20 N H 40  34.64 N
To find RB -take moments about VRA, this eliminates one of the unknown vertical forces.
M A  0
CWM  ACWM
(20  4)  (20  6)  ( R B  8)
8R B  200
200
RB 
8
R B  25 N
Vertical forces Horizontal forces
FY  0
V RA  R B  20  20
V RA  40  R B Fx  0
V RA  40  25 H RA  34.64  0
V RA  15 N H RA  34.64 N

Use VRA and HRA to find RA
RA
15N
34.64N
SM H O.1fig33
RA  15 2  34.64 2
 225  1199.93
 37.75 N
Find direction of RA
tan a  VRA
HRA
 15
34.64
 23.4
20N
37.75N 23.4º
40N 25N

Assignments: Beam Reaction
1) Find the reactions at supports A and B for each of the loaded beams shown below.
a)
100N 50N
A 2m 2m 1m B
b)
1KN 200N
A B
2m 2m 2m
c)
40N
2m 2m 80N
30º
A B
d)
2KN
3m 1m
60º
B
A

Task - Beam Reaction (continued)
2) Find the reactions at supports A and B for each of the loaded beams shown below.
a)
CABLE
30º
B
4m
10KN
b)
CABLE
40º
B
2m 1.5m
15KN

Task – Uniformly distributed loads (UDL)
3) Find the reactions at the supports for each of the loaded beams shown below.
a)
b)
c)

FRAMED STRUCTURES
A frame structure is an assembly of members and joints (usually called Nodes) which is
designed to support a load. Examples of frame structures include roof trusses, bridges,
pylon towers etc.
100kg
The members in this framed structure can be as ties or struts, depending on the type of
force they support.
STRUTS AND TIES
When solving problems in frame structures you will be required to determine the
Magnitude and Nature of the forces in the members of the frame. That is, determine, in
addition to the size of the force in the member, whether the member is a Strut or a Tie.
Strut
Members that are in compression, due to external forces trying to compress them, are
known as Struts.
EXTERNAL EXTERNAL
INTERNAL FORCE
FORCE FORCE
Tie
Members that are in tension, due to external forces trying to pull them apart, are known as
Ties.
EXTERNAL EXTERNAL
INTERNAL FORCE
FORCE FORCE

NODAL ANALYSIS
There are several methods of solving frame structure problems. The method we shall use is
called Nodal Analysis.
Any joint where members meet is known as a node.
This method relies on the fact that if structures are in equilibrium then each node will be in
equilibrium. The sum of the forces acting on any the node will zero.
Nodes
The members are either in compression (strut) or tension (tie). They can be represented at
the node as shown below -
FA
TENSION
COMPRESSION
FB
TENSION
SM H O.2 fig 4
FB is under compression and pushes into the node, FA is under tension and pulls away from
the node.
Conditions of Static Equilibrium
SUM OF THE MOMENTS = 0  Mo = 0

SUM OF THE VERTICAL FORCES = 0  FV = 0
SUM OF THE HORIZONTAL FORCES = 0  FH = 0
When solving frame structures some analysis of the structure is required to determine the
best starting point and which of the conditions of static equilibrium to apply first.

Solving Simple Frame Structures
To help solve frame structure problems there are some simple rules to follow depending on
the type of structure.
Cantilevered frame structures

For this frame structure it is not necessary to use moments to help find the forces in the
members. .
The node with the 900N load acting has only one unknown vertical component.
680N
1.8m 1.8m
2.16m
900N
As all vertical forces acting on the node must equal zero then FV must equal 900N.
By using trigonometry it is now possible to find the other forces acting on this node.
FH
900N
FV
In this example all nodes have more than one unknown force or component of a force.

To solve this frame structure take moments about the top support to find the reaction force
at the roller support.
1000N
2.6m
4m
Truss frame structures
100N 100N
45º 45º
2m 2m
Treat structure like this as a beam and use moments to find reactions. Until the reaction
forces are found all nodes have more than one unknown force or component.
Then start analysis at R1 or R2, which will now have only one unknown component.

Worked Example
For the crane shown below we shall find the forces in the members and the reaction forces
at the wall.
100kg
Draw a free body diagram of the frame structure.
A
30º
C 1000N
B
The framework is supported at two points. The hinge support at the top is being pulled
away from the wall. R1 will act against this pull and keep the hinge attached to the wall. The
roller support is being pushed into the wall. R2 will act against this force and in the opposite
direction as shown below.

As member B is acting on a roller then R2 will be at 90 to member C
As R1 is acting at a hinge support there will be a vertical and horizontal component. At this
stage guess the direction of R1.
R1
A
30º
C 1000N
B
R2
If a wrong assumption about the member being in tension or compression or the direction
of a force is made then a negative value will be produced from the calculation. If this is the
case the direction of the force is simply reversed
To find the forces in the members and the reactions at the supports, study each of the
structure nodes separately.
R1
3 A 1
30º
C 1000N
B
R2
2
Each node is in equilibrium so we can use the conditions of equilibrium.
SUM OF THE VERTICAL FORCES = 0  FV = 0

SUM OF THE HORIZONTAL FORCES = 0  FH = 0
SUM OF THE MOMENTS = 0  Mo = 0
In this sort of problem where the structure is cantilevered out from the wall, it is normally
solvable without considering the moments. Start by finding a node that has only one
unknown vertical or horizontal component.

Node 1
The forces acting on node 1 are shown below.
FA 1
30º
1000N
FB
Note - an assumption has been made about the direction of FA and FB.
FA is assumed to be in tension and acting away from the node 1.
FB is assumed to be in compression and acting in towards the node 1.
Split FB into its horizontal (FHB) and vertical (FVB) components.
FA 1
30º
FHB
1000N
FVB
Apply a condition of static equilibrium -
FV = 0
As the sum of Vertical forces is equal to zero then the vertical component of FB (FVB) is
1000N acting up.

From this we can find FB - we can redraw FB and the two components FHB and FVB to form a
triangle as shown below.
30º
FB
FVB = 1000N
30º
FHB
opp
u sin g  sin  
hyp
sin 30  FVB

FB
FB  FVB
Sin30
 1000
0.5
 2000 N

The force in member A (FA) will equal and opposite to FHB.
FA 1
30º
FHB
1000N
FVB

Find FHB -
60º
2000N
1000N
30º
FHB
cos 30 FHB

FB
FHB  cos 30 FB
 0.87  2000
 1732 N
From above FA = 1732N
This diagram shows all the forces acting at node 1.
1732N A 1
B 1000N
2000N

Worked Example (continued)
Node 2
There are three forces acting at node 2.
FC
C
2000N
R2 2 B
During analysis of node 1, FB was found to be 2000N and was not negative so the assumed
direction towards the node (compression) was correct.
In node 1, FB is shown to be acting as a compressive force towards the node with a

magnitude of 2000N.
1000N
FVB
1000N
2000N
R2 FHB
FC will be equal and opposite to the Vertical component of FB (FVB).
From analysis of node 1 FVB was equal to 1000 N therefore -
FC = 1000 N

As R2 is a roller support the reaction will be at 90 to the surface.
R2 will be equal to the Horizontal component of FB.
1000N 2000N
R2 1732N
From above HB was equal to 1732 N therefore -
R2 = 1732N
The forces acting at node 2 are shown below.
1000N
2000N
1732N

Node 3
Node 3 has three forces acting on it.
R1
 3 FA
FC
R1 will be equal and opposite to the resultant of FA and FC.
From analysis of node 1 FA was found to be 1732N.

From analysis of node 2 FC was found to be 1000N
Find resultant of FA & FC - FR
FA=1732N
FR FC=1000N
FR  FA2  FC 2
 17322 10002
 2000 N
Find angle of resultant () -
tan  F
FA
C
 1000
1732
 0.58
  30

The task was to find the forces in the members and the reactions forces at the supports.
The results can be shown as below -
2000N
30º A
C 1000N
B
1732N
MEMBER FORCE TYPE OF FORCE
A 1732N TENSION
B 2000N COMPRESSION
C 1000N TENSION

Assignment 1
Find the reactions R1 and R2 and the forces for the members in the frame structure shown
below.
300kg
60º
4m 12m
The free body diagram with the nodes and members labeled is given below.
2 2940N
In this type of problem
where the structure is
acting as a beam, find R1 B
and R2 using moments. A
Take moments about R1 -

1 3
C
R1 R2
MR1  0
 2940  4    R2  16  0
R2  16  11760
R2  11760
16
R2  735 N
Now complete this task and find R1 and the forces in A, B and C.

Assignment 2
Find the reactions, the magnitude and nature of the forces in the members of the frame
structures shown below.
1)
100KN 100KN
45º 45º
2m 2m
2)
2.8kN
90º
3m
30º
3.75m
3)
680N
1.8m 1.8m
2.16m
900N

PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
It is not only the shape of a structure that will influence its overall performance but also the
material that each member in the structure is made from. If any one member was to fail
within the structure itself, it would create a domino effect on the other members and
ultimately the structure would collapse.
In order to select a material for a particular purpose the structural engineer must consider a
range of materials, all with different properties. He/she will choose the material that is best
suited to the job in hand.
The most common properties to be considered include:
1. STRENGTH - the ability of a material to resist force. All materials have some degree of
strength - the greater the force the material can resist, the stronger the material. Some
materials can be strong in tension but weak in compression, for example mild steel. The
converse can also be true, as is the case with concrete, which is strong in compression but
weak in tension. Hence, the reason that concrete is often reinforced with mild steel.
2. ELASTICITY - the ability of a material to return to its original shape or length once an
applied load or force has been removed. A material such as rubber is described as elastic
because it can be stretched but when it is released it will return to its original condition.
3. PLASTICITY - the ability of a material to change its shape or length under a load and stay
deformed even when the load is removed.
4. DUCTILITY - the ability of a material to be stretched without fracturing and be formed

into shapes such as very thin sheets or very thin wire. Copper, for example, is very ductile
and behaves in a plastic manner when stretched.
5. BRITTLENESS - the property of being easily cracked, snapped or broken. It is the

opposite of ductility and therefore the material has little plasticity and will fail under loading
without stretching or changing shape. Cast iron and glass are obvious examples of materials
that are brittle.
6. MALLEABILITY - the ability of a material to be shaped, worked or formed without

fracturing. It is closely related to the property of plasticity.
7. TOUGHNESS - the ability to absorb a sudden sharp load without causing permanent
deformation or failure. Tough materials require high elasticity.
8. HARDNESS - the ability to resist erosion or surface wear. Hard materials are used in
situations where two surfaces are moving across or over each other.

MATERIALS TESTING
In order to discover the various properties of a material we must carry out material tests.
There are many different types of tests available but the most common is the tensile test.
As the name suggests the material is subjected to a tensile force or in other words, the
material is stretched or pulled apart.
Results from tensile tests allow us to determine the following properties:
1. The elasticity of a material

2. The plasticity or ductility of the material
3. The ultimate tensile strength of the material.
A tensometer or tensile testing machine is designed to apply a controlled tensile force to a

sample of the material. A tensometer that might be found in schools is shown below.
TEST SAMPLE
HANDLE
BEAM GAUGE

More sophisticated tensometers are available and are commonly used in industry. The
main advantage of these machines is that they are able to plot a graph of how the material
behaves during the test. A Hounsfield tensometer is shown below.
In order for tests to be carried out on a consistent basis, the shape of the specimen to be
tested must conform to British Standards. The test sample is prepared to have a thin central
section of uniform cross-section. A typical test specimen is shown below.
END OF
LENGTH BEING TESTED
SPECIMEN SHAPED
(GAUGE LENGTH) TO FIT MACHINE
The principle of tensile testing is very simple. As the force is applied to the specimen, the
material begins to stretch or extend. The tensometer applies the force at a constant rate
and readings of force and extension are noted until the specimen finally breaks. These
readings can be plotted on a graph to show the overall performance of the material.

The results of a typical tensile test for a sample of mild steel are shown.
LOAD (N)
B
A D
0
EXTENSION (mm)
The shape of the graph is very important and helps us predict how the material will behave
or react under different loading conditions.
Between points 0 and ‘A’ the material behaves elastically and this part of the graph is
known as the elastic region. This means that the material stretches under the load but
returns to its original length when the load is removed. In fact, the force and extension
produced are proportional and this part of the graph will be a straight line. This relationship
is known as Hooke’s Law and is very important to structural engineers.
‘A’ is called the Limit of Elasticity and any loading beyond this point results in plastic
deformation of the sample.
‘B’ is called the yield point and a permanent change in length results even when the load is
removed. Loading beyond this point results in rapidly increasing extension.
Between points ‘B’ and ‘D’ the material behaves in a plastic or ductile manner.
At point ‘C’ the maximum or ultimate tensile force that the material can withstand is
reached.
Between ‘C’ and ‘D’ the cross-sectional area of the sample reduces or ‘necks’.
NECKING

‘Necking’ reduces the cross-sectional area of the specimen, which in turn reduces the
strength of the sample. The sample eventually breaks or fractures at point ‘D’. The shape
of a typical fractured specimen is shown below.
CUP AND CONE

FRACTURE

Assignments: Tensile Testing
You intend to carry out a tensile test on a piece of soft copper to establish some of its
physical properties and characteristics.
1.
a) Explain, briefly, how you would carry out such a test and what equipment would be
required to do this.
b) Sketch a typical specimen test piece that would be used in such a test. Indicate clearly
two important physical readings that would have to be taken at the beginning of the
test.
c) State one property that may be established from the results of the test.
2.
a) Sketch a typical load extension graph for a mild steel specimen that has undergone a
tensile test to destruction. On the graph, indicate the following points:
Yield point
Elastic region
Plastic region
Breaking point
Maximum load
b) State three properties that can be compared between two specimens of identical shape
and size, one made from mild steel and the other from annealed copper, if they are
both tested to destruction using tensile tests.
3.
a) Explain the difference between plastic deformation and elastic deformation with
respect to engineering materials.
b) Give an example of two pieces of modern engineering design: one designed to display
elastic deformation; the other to display plastic deformation.

STRESS STRAIN GRAPHS
Far more useful to an engineer than a load extension graph is a stress strain graph. This in
many ways resembles a load extension graph but the data in this form can be interpreted
more easily in design situations. First let us examine what is meant by stress and strain.
Stress
When a direct force or load is applied to the member of a structure, the effect will depend
on the cross-sectional area of the member. Lets look at column 1 and 2 below. Column 2
has a greater cross-sectional area than column 1. If we apply the same load to each
column, then column 1 will be more effected by the force.
F F
F F
COLUMN 1 COLUMN 2
The effect that the force has on a structural member or element is called STRESS. This is
calculated using the formula:
Force
Stress 
Area
F

A
where Force is measured in Newtons (N) and Area is the cross-sectional area measured in
mm2. Stress therefore is measured in N/mm2 and is denoted by the Greek letter sigma ( ).

Worked examples: Stress
A square bar of 20 mm x 20 mm cross-section is subjected to a tensile load of 500 N.

Calculate the stress in the bar.
Force
Stress 
Area
F

A
500

400
  1.25 N / mm 2
Stress in the bar = 1.25 N/mm2
A column of section 0.25 m2 is required to act as a roof support. The maximum allowable
working stress in the column is 50 N/mm2. Calculate the maximum compressive load acting
on the column.
Force
Stress 
Area
Force  Stress  Area
Force  50  0.25  10 6
Force  12.5MN
Maximum compressive load acting on the column = 12.5 MN

The stress in a steel wire supporting a load of 8 kN should not exceed 200 N/mm2.
Calculate the minimum diameter of wire required to support the load.
Force
Stress 
Area
Force
Area 
Stress
8000
Area 
200
Area  40mm 2
d 2
Area 
4
4A
d

4  40
d

d  7.14mm
Minimum diameter of wire required to support load = 7.14 mm

Strain
The result of applying a load or force to a structural member is a change in length. Every
material changes shape to some extent when a force is applied to it. This is sometimes
difficult to see in materials such concrete and we need special equipment to detect these
changes.
If a compressive load is applied to a structural member, then the length will reduce. If a
tensile load is applied, then the length will increase. This is shown in the diagrams below.

The result of applying a load to a structural member is called STRAIN. This is calculated
using the formula:
Change in Length
Strain 
Original Length
L

L
where length in both cases is measured in the same units (m or mm). As the units cancel
each other out, strain is dimensionless. This means that there are no units of strain. Put
simply, strain is a ratio that describes the proportional change in length in the structural
member when a direct load is applied. Strain is denoted by the Greek letter epsilon ( ).
Worked examples: Strain
1. A steel wire of length 5 m is used to support a tensile load. When the load is applied, the
wire is found to have stretched by 2.5 mm. Calculate the strain for the wire.
L

L
2.5

5000
  0.0005
Strain in the wire = 0.0005
2. The strain in a concrete column must not exceed 5 x 10-4. If the column is 3 m high, find
the maximum reduction in length produced when the column is loaded.
L

L
L    L
 
L  5  10  4  3000
L  1.5mm
Reduction in length of column = 1.5 mm

Assignments: Stress and Strain
1. A bar of steel 500 mm long has a cross-sectional area of 250 mm2 and is subjected to a
force of 50 kN. Determine the stress in the bar.
2. A wire 4 mm in diameter is subjected to a force of 300 N. Find the stress in the wire.
3. What diameter of round steel bar is required to carry a tensile force of 10 kN if the
stress is not to exceed 14.14 N/mm2.
4. A wire 10 m long stretches 5 mm when a force is applied at one end. Find the strain
produced.
5. A tow bar, 1.5 m long, is compressed by 4.5 mm during braking. Find the strain.
6. The allowable strain on a bar is 0.0075 and its length is 2.5 m. Find the change in length.
7. During testing, a shaft was compressed by 0.06 mm. If the resulting strain was 0.00012,
what was the original length of the shaft?
8. A piece of wire 6 m long and diameter of 0.75 mm stretched 24 mm under a force of

120 N. Calculate stress and strain.
9. A mild steel tie-bar, of circular cross-section, lengthens 1.5 mm under a steady pull of 75
kN. The original dimensions of the bar were 5 m long and 30 mm in diameter. Find the
intensity of tensile stress in the bar and determine the strain.
10. A mass of 2500 kg is hung at the end of a vertical bar, the cross-section of which is 75
mm x 50 mm. A change in length in the bar is detected and found to be 2.5 mm. If the
original length of the bar is 0.5 m, calculate the stress and strain in the bar.

Using Data from Stress Strain Graphs
As we have already learned, vital information can be obtained from tensile tests when the
data is plotted in the form of a stress strain graph. The graph below represents the
relationship between stress and strain for common materials.
MILD STEEL
STRESS
CAST
IRON
FRACTURE
COPPER
FRACTURE
0 STRAIN
The following points are important in relation to the graph.
1. Yield Stress
The yield stress is the maximum stress that can be applied to a structural member without
causing a permanent change in length. The loading on any structural member should never
produce a stress that is greater than the yield stress. That is, the material should remain
elastic under loading.
2. Yield Strain
The yield strain is the maximum percentage plastic extension produced in a material before
it fails under loading. A ductile material such as copper needs to be formed and shaped into
items such as pipes. For this to be effective, the material requires a high value of yield
strain.
3. Ultimate Tensile Stress
The ultimate tensile stress (UTS) of a material is the maximum stress the material can
withstand before it starts to fail. If a member in a structure is loaded beyond the UTS, the
cross-section will reduce and the member will quickly fail.

YOUNG’S MODULUS
When a material is constantly loaded past its elastic limit, its performance becomes
unpredictable. This could be disastrous, even fatal, if we consider the scale and type of
structures we use every day. For this reason, structural engineers must ensure that
projected stresses in structural members are held within the materials elastic limit.
When we test a range of common material we find that they all behave in an elastic manner
up to a certain level of loading, even very brittle materials.
STRESS
STEEL
ALUMINIUM
WOOD
0
STRAIN
We also find that within the elastic limit, the graphs are a straight line therefore conforming
to Hooke’s Law. This means that stress is proportional to strain. We use the principle of
Hooke’s Law to find a value called young’s Modulus. Young’s Modulus is sometimes called
the Modulus of elasticity and is calculated using the formula:
Stress

Strain



and is measured in kN/mm2.
For any material, which obeys Hooke’s Law, the slope of the straight line within the elastic
limit can be used to determine young’s Modulus. Although any value of stress and strain
can be taken from within this region, it is customary for values to be taken from the graph
at 50% of yield stress.

Modulus of elasticity determines the stiffness of a material. The higher the modulus, the
greater the stiffness. Stiffness is a measure of a materials resistance to buckling under
compressive loading. If a structural member starts to buckle it will bend and eventually
collapse.
A HIGH MODULUS
STRESS
B MEDIUM MODULUS
C LOW MODULUS
0 STRAIN
Worked example: Young’s Modulus
An aluminium tie rod is 1.5 m long and has a square cross-section of 20 mm x 20 mm.
A tensile load of 5.6 kN is applied and produces a change in length of the rod of 0.3 mm.
Calculate young’s Modulus for the rod.
Stress
Young ' sModulus 
Strain
a) Calculate the stress in the rod.
F

A
5600

40  40
  14 N / mm 2

b) Calculate the strain in the rod.
L

L
0.3

1500
  0.2  10 3
c) Calculate Young’s Modulus



14

0.2  10 3
  70kN / mm 2
Young’s Modulus = 70kN/mm2

Assignments: Young’s Modulus
1. Figure SM.H.O3.fig12 shows a stress strain graph for three metals A, B and C.
STRESS
A B
0 STRAIN
a) Which metal is the most ductile?

b) Which metal can withstand the greatest load?
c) Which metal is the most elastic?
d) Which metal has the lowest modulus of elasticity?
e) Which metal is the stiffest?
f) Which metal is the most brittle?
2. The following data was the result of a tensile test to destruction. On a common axis,
plot each stress/strain graph and then compare the results in terms of their Ultimate
Tensile Stress, Ductility and young’s Modulus.
Specimen A Specimen B
2 2
Stress(N/mm ) Strain (x 10-3) Stress(N/mm ) Strain (x 10-3)
100 2.85 100 4.75
200 5.71 200 9.4
300 8.57 300 14.11
350 (yield point) 10 425 (yield point) 20
370 (UTS) 12.75 440 (UTS) 22.5
3. A column 6 m high is compressed 1.5 mm when a load is applied. The column has a
cross-sectional area of 7500 mm2. Find the magnitude of the load if young’s Modulus for
the material has a value of 200 kN/mm2.
4. A force of 1.5 kN is applied to the free end of a vertical wire 6 m long. The extension
produced as a result was 12 mm. If young’s Modulus for the material is 196 kN/mm 2,
what is the diameter of the wire?

5. A test on a duralumin test piece 150 mm2 in cross-sectional area and 50 mm long
showed that it followed Hooke’s Law up to a load of 38 kN with an extension of 0.16 mm
for that load.
Calculate the stress at this load and the value for Young’s Modulus for duralumin. Use your
results to find the load that can be carried by a duralumin tension member 425 mm2 in
cross-sectional area and 325 mm long if the maximum permissible extension is 7.5 mm.
6. A bar of steel 500 mm long has a cross-sectional area of 500 mm2 and is subjected to a
direct pull of 20 kN. Determine the stress in the bar and the extension produced if
Young’s Modulus is 200 kN/mm2.
7. A round brass rod in tension carries a load of 40 kN. Determine its diameter if the stress
is not to exceed 40 N/mm2. What will be the extension of the rod if the length is 2 m,
and the modulus of elasticity for brass is 100 kN/mm2?
FACTOR OF SAFETY
Most structures are extremely safe and well designed but due to unforeseen circumstances
some structures fail or collapse. A structural engineer can never be absolutely certain that
he/she has accounted for every possible type of load that will affect the structure. When a
structure has failed, an investigation normally takes place to discover the reason for failure.
The most common reasons include:
Overloading
This is when the load on the structure exceeds the value that was used during the design
process. This type of failure may be due to the structure being used inappropriately, e.g. a
man riding a child’s bike, or because the circumstances have changed since the original
design. This may be the case in bridges that were designed many years ago, where original
calculations accounted mainly for cars passing over the bridge. Nowadays, we are only too
aware of the increasing traffic on the road especially heavy goods vehicles. This leads to
traffic jams where the traffic comes to a standstill. This may overload the structure beyond
its design limit.
The most dangerous cause for a sudden change in loading on a structure is probably the
weather. This is because of its unpredictable nature. No one can predict with any certainty
what the weather will be like tomorrow, next week or next year. Freak weather conditions
like hurricanes produce an additional force on a structure over and above what may have
been calculated for a normal windy day.

Material/Joint Failure
The material within the structure may fail if it is not of consistent quality or because it has
deteriorated due to the working environment of the structure. We could never guarantee
the performance of natural materials such as wood as they all contain natural defects such
as knots, shakes etc. Some materials are susceptible to particular conditions, for example
wood swells up as it absorbs moisture, mild steel rusts due to oxygen and water.
The joints used within the structure may fail because they are inappropriate and cannot
support the load, or if they have been poorly made. This is particularly relevant with
techniques such as welding. The welds on large structures are usually x-rayed in order to
detect any defects.
Fatigue
It is difficult to predict exactly when a structure will fail. Repeated loading and unloading of
a structure will wear down the material’s resistance to breaking and eventually it will fail.
This may even be the case if the load remains within the maximum used in the original
design calculations. The principle of fatigue can be demonstrated by bending a paper clip
backwards and forwards. The paper clip will not snap the first time, or probably the second.
After that we are unsure just when the paper clip will fail. Each time we bend it we are not
applying any greater a force but eventually the paper clip snaps.

Applying a Factor of Safety
Depending on the performance criteria which a structure must meet; a factor of safety will
be applied to the design. Factors of safety vary from one structure to another, depending
on the consequences of failure. The factor of safety applied to a nuclear power station is
much higher than that for a conventional power station because the implications of
structural failure are far more serious. The factors of safety applied to any design is decided
through the experience and knowledge of the designer in charge, as well as close
examination of the structure itself and the job it is expected to do. The higher the value for
factor of safety, the more cautious the engineer is about the design.
The actual load which the structure or component is designed to carry is only one factor in a
complicated process. The designer must remember certain other things such as that very
high quality materials are expensive; very accurate dimensions are difficult to achieve
during manufacture; quality of bolts, rivets or welds may vary; there may be very high
stresses during the construction process; and so on. The following points affect the decision
on the factor of safety:
1. The value of the maximum load and accuracy of calculations.
2. The type of load on the structure.
3. The reliability/quality of the material.
4. The effect of corrosion or wear on the dimensions of the structure.
5. Errors during manufacture or construction.
6. The consequences of failure.
To help with this process, the designer might ask himself/herself the following questions:
1. What is likely to be the cause of structural failure? Have I considered every possibility
even the obvious causes such as the material, shape of the structure, joining
techniques?
2. What are the implications if the structure fails? What damage will be caused and what
effect will this have on human life and existence?
3. What are the operating conditions of the structure like? Is this a harsh working
environment in terms of weather or chemicals that may corrode the materials within
the structure?
4. What external factors or conditions might affect the structure? What is the structure
built upon? Is there likely to be any ‘freak’, one-off incidents such as a sudden impact?
5. Are there likely to be changes to any of these conditions within the working life of the
structure?

It is easy to think that we can improve the performance of a structure by increasing the size
or thickness of members within the structure, even increasing the number of structural
members. In doing so however, it is possible to make the structure weaker and more
susceptible to failure. As you make these changes, the structure becomes heavier and
loading increases under its own weight. You may be solving one problem but creating
another.
Calculating Factor of Safety
We can apply a factor of safety to a structure in one of two ways. The first is in terms of the
loading the structure can withstand and the second is in terms of the stress within the
structure.
UltimateLo ad
FactorofSafety 
SafeWorkingLoad
UltimateSt ress
FactorofSafety 
SafeWorkingStress
If a structure is designed to support a load of say 10 kN and a factor of safety of 2 is applied

to the design, then in fact the structure should be able to support 20 kN. In industrial
settings such as factories, lifting devices are marked to show how much the weight can be
lifted safely. This is known as the safe working load (SWL).
The loading on any structural member should never produce a stress that is greater than
the yield stress of the material that the member is made from. In fact, the working stress to
which a structural member will be subjected is generally well below the material’s yield
stress, therefore operating well within the elastic region. This ensures that if any sudden
unexpectedly high loading is applied, the stress in the structural element will not exceed the
yield stress preventing permanent deformation in the element. A factor of safety (FOS) of 2
means that the design is stressed to half the value at the yield point.
Worked example: Factor of Safety
The maximum ultimate tensile stress for aluminium is 300 N/mm2. If the working stress on
a component is 50 N/mm2, calculate the factor of safety applied in the design of the
component.
UltimateSt ress
FactorofSafety 
SafeWorkingStress
300
FactorofSafety 
50
FactorofSafety  6

ACCESSING TABULATED DATA
Most commonly used materials have been tested exhaustively and the test data is available
in British Standards publications. In the course of your work in Technological Studies you
will be required to use extracts from these publications in the same way an engineer might.
The table below is a copy of information provided within the SQA data booklet for use in
exams.
Material Young's Yield Stress Ultimate Ultimate

Modulus N/mm2 Tensile Stress Compressive
kN/mm2 N/mm2 Stress
N/mm2
Mild Steel 196 220 430 430
Stainless Steel 190-200 286-500 760-1280 460-540
Low-alloy steel 200-207 500-1980 680-2400 680-2400
Cast iron 120 - 120-160 600-900
Aluminium alloy 70 250 300 300
Soft Brass 100 50 80 280
Cast Bronze 120 150 300 -
Titanium alloy 110 950 1000 1000
Nickel alloys 130-234 200-1600 400-2000 400-2000
Concrete (steel reinforced) 45-50 - - 100
For each material listed in the table, data is given on:
Young’s Modulus - the elasticity or stiffness of a material.
Yield Stress - the value of stress which, if exceeded, will result in the material changing
length permanently.
Ultimate Tensile Stress - the maximum value of stress the material can withstand before
failing due to tension.
Ultimate Compressive Stress - the maximum value of stress the material can withstand
before failing due to compression.
You will notice from the table that some materials perform quite differently in tension and
compression, for example soft brass performs better in compression than tension. Other
materials perform equally well under both types of loading, for example low-alloy steel and
titanium alloys.

Assignments: Tabulated Data
1. Figure 1 shows a general view of an electricity pylon. The cross-arm supports conductor
wires by means of an insulator suspended from its end. The insulator is fixed to the
pylon by means of a low-alloy U-bolt shown in figure 2. Explain why a high factor of
safety is required for this particular application. Suggest ways in which the structure
might fail.
2. A lighting gantry in a theatre is suspended from the ceiling by wire ropes. The gantry
hangs above the audience and is designed to hold 10 lights. A factor of safety of 10 is
applied to the design. Explain the reasons why the engineer has used such a high factor.
3. In an Art Gallery, a sphere weighing 10 kN is to be suspended from the ceiling by a

stainless steel bar 20 mm in diameter and 3 m long.
Select a value for Young’s Modulus for Stainless Steel and hence calculate the extension of
the bar when loaded. State any assumptions made.
If a factor of safety of 5 was applied to the design, discuss the effect of this on the
dimensions of the bar. (Use the Data Booklet.)
4. A soft brass bar, which is used in a structure, is 120 mm long. It is subjected to a tensile
load that elongates its original length by 0.03 mm.
Determine the factor of safety employed in the design of this bar. (Use the Data
Booklet.)
5. A steel overhead wire 25 mm in diameter has an ultimate tensile stress of 1250 N/mm 2
and a value for Young’s Modulus of 207 kN/mm2. If the factor of safety is 5, calculate
the allowable pull on the wire and find the corresponding change in length on a 36 m
span.

6. The maximum load in a tensile test on a mild steel specimen is 76 kN. If the test piece is
15 mm in diameter, calculate the ultimate tensile stress. What is the working stress and
greatest allowable load on a bar 30 mm in diameter made from the same material? Use
a factor of safety of 3.
7. A tensile test on a specimen of an unknown material provided the following data:
Cross-sectional area = 120 mm2

Gauge (original) length = 75 mm
Load (within elastic limit) = 30 kN
Extension of gauge length = 0.17 mm
a) Determine Young’s Modulus of the material.
b) By referring to the Data Booklet, suggest which material was being tested.
c) Calculate the factor of safety for this material for the conditions described by the data
given above.
8. A stainless steel tie-bar in a structure is to be designed to carry a load of 450 kN, with a
factor of safety of 4.
a) Explain why this material is suitable for a use as a tie but not a strut.
b) Calculate the diameter of the bar.
c) Calculate the amount the tie-bar will stretch if its original length is 3.5 m.
9. A mild steel bar 25 mm in diameter and 0.5 m long is held in tension as it supports a sign
above a shop. Find the safe load that can be supported by the bar if a factor of safety of
8 is applied to the design. Find the extension in the bar under this load.
Describe ways in which the bar might fail given these conditions.
10. A trapeze wire is made from a material for which the ultimate tensile stress is 1000
N/mm2 and the yield stress is 950 N/mm2. The wire has a working load of 3 kN.
a) Calculate the factor of safety to keep the stress just within the elastic limit for the
material.
b) Calculate the diameter of the wire for this factor of safety.
c) Calculate the diameter of the wire for a factor of safety of 3.
d) Which factor of safety would you apply to this design? Explain your answer.

11. A display screen in a lecture theatre is held in place by a bracket fixed to the roof by two
mild steel bolts as shown in figure 3. The bolts are initially tightened so that the tensile
stress in them is 7 N/mm2 before any load is applied.
The weight of the screen is 3 kN and the bolts carry an

equal share of this load. The bolts are designed with a
factor of safety of 9.
Determine the diameter of the bolts needed for this

application.
12. Part of a pneumatic system is shown in figure 4. Compressed air is stored in the tank at
a maximum pressure of 8 N/mm2 and the 120 mm diameter outlet is sealed by means of
a valve block which is held in place using 15 mm (M15) diameter bolts as shown. The
normal stress set up in each bolt due to tightening is 6 N/mm 2 and the ultimate tensile
stress for the bolts is 370 N/mm2. The factor of safety for the system is 5.
2
AIR AT MAXIMUM PRESSURE 8N/mm
VALVE BLOCK
120 mm
STORAGE TANK
a) Calculate the force on the value block using the formula, Force = Pressure x Area.
b) Calculate the safe working stress that can be carried by the bolts.
c) Calculate the stress in each bolt due to loading.
d) Calculate the load to be carried by each bolt.
e) Determine how many bolts are required to attach the valve block to the storage tank.

Mackie Academy Electronics and Control - Digital H Engineering Science
Higher Engineering Science
Electronics and Control
Book 1 of 3 - Digital Electronics
Name: Class:
Page 1
Introduction
This course follows on from your studies in National 5 Engineering Science. If you have not
previously studied Engineering Science it is essential that you study the online materials at
www.technologyinthemearns.net . Specifically, this unit of work continues on from learning in
the following units:
 Systems
 Electronics
By the end of this topic you will be expected to meet the following success criteria:
2 - Develop digital electronic control systems by:
2.1 - 2.2 - 2.3 - 2.4 -

Designing and Describing logic Simplifying Testing and
constructing functions using logic circuits evaluating
complex Boolean using NAND combinational logic
combinational operators equivalents circuits against a
logic circuits specification
Page 2
Before You Start...
Digital electronic circuits use logic gates to make decisions. Input signals, which often have to
be converted from analogue to digital, are fed into logic circuits which then instruct an output
device or devices to switch on or off.
It is assumed from your studies at National 5 you will already have an understanding of:
voltage voltage
O
 The differences
between analogue and
digital signals
time time
Of
Input A Output Z
A Z
 NOT gate 0
1
Z=
A Input A Input B Output Z

 AND gate
Z 0 0
B
0 1
1 0
Z= 1 1
 OR gate A Input A Input B Output Z

Z
0 0
B
0 1
1 0
Z= 1 1
Page 3
Useful Information about ICs
An IC is an Integrated Circuit—essentially a chip that has multiple components built into it

using semiconductor technology.
Logic gates are not available as discreet components, rather multiple logic gates are built into
a single IC. This can reduce the cost of manufacturing circuits as one IC can be used to
provide multiple logic gates. There are 2 main types of ICs, each which have their advantages
and disadvantages. Although we will be using TTL chips it is useful to know the comparisons
between TTL and the other main family of ICs, CMOS:
Property TTL CMOS
Series 7400 4000
Power supply 5 + or – 0.25v 3 to 15v
Unused inputs Float high indeterminate
Power High Low

consumption
Switching speed Fast Slow
Effect of static Not affected Can be damaged
+Vcc +Vcc
14 13 12 11 10 9 8 14 13 12 11 10 9 8
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Gnd Gnd
7404 (0V) 7400 (0V)
+Vcc +Vcc
14 13 12 11 10 9 8 14 13 12 11 10 9 8
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Gnd Gnd
The pin out diagrams on 7421
(0V)
7420
(0V)
the right show how TTL +Vcc +Vcc

chips are constructed to 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 14 13 12 11 10 9 8
provide multiple logic

gates on a single chip.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Gnd Gnd
(0V) (0V)
7427 7432
Page 4
The NAND Gate
The NAND gate is effectively an inverted AND gate. In other words, the results obtained from
the output are the opposite to those of the AND gate. This gate is sometimes referred to as
‘NOT AND’.
When drawing up the truth table for the NAND gate it can be difficult to ‘picture’ or imagine the
results. A useful way to produce the truth table is to first write out the truth table for an AND
gate and then invert (reverse) the results, thus giving you the outputs for the NAND gate.
Input A Input B AND Output Z

A 0 0
Z
0 1
B
1 0
Z= 1 1
The NOR Gate
Similarly, the NOR gate is effectively an inverted OR gate. In other words, the results obtained
from the output are the opposite to those of the OR gate. This gate is sometimes referred to as
‘NOT OR’.
When drawing up the truth table for the NOR gate it can be difficult to ‘picture’ or imagine the
results. A useful way to produce the truth table is to first write out the truth table for an OR gate
and then invert (reverse) the results, thus giving you the outputs for the NOR gate.
Input A Input B OR Output Z
A 0 0
Z
0 1
B
1 0
Z= 1 1
Page 5
The XOR Gate
If you look closely at the truth table for an OR gate you will see that in the bottom row, when
both inputs are on, the output is also on. In this way, when both inputs are on the OR gate
behaves in the same way as an AND gate.
The XOR gate behaves differently—it will only switch on when one input OR the other input is
on, but not when both are on. For this reason the full name for this gate is the ‘EXCLUSIVE
OR’ gate, often shortened to XOR or EOR.
Input A Input B Output Z
0 0
Z
0 1
1 0
Z= 1 1
Assignment 1 - Basic Logic Gates
For each of the following examples, state whether the output Z is at logic 1 or logic 0:
(a) (b) (c)

1
1
Z Z 1 Z
1
0
(d) (e) (f)

1 1 1
Z Z Z
1 0 1
(g) (h)
1
1
Z
Z 0
1
Page 6
Boolean Algebra and Boolean Expressions
Boolean algebra, developed by British mathematician George Boole, is used in digital

electronics to mathematically describe how a circuit will behave—each logic gate has it’s own
Boolean expression. By applying this knowledge to construct the Boolean expression for a
complex circuit it is often possible to then simplify the expression in exactly the same way as
you would with normal algebra, and thus simplify the overall circuit design.
Symbol Gate Boolean Expression
A Z NOT Z=A
A
Z AND Z = A.B
B
A
Z OR Z = A+B
B
A
Z NAND Z = A.B
B
A
Z NOR Z = A+B
B
A
Z XOR Z = A+B
B
Page 7
Creating a Combinational Boolean Expression
So far, we have only looked at simple logic systems. In reality, most logic systems use a
combination of different types of logic gates. This is known as ‘Combinational Logic’. Boolean
Expressions can be worked out from these to form an equation that describes how the circuit
will behave:
To create a Boolean expression A

for this circuit, first create a Z
Boolean expression for the B
output from each logic gate.
C
A
A
Z
B
C
A A+B
A
Z
B
C
These can then be combined

through the final logic gate to
give the final Boolean
expression for the circuit.
A A+B
A
Z
B
C
(A+B) .C
The final Boolean expression for the circuit is: Z = (A+B) . C
Z = (NOT A OR B) AND C
Page 8
Assignment 2 - Combinational Boolean
Copy each of these circuits into your jotter, and work out the Boolean expression for each.
(a) (b)
A
A
Z B Z
B
(c) (d)
A A
B Z B Z
D C
Page 9
Creating a Logic Diagram From a Truth Table
With a knowledge of Boolean Algebra it is possible to design a circuit from a truth table. In
Designing a complex system it is common to first identify all input signals, then decide which
combinations of input signals will cause the output to turn on. Filling this information into a truth
table then allows an electronic design engineer to develop a Boolean expression, and finally
design the circuit.
Step 1: Identify the conditions Step 2: Complete a Boolean

when the output is on expression for each condition
A B C Z
0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 1 0 1
0 1 1 1
1 0 0 0
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 1
1 1 1 0
Step 3: Combine these to complete the Boolean expression for the circuit
Step 4: Create the logic diagram
B Z
Page 10
Assignment 3 - Truth Tables, Boolean, and Logic Circuits
In your jotter, write out the Boolean expression and create the logic diagram for each of the
following truth tables:
(a) (b)
A B Z A B Z
0 0 0 0 0 1
0 1 1 0 1 0
1 0 0 1 0 1
1 1 0 1 1 0
(c) (d)
A B Z A B C Z
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 1 0 0 1 0
1 0 1 0 1 0 0
1 1 0 0 1 1 0
1 0 0 0
1 0 1 1
1 1 0 0
1 1 1 1
(e) (f)
A B C Z A B C Z
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0
0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0
0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0
1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1
1 0 1 1 1 0 1 0
1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0
1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0
Page 11
Assignment 4 - More Logic and Boolean
In your jotter, design logic circuits to perform these Boolean expressions. You can check your
answers using the Yenka circuit simulation software.
(a) Z = (A + B) . C (b) Z = (A + B) . (C + D)
(c) Z = A . (B + C) . D (d) Z = (A . B) + (C . D)
(e) Z = (A + B) . C (f) Z = A + (B + C)
(g) A digital electronic system is needed to perform the following functions:
Z=A.B+C Y=A+B
(i) Design a logic circuit to meet these requirements

(ii) Simulate your design and complete a truth table describing how it was tested
Inputs Expected results Test results

A B C Y Z Y Z
0 0 0
0 0 1
0 1 0
0 1 1
1 0 0
1 0 1
1 1 0
1 1 1
(h) A digital electronic system is needed to perform the following functions:
Z=A+B+C Y=A+C
(i) Design a logic circuit to meet these requirements

(ii) Simulate your design and complete a truth table describing how it was tested
Page 12
NAND Equivalent Circuits
It is possible to construct each logic gate—NOT, AND, OR, NAND, NOR, XOR entirely out of
NAND gates. Whilst this may appear to make logic circuits look much more complicated this is
of huge benefit to electronics manufacturers. Why?
 Only 1 type of IC needs to be purchased to produce any given circuit

 Less wastage, as there are far less unused gates on each IC
 Buying NAND gate ICs in bulk greatly reduces the unit cost
NOT
A Z = A Z
AND
A A
Z = Z
B B
OR
A A
Z = Z
B B
NAND
A A
Z = Z
B B
NOR
A A
Z = Z
B B
XOR
A
A
Z = Z
B
B
Page 13
Converting to NAND Equivalents and Simplifying
Another benefit of converting circuits to their NAND equivalents is it often means that the circuit
itself can then be simplified. The simple rule to apply here is where you identify 2 NOT gates in
succession, these gates can be cancelled out:
Double inverters NAND equivalent

can be cancelled out double inverters can
be cancelled out
A
Consider the circuit
shown to the right. It
C
is constructed from B Z
NOT, AND and OR
gates. D
AND
The circuit can be A

1 2
C OR
redrawn using NAND
equivalents
3
6 Z
B 4
D
5
NOT
Where 2 NOT gates

follow in succession A C
these are crossed 1 2
out. The circuit can
then be redrawn to 3
show it in it’s
simplified version. It 6 Z
B 4
will behave in exactly D
5
the same manner.
Page 14
Assignment 5 - NAND Equivalents
1. (a) Write the Boolean expression that represents this circuit.
A B Z
0 0
0 1
1 0
1 1
(b) Complete the truth table for the circuit
(c) From the truth table, identify the single gate that can replace the circuit
(d) Draw the equivalent NAND gate circuit
2. Draw equivalent NAND gate circuits for each of the following. You should simplify the
circuits wherever possible.
(a)
(b)
(c)
Page 15
Assignment 6 - Complex Tasks
1. (a) Construct a truth table for the logic circuit shown, and from this work out the
Boolean expression
(b) Redraw the circuit using NAND gates, simplifying where possible
2. The operation of an industrial stamping machine is controlled by a logic system with

inputs and outputs as shown in the following table.
The logic system shown below ensures that the machine only operates when a safety
guard is in place and either button is pressed.
(a) Write a Boolean expression for the output S in terms of the inputs L,G and R.
(b) Using only 2-input NAND gates, draw a logic diagram to represent the circuit.
Delete and redundant gates.
Page 16
3. Below shows a production line for filling and capping bottles. A lid fitting device (Z)
operates when an ultrasound sensor (A) or a load cell (B) detects that the bottle is full,
and a filling-nozzle sensor (C) detects that filling has stopped.
(a) Draw the truth table for inputs A, B, C and output Z
(b) Write the Boolean expression for the output Z in terms of inputs A, B and C
(c) Draw the logic diagram for the output Z using only NAND gates. Simplify where
possible
4. A combinational logic system is used in the climate control system in a car. The air-
conditioning select switch (A), windscreen demist switch (D) and temperature sensor (T)
provide input signals which control the operation of the compressor (C)
(a) Write the Boolean equation for the compressor (C) in terms of A, D and T
(b) Draw a combinational logic system to control the compressor using NOT, AND and
OR gates
(c) Redraw the circuit using only NAND gates. Simplify where possible
Page 17
5. A logic system controls warning lights at the approach to the bridge shown below
The input signals to the logic system are as follows:
 A weight sensor (W) = 0 if a vehicle is too heavy for the bridge

 A height sensor (H) = 0 if a vehicle is too high for the bridge
If a vehicle is either too heavy or too high, then the warning lights illuminate (L=1)
(a) Draw a truth table including the inputs W and H, and the output L
(b) Which single logic gate could be used to provide the required function?
The system is modified by the addition of an override button (B). B = 1 when the override
button is pressed. The output (L) from the redesigned logic system = 1 if the override
button is pressed, or if a vehicle is either too heavy or too high.
(c) Write a Boolean expression for the redesigned logic system in terms of W, H, B and
L
(d) Draw a logic diagram for the redesigned logic system using NOT, AND and OR
gates
(e) Redraw the logic diagram using only NAND gates. Simplify where possible
6. A combinational logic system controls the motor on a laser cutter (M) according to the
Boolean expression below:
M = Z.Y.X + Z.Y.X
 The cutter motor is on when M = 1

 The stepper motor moves the cutter in the x-axis when X = 1
 The cylinder which moves the cutter in the z-axis outstrokes when Z = 1
 The cylinder which moves the cutter in the y-axis outstrokes when Y = 1
(a) Complete a truth table for M in terms of X, Y and Z
(b) State which of the signals (X,Y or Z) does not affect the state of M
Page 18
Assignment 7– Practical Circuits
1. (a) Draw the corresponding logic diagram for the circuit shown below:
14 13 12 11 10 9 8 14 13 12 11 10 9 8
7404 7400
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
B OUTPUT
(b) Write out the Boolean expression for this circuit
(c) Build and test the circuit on breadboard
2. (a) Draw the corresponding logic diagram for the circuit shown below:
14 13 12 11 10 9 8
7400
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
OUTPUT
C
14 13 12 11 10 9 8 14 13 12 11 10 9 8
7404 7432
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
A
B
(b) Write out the Boolean expression for this circuit
(c) Build and test the circuit on breadboard
Page 19
3. A proposal for the control of the automatic doors (Z), safety light (S) and a warning light
(W) on the Edinburgh tram must meet the following criteria:
 The doors must open when the two sensors (A and B) both go high to indicate that the
vehicle has reached the correct position
 An emergency override switch © must also open the door, when it goes high
 The doors must not open when the vehicle is still moving (M = 1 when the vehicle is
moving)
The doors open when Z = 1
(a) Complete a Boolean expression for the door to open (Z = )
In addition to the above:
 The safety light must be on when the doors are open

 The warning light must be on at all other times
(b) Simulate the full electronic system using Yenka.
(c) Convert your circuit design to it’s NAND equivalent and simplify where possible.
(d) Test your circuit and record the results in the truth table shown below
A B C M Expected result Test result

Z S W Z S W
0 0 0 0 0 0 1
0 0 0 1 0 0 1
0 0 1 0 1 1 0
0 0 1 1 0 0 1
0 1 0 0 0 0 1
0 1 0 1 0 0 1
0 1 1 0 1 1 0
0 1 1 1 0 0 1
1 0 0 0 0 0 1
1 0 0 1 0 0 1
1 0 1 0 1 1 0
1 0 1 1 0 0 1
1 1 0 0 1 1 0
1 1 0 1 0 0 1
1 1 1 0 1 1 0
1 1 1 1 0 0 1
Page 20
Mackie Academy Electronics and Control - Analogue H Engineering Science
Higher Engineering Science
Electronics and Control
Book 2 of 3 - Analogue Electronics
Name: Class:
Page 1
Introduction
This course follows on from your studies in National 5 Engineering Science. If you have not
previously studied Engineering Science it is essential that you study the online materials at
www.technologyinthemearns.net . Specifically, this unit of work continues on from learning in
the following units:
 Systems
 Electronics
By the end of this topic you will be expected to meet the following success criteria:
1 - Develop analogue electronic control systems by:
1.1 - 1.2 - 1.3 - 1.4 -

Designing and Designing and Designing and Testing and
constructing constructing constructing evaluating analogue
circuits using circuits using operational electronic solutions
sensor inputs sensor inputs amplifier against a
and BJT and MOSFET circuits specification
drivers drivers
Before You Start...
Analogue electronic circuits use a variety of components to transfer signals from input devices
to output devices. They process signals by altering their voltage or current. Analogue
electronics have many applications including medical engineering, communications, computer
systems, energy, instrumentation, entertainment and media to name but a few.
It is assumed from your studies at National 5 you will already have an understanding of:
 The differences
voltage voltage
between analogue and O
digital signals
 Ohms Law
time time
 Calculating power Of
 The voltage divider rule
 Transistor switching
circuits and sensor
circuits
Page 2
Voltage Dividers
Any system can be broken down into input, process and output. Input transducers in
electronics convert one energy form into another energy form.
Changes in the resistance of an input transducer must be converted to changes in voltage

before the signal can be processed. This is normally done by using a voltage divider circuit.
You must understand one of the key rules of electronics - voltage is the same in parallel.
This means that any component connected in parallel to either the top half or bottom half of the
voltage divider will have the same voltage as that part of the voltage divider.
Vs Voltage divider circuits work on the basic electrical

principle that if two resistors are connected in series
across a supply, the voltage load across each of the
resistors will be proportional to the value of the
R1 resistors. To calculate the voltage across any one
resistor in a voltage divider, we can use either of the
following equations, which are both known as the
voltage divider rule:
V1 = (R1/Rt) x Vs
R2
V2 = (R2/Rt) x Vs
V1/V2 = R1/R2
0V
Remember: Voltage doesn’t move through a circuit.

Voltage causes current to move through a circuit!
Page 3
Assignment 1 - Voltage Dividers
Calculate the missing values from each of the following circuits:
(a) (b) (c)
5V 9V 12V
10k 2k 4k7
Vout 3k Vout 15k Vout

5k
0V 0V 0V
(d) (e) (f)
24V 12V 30V
100R 6k6 10R
240R Vout 3k3 Vout 20R Vout
0V 0V 0V
(g) (h) (i)
12V
10V 5V
3k3 10k R1 = ?
R2 = ? 2V R2 = ? 1.5V 2k 9V
0V 0V 0V
Page 4
The Transistor - A Current Amplifier
From your studies at National 5 you will already be aware that a transistor acts as an electronic
switch that switches on when the voltage across the base-emitter junction is 0.7V. However,
the transistor also performs an invaluable function - it acts as a current amplifier.
Input transducers rarely produce enough current, or sometimes voltage, to provide sufficient
power for most applications. Their outputs must be amplified. Circuits that amplify signals often
make use of a separate power supply and are known as active circuits, as opposed to passive
circuits which use only non-amplifying components such as resistors and capacitors.
The most common active device in active electronic systems is the bipolar junction transistor.
This is often referred to as a BJT or transistor for short. There are 2 types available: NPN or
PNP.
Collector Collector
 NPN transistors
operate when the
Base Base base is Positive
 PNP transistors
Emitter Emitter operate when the
base is Negative
npn Type pnp Type
When the emitter and the voltage divider are connected to the same ground line, a small
current flowing between the base and emitter junction will allow a large current to flow
between the collector and emitter - the base current is amplified. The current gain of the
transistor is the amount by which the base current is amplified and is know as h fe.
Ib Ic or Ic
x hfe hfe =
Ib
Page 5
Transistor Notation
The following terms are used in transistor circuits and calculations:
Ic - Collector current
Ib - Base current
Ie - Emitter current
Vcc - Voltage of supply (relative to ground line)
Vb - Voltage at the base junction (relative to ground line)
Ve - Voltage at the emitter junction (relative to ground line)
Vce - Voltage between the collector and emitter junction
Vbe - Voltage between the base and emitter junction
VL - Voltage over the load resistor
Vcc
RL VL
Ic
Rb Ib
Vce
Vbe Ie Vc
Vin Vb
Re
Ve Ve
0V
It can be seen from the diagram that:
Vb = Vbe + Ve
VCC = VL + Vce + Ve …..etc.
Page 6
As you have previously learned, a small current flowing between the base and emitter will al-
low a large current to flow between the collector and emitter.
It can be seen that: Ie = Ib + Ic c
Since Ib is usually much smaller than Ic,

it follows that Ie is approximately = Ic
The current gain (or amplification) of the transistor is

b
defined as the ratio of collector current : base
current.
So...current gain = collector current / base current

b c
Ic
hfe =
e
Ib
Assignment 2 - Transistors
1. Calculate the current gain of a transistor if the collector current is measured to be 10mA
when the base current is 0.25mA
2. Calculate the collector current through a transistor is the base current is 0.3mA and h fe =
250
3. What collector current would be measured in a BC107 transistor if the base current is
0.2mA and hfe = 100?
Page 7
Transistor Switching Circuits
You will have learned from your studies at National 5 that a transistor will switch on when
Vbe = 0.7V. Provided Vbe = 0.7V the collector current and base current will be directly
proportional as Ib is multiplied by the current gain hfe to give Ic. This is known as the linear
range.
In fact, the transistor will start to switch on before 0.7V, usually at around 0.6V. However, when
Vbe is between 0.6V and 0.7V the current gain is not constant thus it is not easy to calculate or
predict what the output current Ic will be. This is known as the non-linear range.
A well designed transistor switching/amplifier circuit will not use the non-linear range of the
transistor, thus we will assume that the transistor switches on at 0.7V, and amplifies the current
by the constant number for hfe. 0.7V is known as the saturation voltage.
Example:
If the transistor is ON, calculate the collector

current and Vce if hFE=200 and VCC = 9V.
Step 1:
Calculate the voltage dropped across the
base resistor. In this case the base resistor
is connected directly to Vcc so the
calculation is:
V = Vcc - Vb
= 9 - 0.7
= 8.3V
Step 2:
Calculate the base current using
Ohm’s law:
Ib = V / R
= 8.3 / 150000
= 5.53 x 10=5 A
Calculate Ic:
Ic = hfe x Ib
= 200 x 5.53 x 10-5
= 0.011 A
Calculate voltage across RL using

Ohm’s law:
VL = Ic x RL
= 0.011 x 470
= 5.2 V
Therefore Vce = 9 - 5.2

= 3.8V
Page 8
Assignment 3
1. A 6V, 60 mA bulb is connected to the collector of a transistor as shown.
If the gain of the transistor is

30, determine the size of the
base resistor Rb required to
ensure that the bulb
operates at its normal
brightness.
2. Calculate the resistance of the thermistor if the current gain of the transistor h fe = 20.
Page 9
Voltage Amplification
Although the transistor is a current amplifier, it can easily be modified to amplify voltage by the
inclusion of a load resistor, RL in the collector and/or emitter line.
Vcc Here, applying the voltage Vin to the base gives rise
to the base current Ib. This in turn causes a
proportional increase (depending on the gain) in the
VL collector current Ic .
RL
Since the current through the load resistor (Ic) has
increased, the voltage over RL has increased
Ic (VL = IcRL) and hence Vout has decreased. (Vout =
VCC - V-L)
Ib
BFY50
The voltage gain of any amplifier is defined as:
Vout
Voltage gain = Vout / Vin
Vin
Av = Vo / Vi
0V
Vcc
Example:
Calculate the voltage gain of this circuit if Vin 1k

=1.7 V, hFE = 100 and VCC = 6V.
Step 1:
Calculate Ve:
Ve = Vin - 0.7
= 1.7v – 0.7 Vout
=1V
Vin
2k
Step 2: 0V
Calculate current through Re using Ohm’s

Law:
Ie = Ve = 1 = 0.5 mA
Re 2k
Step 3:
Calculate the voltage over RL (remember Ic

= Ie):
VL = Ic x RL
= 0.5 mA x 1k
= 0.5 V
Page 10
Vcc
Step 4:
Calculate the output voltage: 1k

Vout = VCC - VL 0.5V
= 6 - 0.5
= 5.5 V 0.5mA
Step 5:
6.0V
Calculate the voltage gain: 0.7V
5.5V
Av = Vo = 5.5 = 3.2
1.7V
Vi 1.7
1.0V 2k2
0.5mA 0V
Assignment 4
A transistor of very high current gain is connected to a 9 Volt supply as shown. Determine the
output voltage and the voltage gain when an input of 3 Volts is applied.
Vcc
2k
Vout
Vin
4k7
0V
Page 11
Assignment 5
1. Assume Ic(max) for the transistor shown below is 100 mA and hFE is 200.
9V Calculate:
(a) the maximum allowable base

current.
Rb (b) the size of protection base

resistor required (remembering
Vbe = 0.7V, and R = V/I)
Vin = 5V
0V
2. An NTC thermistor is used in the circuit shown beow to indicate if the temperature falls
too low. When the bulb is on the current through it is 60 mA.
6V
RESISTANCE()
10k 2000
1500 GRAPH OF R/T

FOR
1000 NTC THERMISTER
-t 500
TEMP(C)
10 20 30 40
0V
(a) If hFE for the transistor is 500, determine the base current required to switch on the bulb.
(b) What voltage is required at the base of the transistor to ensure that the bulb indicator
switches ON?
(c) Calculate the voltage dropped over, and hence the current through the 10 k resistor.
(d) Calculate the current through the thermistor and the resistance of the thermistor when the
bulb is ON?
(e) Using the information on the graph, determine at what temperature the bulb would come
ON.
(f) How could the circuit be altered so that the bulb would come on at a different
temperature?
(g) How could the circuit be altered so that the bulb would come when the temperature is too
high?
Page 12
Assignment 6
For each of the circuits shown below, calculate:

i) the emitter voltage ii) the emitter current iii) the base current
(a) (b)
10V 12V
1k 4k
hFE = 200 hFE = 50
100R 2k 1k
2k
0V 0V
(c) (d)
5V 9V
3k 2k
hFE = 200 hFE = 100
2k 220R 470R
6k
0V 0V
Page 13
Driving Large Loads

In some circumstances, the current (or voltage)
required to operate an output transducer may be
too large for a transistor to handle e.g. for heating
elements, heavy motors or for machines operating
from the mains supply, etc. In these circumstances,
the transistor circuit can be used to drive a relay.
The contacts of the relay are then used in a
separate circuit to operate the output transducer.
Note the diode protects the transistor from back

EMF. Back EMF is produced when the relay
switches position.
However, if you want to drive a large load using the

same power supply you must use a Darlington
Pair.
Darlington Pair
To achieve more current gain, more than one

transistor can be used. By increasing the gain,
switching in the circuit becomes more immediate
and only a very small base current is required.
For the circuit to operate, both transistors would

need to be saturated. As it takes 0.7 V to saturate
one transistor, it takes 1.4 V to saturate a Darlington
Pair.
The current gain of the "pair" is equal to the product

of the two individual hFE's. E.g. if two transistors,
each of gain 50 are used, the overall gain of the pair
will be 50 x 50 = 2500
hfe total = hfe1 x hfe2
Page 14
Assignment 7
1. For the circuit shown below calculate:
a) The gain of the pair

b) The emitter current
c) The base current
2. For the circuit shown below, the gain of Tr1 is 150 and the gain of Tr2 is 30. Calculate:
a) The overall gain of the Darlington pair

b) The base current required to give a current of 100mA through the load resistor
Page 15
The MOSFET - A Transconductance Amplifier
Another option for driving large loads is to use a MOSFET - Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field
Effect Transistor. Whilst a transistor is a current amplifier, meaning current input is amplified to
give current output, the MOSFET is a transconductance amplifier. This means the size of the
output current will vary according to the size of the input voltage.
G= Gate
D = Drain
S = Source
In an n-type MOSFET, the field channel is negative. This means that when the gate voltage is
low, the circuit is incomplete. However, when the gate voltage reaches the threshold voltage,
the circuit completes as can be seen from the diagrams below.
GATE
Metal
SOURCE DRAIN
Oxide
Semiconductor
Field
Effect }
Transistor
A MOSFET can operate in enhancement mode. This means when there is no voltage on the
gate there is in effect no channel. This means the device will not conduct. A channel can be
produced by the application of voltage to the gate. In linear mode, the greater the gate voltage,
the better the device conducts
Page 16
MOSFET Calculations
For a given MOSFET, the size of the current between the Drain and Source will therefore
depend on the Gate voltage (VGS) and the voltage between the Drain and Source (VDS).
Like a bipolar transistor, if the Gate voltage is

below a certain level (the threshold value,
VT), no current will flow between the Drain
and Source (the MOSFET will be switched
off).
If the Gate voltage is above VT, the MOSFET

will start to switch on.
Increasing the Gate voltage will increase the
thickness of the channel, increasing the
number of charge carriers in the channel and
hence increasing ID.
For a given value of VGS, increasing VDS

increases the current until saturation occurs.
Any further increase will cause no further
increase in ID. The MOSFET is fully ON and
can therefore be used as a switch.
Saturation occurs when the voltage between VDS = VGS - VT

the gate and the source minus the threshold
voltage is equal to the voltage between the
drain and the source.
ID = ID (on)
When saturation occurs, the current at ID is
the same as it was before saturation.
ID
When saturation occurs, the resistance of the
channel, RDS, is normally low (RDS(on) less
than 1 for power MOSFET’s) ID(on)
VGS>VT
All other transistor rules apply. For example,
rather than Vcc = Vout + Vload we can now VDS
say Vcc = Vds + Vload.
VDS(sat)
Page 17
Assignment 8
The threshold gate voltage for the MOSFET shown below is 2V. Calculate the gate voltage
required to ensure that a saturation current of 10 mA flows through the load resistor.
Calculating Transconductance
MOSFETs can be designed to handle very high drain currents, this means that they can be
used to drive high current output transducers drivers without the need for relay switching
circuits (unlike the bipolar transistor).
The load resistor could be any output transducer, bulb, motor,

Vcc
relay etc. Since MOSFET’s are particularly sensitive to high
voltages, care must be taken to include a reverse biased
diode over transducers that may cause a back EMF when
switched off. RL
A variable resistor can be used in a voltage divider circuit and

adjusted to ensure that the input voltage to the gate = V T.
Changes in VGS above the threshold value causes changes in

ID. Whereas the performance of a bipolar transistor is
measured by its’ amplification (hfe), the performance of a FET
is measured by its transconductance (gm) and is calculated Vin
0V
using the formula:
gm = ID / VGS Vcc
gm is measured in Amps per Volt (AV-1) RL
MOSFETs connected as shown are said to be in common-

source mode (c.f. common-emitter mode for bipolar
transistors).
0V
Page 18
Assignment 9
Construct or simulate the circuit shown below. Vary the light level on the LDR and measure
values to allow you to plot a graph of Id against Vgs. What do you notice?
The Push-Pull Driver
NPN bipolar transistors and n-type enhancement MOSFETs operate when the base or gate is
made positive with respect to the zero volt line.
PNP and p-type MOSFETs operate off negative signals.
A push-pull amplifier consists of one of each type of bipolar transistor (or MOSFET) connected
in series with a + and - supply rail.
If Vin is Positive with respect to 0V, the NPN

transistor will switch on, current will flow from
+ the + supply line through the collector-emitter
junction, through the load resistor down to the
0Volt line
NPN
Vin If Vin is Negative with respect to 0V, the PNP
OV transistor will switch on, current will flow from
RL the 0Volt line through load resistor, through the
PNP emitter-collector junction, to the - supply line.
The direction of current flow through the load

_ resistor will therefore depend on whether the
input voltage is positive or negative. If the load
resistor is replaced by a motor, the direction of
rotation of the motor can be altered dependent
on the input voltage.
Page 19
Assignment 10
A MOSFET output-driver circuit provides current a motor controlling a crane. The graph below
shows the operational characteristics of the output-driver circuit. Lines A, B, C, D, and E show
the characteristics of the MOSFET for five different gate-source voltages (VGS). Line F shows
the characteristics of the motor.
For a signal of 4 V on the microcontroller output pin:
(i) Determine the Drain-Source Voltage
(ii) Determine the Drain Current
(iii) Calculate the power dissipated in the MOSFET
Page 20
The Operational Amplifier
As you have now learned, transistors or BJTs can be used to amplify current whilst MOSFETs
can be used as transconductance amplifiers. To amplify voltage we must use an Operational
Amplifier, or Op-Amp for short.
Op-Amps can be used in a variety of different configurations to perform many different

mathematical functions. These include multiplication (amplification), division (attenuation),
addition and subtraction. Op-Amps can also be configured to perform more complex functions
including differentiation and integration, although this is beyond the scope of what you will
learn at Higher level.
POSITIVE SUPPLY An ‘ideal’ amplifier should have the

LINE (+Vcc) following qualities:
INVERTING  An infinite input resistance so

very little current is drawn from
INPUT the source (V=IR)
OUTPUT  Zero output resistance so all
NON-INVERTING
voltage output is transferred to
INPUT the output
 An extremely high gain
 No output when the input is 0,
NEGATIVE SUPPLY though this is rarely achieved.
LINE (-Vcc)
It can be seen from the diagram that the op. amp. has two inputs. The op. amp. is designed as
a differential amplifier i.e. it amplifies the difference between the two input voltages. The two
inputs are indicated by a "-" and "+".
A positive signal to the "-" input is amplified and appears as a negative signal at the output.
Because of this, the "-" input is known as the inverting input A positive signal to the "+" input is
amplified and appears as a positive signal at the output. The "+" input is known as the non-
inverting input. If both inputs are exactly the same i.e. there is no difference, then the output
should be zero.
An op-amp connected as shown above is known as open loop mode as there is no

connection between the output and the input. In open loop mode the gain of an op-amp is
typically very high, usually around 100000. This means that if there is any difference between
the two input voltages, this difference will be amplified by 100000.
Voltage gain = Vout / Vin
Vout
Av =
Vin
An op-amp can only supply a maximum output of 85% of it’s supply voltage.
If the supply voltage is 10V, the maximum possible output is 8.5V. In this
condition the op-amp is said to be saturated.
Page 21
Assignment 11
1. If V(at non - inverting input) = 3.10 V and V

(at inverting input) = 3.11 V. Calculate the POSITIVE SUPPLY
input voltage difference and hence the LINE (+Vcc)
output voltage if the gain is known to be

100. INVERTING
INPUT
OUTPUT
2. The gain of an op. amp. is known to be NON-INVERTING
100,000. If the output voltage is 10 V, INPUT
calculate the input voltage difference.
NEGATIVE SUPPLY
3. The gain of an op. amp. is known to be LINE (-Vcc)
200,000. If V(at non - inverting input) = 2.5
V and V (at inverting input) = 2.2 V,
calculate the output voltage.
The answer to question 3 is obviously unrealistic since the output voltage from an op. amp.
cannot be greater than the supply voltage.
As the output of the op. amp. increases, saturation starts to occur and a "clipping" effect will
be noticed. This normally occurs when the output reaches 85% of VCC
Any further increase in the input will cause no further increase in the output since the op. amp.
has reached saturation.
The inherent voltage gain of an op. amp. (i.e. when no external components are connected) is
designed to be very large (200,000 in some cases). This is sometimes called the open loop
gain, Ao. If saturation does not occur then the two input voltages to the chip must be (almost)
equal. Any small difference would be amplified by Ao and produce saturation.
In order to reduce the gain, a small part of the output signal is fed back to the inverting input
through a feedback resistor, Rf.
Rf
Since this signal is going to the inverting input, it is a form of negative feedback and has the
effect of reducing the overall gain of the circuit. The closed loop voltage gain, AV, of the
circuit will depend on the circuit configuration.
N.B. Irrespective of the configuration, the feedback resistor is always connected to the
inverting input.
Page 22
The Inverting Amplifier
The signal is connected to the inverting input through an input resistor (R1).
The non-inverting input is connected to ground either directly or through a biasing resistor Rb.
(if used, Rb should have the equivalent resistance as R1 and Rf connected in parallel).
Rf Characteristics of the inverting amplifier:
closed loop voltage gain Av = - Rf / R1

R1
(negative sign indicates inversion)
input resistance of the circuit = R1

Vin
Vout Note: the gain is only a function of R1
and Rf and not dependent on the open
0V loop gain.
Worked example
An op. amp. is used in a circuit as shown above with R 1 = 15 k and Rf = 470 k.

Calculate the gain of the circuit and determine the output voltage when an input signal of 0.2 v
is applied.
Step 1
Calculate the gain
Rf 470k
Av     3133
.
R1 15k
Step 2
Calculate the output voltage
Vout = Av x Vin = - 31.33 x 0.2 = - 6.266 V
Page 23
Assignment 12
1. A thermocouple known to produce an output of 40 µV per 0C is connected to an op-amp

circuit as shown below.
1M
THERMO-COUPLE
10k
Vout
0V
(a) Calculate the gain of the circuit.
(b) Determine the output voltage if the thermocouple is heated to a temperature of 1000 oC.
For an inverting amplifier, the sign of the output voltage is the opposite of the input voltage. In
order to obtain the same sign, the output signal could then be fed through another inverter (with
Rf = R1, so that the gain = -1).
2. For the circuit below the light level is 50 lux, calculate:
a) The resistance of the LDR

b) The voltage gain of the operational amplifier
c) The current flowing through load resistor RL.
Page 24
The Non-Inverting Amplifier
The signal is connected directly to the non-inverting input. This means that the output voltage
is always high if the input voltage is high and always low if the input voltage is low. Rf and R1
form a voltage divider, this feeds back some of the output signal to the inverting input signal.
This ensures the output is non-inverting. Note there are two ways to draw the non-inverting op
amp.
Characteristics of the non - inverting amplifier:
closed loop voltage gain Av = 1 + Rf/R1
(no inversion, gain is positive)
input resistance of the circuit = input resistance of the op. amp. (very high)
Note: because of the high input resistance, this circuit is useful when input transducers do not
provide large currents.
Assignment 13
1. A circuit for a light meter is shown below. In bright sunlight the LDR has a resistance of
1K. In the shade its resistance increases to 15K.
+8V 50k
(a) Determine the voltages that would appear on
the voltmeter in both light conditions.
(b) How could the circuit be altered to indicate
changes in temperature?
LDR
15k 100k
0V
Page 25
The Voltage Follower
This is a special case of the non-inverting amplifier in which 100% negative feedback is
obtained by connecting the output directly to the inverting input.
Since Rf = 0, the gain of this circuit is 1 i.e. The output
voltage = input voltage.
The practical application of this circuit is that it has a

very high input resistance and a very low output
resistance. It is therefore used in matching a source
Vout that can only produce a low current to a load which has
Vin a low resistance.
0V AA
Voltage followers are also often used to
compartmentalise circuits to improve safety and
reliability.
The Summing Amplifier
Here, two (or more) signals are connected to the inverting input via their own resistors. The
op-amp effectively amplifies each input in isolation of the others and then sums the outputs.
Each input signal is amplified by the appropriate amount (see inverting mode)
Rf
Rf Rf
R1 Vout  (   V1 )  (   V2 )
R1 R2
R2 V1 V2
Vout   R f (   .......)
V1
R1 R2
V2 Vout
 any number of inputs can be
0V SD added in this way.
 Rf affects the gain of every
input.
 if all the resistors are the same
size, then the gain for each
input will be -1 and
Vout = - ( V1 + V2 + V3 + ......)
Page 26
Assignment 14
1. Determine the output voltage for the circuit shown below

10k
4V
10k
5k
INPUTS 2V
2k
1V
V out
0V AA
2. In your jotter draw a modified circuit diagram to show how the circuit could be improved to
ensure Vout is positive.
Control Systems Revision
From your studies at National 5 you should understand that there are 2 broad categories of
control system - open loop control, and closed loop control. In closed loop control the output is
continually monitored and this signal is then fed back to the input stage which in turn will
decide is the output needs to be adjusted.
Shown below is a control diagram for an automatic heating system.
The desired heat is selected using the temperature selector, thus the heater will switch on. The
output from the heater is monitored by the temperature sensor and this value is compared to
the desired temperature by the ……………………………….. If there is a difference between
the desired temperature and the actual temperature the heater will be adjusted accordingly so
that eventually the output from the heater should be exactly the same as the value set by the
user. In this way the system is said to have automatic closed-loop control.
This control could be provided by one of two op-amp configurations, either the comparator or
the difference amplifier, as both of these configurations have two inputs and will give an
output if there is a difference between the two. One input will be the desired temperature, and
the other input will be the actual temperature.
Page 27
The Comparator
As the same suggests, the comparator compares its 2 inputs and gives an output signal if
there is a difference.
Looking at the diagram, is this op amp connected in

open loop or closed loop mode?
……………………………………………..
Based on this finding, what can you determine

V1 Vout about the gain of the op amp?
V2
…………………………………………….
0V AA
Because of this, we have no way of controlling the value of the output voltage Vout. All we can
say is that if there is a difference between the reference voltage and the input voltage, this will
be amplified by the open loop gain of the op amp, and thus the output will either be fully
positive or fully negative.
This is known as two-state control.
Complete the graph below to show how the output voltage will vary over time.
Voltage
Desired Vout
 Av = Ao
 Hence if V2>V1, Vout = +
 If V2<V1, Vout = -
Actual Vout  Commonly used in control
circuits where the output is
simply switched on or off
Time
The example circuit shown on the right 6V
switches on an LED if temperature falls
below a preset level. Vr
The first voltage divder, with Vr, is used V1

to adjust the preset level. This is known
as the reference voltage. V2
The second voltage divider measures

-t
the temperature.
The comparator compares these two

LED
signals and will switch the LED on or
off. 0V
Page 28
Assignment 15
Describe the operation of the circuit shown below and state the purpose of the variable resistor
Vr and the fixed resistor Rb for clarity, the d.c. power supply has not been shown)
Rb
Vr
Page 29
The Difference Amplifier
As the name suggests, the difference amplifier will give an output if there is a difference
between its 2 inputs. This may also be known as differential mode.
Rf
Looking at the diagram you can
R1 see that each input has a
feedback resistor and an input
resistor. Based on this, what
can you say about the gain of
R2 the op amp in differential
V1 mode?
Vout
V2 R3
…………………………………
0V
In this configuration, the op amp looks at its two inputs and decided if there is a difference
between them. If there is a difference this is then multiplied by the gain of the op amp. Thus if
there is a large difference then it will produce a large output, if there is a small difference then
there is a small output. This is called proportional control, as the output signal is proportional
to the difference between the inputs.
Complete the graph below to show how the output voltage will vary over time.
Voltage
Desired Vout
 Av = Rf / R1
 Vout = Rf/R1 x (V2-V1)
 Output will be zero if both
Actual Vout inputs are equal
 Commonly used where
output conditions must be
carefully controlled
Time
Page 30
Assignment 16
1. Two strain gauges are connected to a difference amplifier as shown.

6V
Ra Rb 42k
 RA = RB = 1 k
4k2
Y  when not under strain, Rg1 =
Rg2 = 200
X
390R
Vout
Rg Rg2 39k
1
0VAA
(a) Calculate the voltage at X and Y when both gauges are not under strain and hence
determine the output voltage of the amplifier.
(b) As the strain of Rg2 increases, its resistance increases from 200 to 210 , determine the
new output voltage.
(c) What would you expect to happen to the output voltage if both gauges were put under the
same amount of strain?
2. A music venue uses a lamp as a lighting effect, whose brightness varies proportionally
with the sound level measured by a sound sensor.
(a) Complete the control circuit by adding a suitable op-amp.
12V
3. Which configuration of op-amp would be most suitable for the following closed loop
control applications? In each case, please explain your answer:
(a) An automatic street light

(b) A temperature monitoring system in an incubator for premature babies
(c) An automatic pilot system on board an airliner
Page 31
4. An amplifier is required to increase the size of the signal from an electric guitar. Design
and simulate an op-amp circuit, which will amplify output voltages in the range 0–1V from
the guitar to voltages in the range 0-3V.
5. The circuit shown below is used to control the operation of a motorised valve in a central-
heating system. The motor should operate when the room temperature sensed by the
thermistor is 16 ºC.
(a) Calculate the required value of resistor RV.

(b) Calculate the minimum required gain of the transistor.
(c) Explain the reason for the inclusion of a diode in this circuit.
The motorised valve is to be replaced by another unit containing a motor rated at 24 V, 50 W.

This motor requires a Darlington Pair driver circuit.
(d) Calculate the minimum current gain required to operate the new valve.
(e) Sketch the required transistor circuit.
The first transistor in the Darlington Pair is a BC182L with an hfe of 120.
(f) Calculate the minimum required current gain for the second transistor in the Darlington
Pair.
Page 32
6. The circuit shown below is used to amplify the signal produced by a flow sensor in part of
a chemical plant.
(a) State the name of the op-amp configuration used in the circuit shown above.
(b) Explain the reasons for the inclusion of the second op-amp in this circuit..
(c) Calculate the required value of resistor, R, so that Vout reaches its maximum value when
Vin is 0·68 V.
7. The circuit shown below is used in a light-sensing system for a camera.
(a) Calculate the output voltage, Vout, when the light level is 80 lux.
(b) Determine the minimum light level that this system can respond to before the operational
amplifier (op-amp) saturates.
MOSFET transistors are used in the camera.
(c) State two advantages of a MOSFET transistor, when compared with a bipolar transistor.
Page 33
8. An engineering technician is testing the circuit shown below to determine the gain of the
bipolar junction transistor (BJT) .
(a) Determine the light level to fully saturate the transistor. Refer to the graph shown, which
shows how the resistance of the LDR responds to light level. Assume VBE = 0·7 V.
The two currents measured at A1 and A2 were 1·2 mA and 110 mA respectively.
(b) Calculate the hFE value.
Page 34
9. An electronic engineer is designing an op-amp control system for a laser level device and
has developed the following specification:
 The voltage which represents the laser being horizontal is 4·0 V

 The accelerometer produces an output in the range 10–30 mV
 The output from the accelerometer must be amplified to a range of 2·0–6·0 V
 The amplified range should be compared to the desired level voltage (4·0 V), and the
difference between them amplified by 3·0 to produce the output.
(a) Complete the op-amp control system below. Show all working and component values.
You do not need to show the +ve and −ve supplies to the op-amps.
An electronic engineer decided that one of the platform levelling motors would be controlled
using the circuit shown below. The motor is controlled by a microcontroller using Pulse Width
Modulation (PWM) and it is important the control system uses as little power as possible. The
motor has a power rating of 12 V 200 W and the n-channel MOSFET has an RDS value of
0·1Ω and is fully saturated.
(b) Explain why the electronic

engineer might choose to use a
MOSFET rather than a BJT for this
particular application.
(c) Describe an emerging technology
which may significantly change the
design of transistors and other
electronic components in the near
future.
Page 35
10. An electrical engineer is designing a small-scale community-based hydroelectric scheme.

It will use the water in a river to turn a turbine and generator. The turbine should turn at a
constant speed. A tachogenerator on the turbine shaft generates a voltage proportional to
the shaft speed. A control system processes this signal to control a motorised valve,
which either increases or decreases water flow to the turbine, in order to control its shaft
speed.
(a) Draw a control diagram for this control system. Label all sub-systems.
The circuit shown gives a warning if the turbine speed is either too fast or too slow.
(b) Explain the operation of the circuit shown above.
A warning lamp shows when the turbine speed varies by more than 5% (±0·15 V) from the
output of 3 V.
(c) The total resistance of the resistor ladder in the circuit above is 12kΩ. Calculate
appropriate values for resistors R1, R2, and R3.
Page 36
Measurement of Load
Strain gauges can be used to investigate the load
CLAMP
on particular members of a construction. The
resistance of a strain gauge depends on whether
it is under tension or compression. The diagram
shows a single strain gauge bonded to the upper
face of a metal strip. STRAIN
GAUGE
It will also however depend on temperature.
METAL
As loads are placed on the strip, it bends, STRIP
stretches the strain gauge which in turn changes
resistance. This change in resistance can be
amplified using a difference op-amp circuit as
shown below. LOAD
+15V Construct the circuit as shown.
1k 560R Adjust the variable resistor so the

1M voltmeter reads zero when no
load is applied to the metal strip.
10k
Determine if the voltage output is
47k proportional to the load applied to
the strip.
10k Since the resistance of the gauge

Vout also depends on temperature,
1k Rg 1M any temperature change will be
"recorded" as a change in load.
0V In order to overcome this, it is
-15V normal to use two strain gauges
in a voltage divider circuit.
+15V
Assuming both gauges remain at
the same temperature, they will
1k Rg both change resistance by the
1M same amount and therefore the
circuit will remain in balance.
10k
Further, if the second gauge is
47k placed beneath the strip, as load
is added, the first gauge will be
under tension while the second
10k will be in compression. This will
Vout have a doubling effect.
1k Rg 1M
0V
-15V
Page 37
Assignment 17
1. The desired position of a motorised telescope is to be set using a potentiometer. A

second potentiometer then senses the position of the telescope as it moves. The desired
position can then be compared with the current position using a suitably configured op-
amp, and the difference used to control a motor. A suitable driver circuit, using BJT
transistors, must allow the motor to rotate in both directions.
(a) Complete the circuit shown below, using Yenka, to design a control system for the
telescope motor.
(b) Describe how this system could be improved.
Page 38
2. Many cities have introduced tram systems over the last 50 years to provide effective
transportation solutions. Power is supplied to the trams by overhead cables. The cables
must be fitted at the correct tension to ensure they operate safely. An electronic control
system is required that will monitor the tension of a cable while it is being fitted. The
system must meet the following criteria:
 A red light must be on and a motor must turn while the tension is too low.
 A green light must come on when the correct tension is reached, and the red light and
motor must turn off.
 The desired tension must be set using a potentiometer.
 The strain must be monitored using a strain gauge (or variable resistor) in a voltage
divider.
 The relay switch for the motor must be controlled by a MOSFET.
(a) Complete the circuit below to meet these criteria, and simulate it using Yenka.
(b) Test the system to ensure it meets the specification. Describe how well this system
meets the requirements, and describe how it could be improved to operate in a real world
situation.
Page 39
Engineering Science
Basic Flowcharts /
Programming
Name ........................................................................................ Class ..................

Section 1 - Introduction
What is a microcontroller?
A microcontroller is often described as a 'computer-on-a-chip'. Microcontrollers have

memory, processing units, and input/output circuitry all built into a single chip. As they
are small and inexpensive they can easily be built into other devices to make these
products more intelligent and easier to use.
Microcontrollers are usually programmed to perform one specific control task - for
instance, a microwave oven may use a single microcontroller to process information
from the keypads, display user information on the seven segment display, and control
the output devices (turntable motor, light, bell and magnetron).
Microcontrollers are computers designed to control specific processes or products.

The microcontroller is programmed with a specific software program to complete the
desired task. By altering this software program the same microcontroller can be used
to complete different tasks. Therefore the same device can be used in a range of
different products by simply programming it with a different software program.
Higher Engineering Science 1

One microcontroller can often replace a number of separate parts, or even a complete
electronic circuit. Some of the advantages of using microcontrollers in a product
design are:
• increased reliability and reduced stock inventory (as one microcontroller replaces
several parts)
• simplified product assembly and smaller end products
• greater product flexibility and adaptability since features are programmed into the
microcontroller and not built into the electronic hardware
• rapid product changes or development by changing the program and not the
electronic hardware
Applications that use microcontrollers include household appliances, alarm systems,

medical equipment, vehicle subsystems, and electronic instrumentation. Although
microprocessor systems (such as those based around the Intel Pentium™ processor)
tend to be more widely publicised (mainly via personal computer systems),
microcontroller manufacturers actually sell hundreds of microcontrollers for every
microprocessor sold.

Microcontroller Architecture
The main features of the microcontroller are shown in the block diagram.
PROGRAM
ROM RAM
COUNTER
PROGRAM REGISTER
MEMORY FILES
DATA
BUS
ALU
PROGRAM I/O “REAL”
BUS PORTS WORLD
TIMERS
CLOCK
SIMPLIFIED PIC MICROCONTROLLER

BLOCK DIAGRAM
Microcontrollers contain all these features within a single package, as opposed to the
microprocessor system where each block in the diagram above is normally a separate
integrated circuit. In general the only component that needs to be added to a
microcontroller is a clock resonator, which sets the operating speed of the
microcontroller.
Arithmetic / Logic Unit (ALU) and Clock

The processing unit (full name arithmetic and logic unit (ALU)) is the 'brain' of the
microcontroller. It operates by reading instructions from the read only memory ROM
(permanent program memory) and then carrying out the mathematical operations for
each instruction. The speed at which these operations occur is controlled by the clock
circuit.
The clock circuit within the microcontroller 'synchronises' all the internal blocks (ALU,
ROM, RAM etc.) so that the system remains stable. The clock circuit is built into the
microcontroller, but an external crystal or resonator is required to set the clock
frequency. A typical clock frequency for use with a microcontroller is 4MHz, but
speeds as high as 20MHz can also be achieved. With a clock frequency of 4MHz the
microcontroller completes one million instructions a second!

Memory (ROM and RAM)
Microcontrollers contain both ROM (permanent memory) and RAM (temporary
memory).
The ROM (Read Only Memory) contains the operating instructions (i.e. the 'program')
for the microcontroller. The ROM is 'programmed' before the microcontroller is
installed in the target system, and the memory retains the information even when the
power is removed. Most microcontrollers are one-time-programmable types, which
means the ROM can only be programmed once. If you make a mistake, and have to
change the program, the chip has to be thrown away and a new chip programmed with
the revised program. To overcome this problem some microcontrollers now use
FLASH EEPROM memory instead. This type of 'erasable-permanent' memory allows
the ROM to be re-programmed if a mistake is made.
The RAM (Random Access Memory) is 'temporary' memory used for storing
information whilst the program is running. This memory is 'volatile', which means that
as soon as the power is disconnected the contents of the memory is lost.
Buses.
Information is carried between the various blocks of the microcontroller along 'groups'
of wires called buses. The 'data bus' carries the 8-bit data between the ALU and RAM
/ Input-Output registers, and the 'program bus' carries the 13-bit program instructions
from the ROM.
The size of the data bus provides a description for the microcontroller. Therefore an '8
bit microcontroller' has a data bus '8-bits' wide. Microcontrollers with 16-bit and 32-bit
data buses are also available.
Input/Output Circuitry
Microcontrollers communicate with the outside world via pins which are grouped
together in 'ports', with up to eight pins in each port. Smaller microcontrollers may
only have one port, whilst larger devices may have five or more. Generally each pin
within the port can be configured as an output or as an input, or can even be
multiplexed to change functions as the program is run!
The CMOS fabrication techniques used to build modern microcontrollers provides a

relatively high current capability (approx. 20mA) for each pin. However further
'interfacing' circuits are required for most output devices.
Timers
Most microcontrollers have one or more 'timers' built into the system. The 'watchdog
timer' is the most common type of timer. This is a special timer that 'resets' the
microcontroller if it stops processing for any reason (e.g. a 'bug' in the program). This
ensures that the microcontroller continues working at all times - which is essential in
some applications, for instance medical monitoring equipment.

Assignments:
1.1) List the advantages of using a microcontroller within a product design.
1.2) Describe the input sensors and output transducers that may be linked to a
microcontroller in the following common household appliances:
- microwave oven
- washing machine
- electronic bicycle speedometer
1.2) Explain the following microcontroller terms: ALU, bus, clock
1.3) Explain the differences between the following types of memory:

- RAM, ROM, EEPROM

Port Addressing and the Data Direction Register
Microcontrollers communicate with the outside world by input/output pins which are
grouped together in 'ports'.
Each pin can be addressed individually, or all eight pins in the port can be addressed
simultaneously. In the PBASIC language the pins are labelled 0 to 7, and the whole
port address is allocated the label 'pins'.
For example, to switch pin b.3 'high' individually the command would be:
high b.3
To switch pin b.3 'low' individually the command would be:

low b.3
Each pin is referenced to by a single bit in the port address called 'pins'.
input/output pin 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
bit of address 'pins' 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
decimal value 128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
To switch all pins 'high' the command would be

let pinsb = 255
To switch all pins 'low' the command would be

let pinsb = 0
To switch pins b.0-b.2 'high' and pins b.3-b.7 'low' the command would be
let pinsb = %00000111
Note how the use of the binary number system can be used on this occasion to clearly
illustrate which pins are switched high (=1) or low (=0).
Each pin can be configured to be an output (to send digital signals) or an input (to
receive digital signals). The Data Direction Register (DDR) is used to configure the
port, and in the PBASIC language the DDR is allocated the label 'dirs'.
If all the bits in the DDR are set high then all the pins will be set as outputs. If all the
bits are set low each pin will be set as an input.
For example,
let dirsb = 255 ' set all pins as outputs

let dirsb = 0 ' set all pins as inputs
let dirsb = %11110000 ' set 0-3 inputs, 4-7 outputs

Beginning Programming
A simple example of a control operation is represented by the flowchart shown below.
START
SWITCH PIN 7
HIGH
WAIT2 SECONDS
SWITCH PIN 6
HIGH
WAIT1 SECOND
SWITCH PINS 4& 5

HIGH
WAIT3 SECONDS
SWITCH ALL
OFF
STOP
A PBASIC program which would achieve this control operation is:
let dirsb = %11110000 ' set pins 0-3 inputs, 4-7 outputs
high b.7 ' set pin 7 high

pause 2000 ' wait for 2 seconds (= 2000 ms)
pause 1000 ' wait for 1 second
let pinsb = %11110000 ' set pins 4-7 high
pause 3000 ' wait for 3 seconds
let pinsb = 0 ' switch all pins low
end ' end the program

Activity 3.1
Key in the program listed above and then simulate it in 18M2 mode.
Pin b.7 should light first, followed by the indicators on pin b.6, and then indicators b.4
and b.5.
Read through the program carefully, and make sure you understand exactly what each
program line achieves.
Note the 'comments' at the end of each line. A comment starts after an apostrophe (')
and continues to the end of the line. Although the comments are not needed to make
the program work, they are an essential part of the program as they explain in 'plain
language' what the program is doing. You should always add a comment to every line
of your program, particularly if the program is to be studied by someone else at a later
date.

Labels and Addressing
START
SWITCH PIN 7
HIGH
WAIT2 SECONDS
SWITCH PIN 6
HIGH
WAIT1 SECOND
SWITCH PINS 4& 5

HIGH
WAIT3 SECONDS
SWITCH ALL
OFF
WAIT1 SECOND
Sometimes it is necessary to create programs that loop 'forever', as shown by the

flowchart. In this case it is necessary to add labels to the program, and to use the
'goto' command to jump to the line marked by the label.

A PBASIC program which would achieve this control operation is listed below.
init: let dirsb = %11110000 ' set pins 4-7 as outputs
main: high b.7 ' set pin 7 high

goto main ' loop forever
Activity 3.2
Key in and simulate the program listed above in 18M2 mode.
After the first line (which simply sets up the DDR), a label called 'main' has been added
to the listing. Note that all address labels must end with a colon (:) when they are first
defined. It is also a good programming technique to use tabs (or spaces) at the start of
lines without labels so that all the commands are neatly aligned. The term 'white-
space' is used by programmers to define tabs, spaces and blank lines, and the correct
use of white-space can make the program listing much easier to read and understand.
The last line 'goto main' causes program flow to 'jump back' to the line labelled 'main'.
This means that this program will loop 'forever'.
Note:
Some early BASIC languages used 'line numbers' rather than labels for 'goto'
commands. Unfortunately this line number system can be inconvenient to use, because
if you modify your program by later adding, or removing, lines of code you then have
to modify all the line numbers within the 'goto' commands accordingly. The label
system, as used in most modern BASIC languages, overcomes this problem
automatically.
Assignments
3.3) What is the function of the Data Direction Register (DDR)?
3.4) What is meant by the term "white-space"? Why is it important to use

white-space and comments when writing programs?

Assignment 3.3
A set of temporary traffic lights are required for a system of road-works.
red 10 sec
red and amber 2 sec
green 10 sec
amber 2 sec
Draw a flowchart for the lights sequence shown by one set of the traffic lights. Use the
times shown in the table for each stage.
Write a PBASIC program to achieve this operation. Use the following pin
configuration - red (7), amber (6) and green (5).
Flowchart Program

For...Next Loops
START
SETCOUNTER= 5
SWITCH PIN 7
HIGH
WAIT1 SECOND
SWITCH PIN 7
LOW
WAIT1 SECOND
HAVE WE N
LOOPED 5
TIMES?
STOP
A for...next loop is used when you wish to repeat a section of code a number of times.
The number of times the program runs for is set by a variable. A variable is a number
that is stored in the RAM memory of the PicAXE Controller. There are 14 memory
locations that byte variables can be stored in. These locations are labelled b0 to b13,
but can also be 'renamed' to more appropriate names by use of the 'symbol' command.

Activity 3.4
Key in, download and run the following program.
symbol counter = b0 ' define the variable "counter"

symbol red = 7 ' define pin 7 with the name "red"
init: let dirsb = %10000000 ' set up pin 7 as an output
main: for counter = 1 to 5 ' start a for...next loop

high red ' switch pin 7 high
low red ' switch pin 7 low
next counter ' end of for...next loop
end ' end program
Note again how white-space (extra spaces) has been used to clearly illustrate all the
commands that are contained between the for and next commands. The 'symbol'
command is also used to label pins and variables to make them easier to use.
Assignment 3.9
As part of a Christmas decoration, a lighting sequence is to be controlled by a
microcontroller. The output connections are shown below.
Input Connection Pin Output Connection

b.7
b.6 Yellow Light
b.5 Purple Light
b.4
b.3 Blue Light
b.2 Green Light
b.1
b.0 Red Light
The red and green lights should come on together and stay on for 5 seconds. Then they
both go off and the yellow and blue lights should come on together for 8 seconds.
They then go off and the purple light flashes on and off 6 times (the 'on' and 'off' times
being 0.5 seconds each). The sequence then repeats itself.
Draw a flowchart and write a PBASIC program for this sequence.

Flowchart Program

If...Then...
START
SWITCH PIN 7
HIGH
IS PIN 3 N
HIGH?
SWITCH ALL
LOW
STOP
The if...then programming structure allows the computer to make a decision based on
information received from an input pin.
The following program switches pin 7 high, and then waits for an input connected to
pin 3 to go high. When the input switch is pushed the output pin is switched low
Activity 3.10
Key in and simulate the program below:
init: let dirsb = %10000000 ' setup the DDR
main: let pinsb = %10000000 ' switch pin 7 high

if pinb.3 = 1 then skip ' jump to 'skip' if input 3 is high
goto main ' loop
skip: let pinsb = 0 ' switch all pins off

Note:
Unlike some other BASIC languages, the then command can only be followed by a
label to jump to. You cannot add extra commands on the same line within the PBASIC
language.

Assignment 3.5
Develop a PBASIC program that will carry out the instructions shown in the flowchart
below.
Program
START
SWITCH ALL
PINS HIGH
WAIT5 SECONDS
SWITCH ALL
PINS LOW
WAIT0.5 SECONDS
SWITCH ALL
PINS HIGH
WAIT0.5 SECONDS
HAS THIS BEEN N

DONE 10 TIMES?
SWITCH ALL
PINS LOW
STOP

Assignment 3.6
A motor, connected to pin b.7, is to run when a 'start' switch (connected to pin c.7) is
momentarily pressed. The motor continues to run until another 'stop' switch (connected
to pin c.6) is pressed - at which point the motor switches off. The system should then
reset to wait for another 'start' signal.
Draw a flowchart and write a PBASIC program for this sequence. Test this on the
PicAXE board.
Flowchart Program

Assignment 3.7
above. Use the pin configuration on the next page in 8M2 mode
Program
START
GREEN LED ON
SWITCH
PUSHED?
NO
YES
GREEN LED OFF

AMBER LED ON
WAIT 3 sec.
AMBER LED OFF

RED LED ON
WAIT 4 sec.
AMBER LED ON
WAIT 2 sec..
RED/AMBER LED OFF

GREEN LED ON

Start Switch 3
2 Green Light
1 Amber Light
0 Red Light
Now test your program on the 8M2 board.
Sub-Procedures
FLASH
START
B1 = 5 HIGH 7
FLASH WAIT 0.1s
B1 = 20 LOW 7
FLASH WAIT 0.1s
B1 = 10
HAS THIS
BEEN DONE
B1 TIMES? NO
FLASH
YES
STOP
RETURN
It is often useful to be able to re-use sections of code within a program. A sub-

procedure is a small section of code that can be 'called' from a different part of the
program. After the sub-procedure is finished program flow moves back to the original
section of the program.
To 'call' a sub-procedure the gosub (go-to-sub-procedure) command is used. The last

line of the sub-procedure must be return, which means 'return to the original position'.

Activity 3.8
let b1 = 5 ' give variable b1 the value 5

gosub flash ' call sub-procedure
pause 2000 ' wait two seconds


end ' end the main program
' Sub-procedures start here.
flash:
for b2 = 1 to b1 ' setup a for...next loop using b2
high b.7 ' output pin on
pause 100 ' wait 100ms
low b.7 ' output pin off
next b2 ' next loop
return ' return form sub-procedure
In this example the flash sub-procedure is used to actually flash the LED on and off.
The number of times the LED flashes is set by variable b1, which is set before the sub-
procedure is called. Therefore by changing the value of b1 the number of flashes can be
changed.
Note the end command between the main program and the sub-procedure. This is
essential because it stops the system accidentally 'running into' the sub-procedure after
the main program has been completed.
One further advantage of sub-procedures is that they are easily copied from one
program to another. Therefore a 'standard' sub-procedure can be created to carry out a
specific task. This task can then be carried out in a number of different programs by
simply copying the sub-procedure from program to program.

Assignment 3.9
As part of a shop display, a lighting sequence is to be controlled by a microcontroller.
The output connections are shown below.

b.7 Red Light
b.6 Yellow Light
b.5 Green Light
b.4 Orange Light
b.3
switch 2 b.2
switch 1 b.1
b.0
If switch 1 is pressed, each light should flash on and off 5 times in sequence i.e. orange
then green then yellow then red (each 'on' and 'off' time should be 0.5 seconds). the
system then resets for the next switch push.
If switch 2 is pressed all lights should flash simultaneously 3 times. There should then
be a 2 second pause, before all lights should flash simultaneously 6 times (each 'on' and
'off' time should be 0.5 seconds). The system then resets for the next switch push.
Draw a flowchart and write a PBASIC program for this sequence (use a sub-procedure
for the flash routines).
Simulate your program in 18M2 mode.

Flowchart Program

Engineering Science
Systems and Control

Students’ Notes
Higher
Name ........................................................................................ Class ..................

Systems Diagrams
Most industrial product design is solved by the systems approach. This approach
involves studying the desired function of the product, and then breaking this function
down into a series of subsystems.
When applied to control systems, a Systems Diagram is a useful way of visually

representing the desired function of the system. The systems diagram is a form of block
diagram than contains all the subsystems within a dashed box, called the systems
boundary. The systems boundary indicates the extent of the control system.
CONTROL OUTPUT
INPUT OUTPUT
DRIVER
The "real world" input and output conditions of the system are shown as arrows
entering, and leaving, the systems diagram.
A product which has a fairly complicated control system is an automated washing

machine.

A simplified systems diagram of a washing machine is shown below.
SET WASHING
CYCLE CONTROL
CLEAN COLD HEATER MOTOR PUMP HOT DIRTY

WATER WATER
DIRTY DRUM CLEAN

CLOTHES CLOTHES
The function of the washing machine is to process dirty clothes to produce clean
clothes. This is clearly represented within the systems diagram.

Open Loop Control
At the simplest level a control system can process an input condition to produce a
specified output.
A good example of this type of system is a hand-held electric hairdryer. The heating
element and fan motor are switched on when the appropriate switches are held down.
SWITCH OUTPUT
CONTROL FAN & HEATER
HELD DRIVER SWITCHED ON
DOWN
This is an example of Open Loop Control, where an input is processed to produce an

output. With the hairdryer example the heater and fan motor are held on until the
switches are released. The air being blown out of the hairdryer is not temperature
monitored or adjusted - the air is simply just blown out at whatever temperature the
heater is capable of achieving.

Another example of an open loop system is an automatic street lamp.
The systems diagram for the street lamp is shown below.
DETECT SWITCH
CONTROL OUTPUT LAMP
LIGHT DRIVER
LEVEL ON/OFF

A model of the street lamp can be represented by the following circuit diagram:
Vcc
0V
The input to the circuit, light, is processed by the control subsystem to produce an
electrical signal. In this example the potential divider arrangement provides a varying
voltage signal.

The electrical signal is processed by the output driver subsystem to produce the
output. In this example the output is light from the signal lamp
An open loop control system represents the simplest and cheapest form of control.
However, although open loop control has many application, the basic weakness in this
type of control lies in the lack of capability to adjust to suit the changing output
requirements.

Closed Loop Control
Closed loop control systems are capable of making decisions and adjusting their
performance to suit changing output conditions.
A personal cassette player is capable of detecting the end of the tape and switching the
motor off, hence protecting the tape from snapping (or the motor burning out).
END OF
TAPE
CONTROL OUTPUT
DRIVER

The central heating in most modern houses is controlled by a thermostat. It senses
changes in temperature and turns off the heating system automatically when the
required temperature is reached. Likewise when the temperature level drops below the
minimum acceptable level the heating system is automatically switched back on.
THERMOSTAT
CONTROL HEATING
SYSTEM
All closed loop control systems include a feedback sensing subsystem within the
systems diagram. The control subsystem will process the feedback signal by making a
'decision' on whether the state of the output should change.
FEEDBACK
SENSING
CONTROL OUTPUT
INPUT OUTPUT
DRIVER

Another example of a simple closed loop control system is an electric toaster. In this
case the feedback sensing system is a mechanical bimetallic strip. This strip bends when
heated - the higher the temperature the more the strip bends.
BIMETALLIC
STRIP
CONTROL OUTPUT
DRIVER
When the toaster cage is lowered into the toaster it compresses a spring, and the cage
is 'hooked' into position by a catch attached to a bimetallic strip. A switch also
connects the heating element, which starts to heat up. The heating element starts to
cook the bread, and also starts to heat the bimetallic strip. When the bimetallic strip has
been heated to the required temperature it bends enough to mechanically release the
spring holding the cage down. This automatically ejects the toast and switches the
heating element off.

Assignments:
1) Explain what is meant by the term 'systems diagram'.
2) Describe the differences between an open loop and closed loop control
system.
3) Describe the purpose of the feedback sensing subsystem in a closed loop
control system.
Assignment 4
The figures above show two types of electric fire. The second electric fire is a more
modern device fitted with a thermostat.
a) Name the type of control system used in each type of electric fire
b) Draw a system diagram for each type of electric fire.
c) Name a type of electronic sensor that may used for measuring temperature.

Analogue Closed Loop Control Systems
V1
Vo
V2
Many control systems involve processing analogue signals such as heat, light and
movement. Therefore analogue closed loop control systems require analogue
processing devices such as the operational amplifier (op-amp).
One of the most common control applications involves using the op-amp as a
comparator. In it's simplest form a comparator just compares two voltage signals, V1
and V2. If V1 is higher than V2 the output, Vo, is 'low', if V1 is lower than V2 the
output is 'high'
Assignment 1
The block diagram below simulates an automatic heating system. When the bulb heats
up the temperature rise is detected by the bead thermistor, which sends a feedback
signal back to the comparator.
BEAD THERMISTOR
INPUT/OUTPUT COMPARATOR TRANSDUCER BULB UNIT

UNIT DRIVER

A circuit diagram of the system is shown below.
TEMPERATURE FEEDBACK SIGNAL

+VCC
R RT
RV
RV
R
OV
-VCC
The variable resistor, RV1 (connecting to the non-inverting input of the op-amp) is used
to set the reference level (or threshold). This sets the desired temperature of the bulb.
Build the circuit shown, using discrete components or a modular electronics system.
Calibrate the system to the following performance criteria:
• When the bulb heats above the reference level the thermistor should sense the
temperature and send a signal to the comparator which will switch the bulb off.
• When the bulb cools below the reference level the bulb should switch on again.
• The system should operate continuously.
a) Describe how the circuit operates.

b) Explain clearly how you calibrated the system.

Control Diagrams
The heating control system described in assignment 1 can be represented by the

following systems diagram.
TEMPERATURE
SENSOR
SET CONSTANT
CONTROL OUTPUT
TEMPERATURE OUTPUT
DRIVER
LEVEL TEMPERATURE
However when an op-amp is used in a control system it is usual to draw a control

diagram instead.
TEMPERATURE
SENSOR
SET OPERATIONAL OUTPUT CONSTANT

TEMPERATURE AMPLIFIER DRIVER OUTPUT
LEVEL TEMPERATURE
The control diagram breaks the generalised 'control' subsystem of the systems diagram
into more specific blocks.
The error-detection symbol is also used to indicate that the control involves two
signals. The feedback signal is connected to the negative symbol to indicate the use of
negative feedback.

Negative and Positive Feedback
The purpose of closed loop control is to ensure that the output is maintained, as
closely as possible, to the desired output level. In the case of a central heating system,
a graph of the temperature in a room might appear as in the graph below.
ACTUAL TEMPERATURE
TEMPERATURE
SET TEMPERATURE
TIME
As can be seen from the graph, the control system is constantly trying to pull the
temperature of the room back towards the set temperature level by reducing the error.
This type of control uses negative feedback to reduce the error.

AMPLIFIED
SOUND MICROPHONE AMPLIFIER SPEAKER SOUND
AMPLIFIED SOUND FEEDBACK TO SPEAKER
The opposite effect can be created by reinforcing the error, as can sometimes happen
with public address systems when the microphone is held too close to the speakers. A
sound is picked up by the microphone, amplified, and then output through the speaker.
The amplified sound is then picked up, re-amplified and so on. The net result is a high
pitch sound, which can be represented by the graph below.
ACTUAL SOUND
SOUND SIGNAL
SIGNAL
REQUIRED SOUND
SIGNAL
TIME
This is an example of positive feedback. Although positive feedback does have some
useful applications, negative feedback is far more widely used in control systems.
Assignment 2
Explain the following terms when applied to control systems:

open loop, closed loop, negative feedback, positive feedback, error detector

Proportional Closed Loop Control Systems
The main problem with comparator based control systems is that there is a time 'lag'
built into their operation. This means that the desired output state is never actually
reached.
TEMPERATURE
LAG
SET TEMPERATURE
LAG
TIME
The graph of the temperature control system built in assignment 1 clearly shows the
effect of lag.
When the reference level ("set temperature") is reached the heating system will
continue to heat the room for a short period until the heating element cools down. This
raises the temperature in the room above the set or desired temperature level. When
the temperature in the room cools down to the reference level the heating system will
be switched on. Whilst the heating element is reaching its operating temperature the
room continues to cool below the reference level.
Whilst in heating systems the presence of lag does not present a problem, and in fact
presents some advantages, in many other applications the inaccuracy of this form of
control is not acceptable.

Proportional closed loop control systems are applied as a means of proving a more
accurate form of analogue closed loop control. The operation of proportional control
is based around the op-amp configured as a difference amplifier.
Rf
+Vcc
R1
R1
V1
-Vcc
Vo
V2 Rf
The difference amplifier amplifies the difference between the reference level and the
feedback signal. Therefore if there is a large error there will be a larger output signal
than when there is a small error. This help prevents the 'overshoot' and 'time lags' seen
in the comparator based systems.

Assignment 3
The block diagram below simulates the automatic water heating system within a
washing machine.
REMOTE
INPUT
UNIT
DIFFERENCE NON-INVERTING POWER
AMPLIFIER AMPLIFIER DRIVER
INPUT
VOLTAGE
UNIT
12V HEATER
THERMISTOR
BEAKER OF
WATER
A circuit diagram of the system is shown below.
+Vcc
THERMISTOR
100K
10K
10K
POWER
HEATER
DRIVER
10K
1K
22K 10K 10K
0V
-Vcc
Build or simulate the circuit shown using discrete components.
Observe the response of the system when the reference level (desired temperature) is
altered (by adjusting the variable resistor).
a) Describe how the circuit operates. What is the purpose of the non-
inverting amplifier after the difference amplifier?
b) Explain clearly how the system responds when the desired temperature level is
altered.

Positional Control
A good example of positional control is the model servo motor commonly found in
radio-control cars and aeroplanes.
The servo contains a motor, gearbox, feedback potentiometer and electronic control
circuit on a small printed circuit board.
The feedback potentiometer is directly connected to the output shaft. Therefore, when
the motor spins, the output shaft is turned slowly by the gearbox, which in turn moves
the potentiometer. Naturally movement of the output shaft is restricted to 180º as the
potentiometer cannot spin continuously.

The control diagram for the servo is shown below.
FEEDBACK
POTENTIOMETER
SET OPERATIONAL OUTPUT CONSTANT

POSITION AMPLIFIER DRIVER POSITION
Note how the feedback signal from the feedback potentiometer is fed into the negative
symbol of the control diagram, indicating negative feedback.

Push-Pull Follower Analogue Driver
An important element in producing positional control, such as that required in the

servo, is a dual rail push-pull follower analogue driver circuit, that allows the motor
to spin in both directions. The op-amp cannot source sufficient current to drive most
output components, and so the dual rail push-pull follower is required to drive the
output components.
The dual rail push-pull follower is based around a two transistor circuit as shown
below.
+Vcc
NPN
OP-AMP LOAD
SIGNAL
PNP 0V
-Vcc

When the signal from the op-amp is positive the NPN transistor will switch on, and
current will flow through the load from the positive supply rail, +Vcc, to the ground
rail, 0V.
+Vcc
I
I
OP-AMP +V LOAD
SIGNAL
I
0V
-Vcc
When the signal from the op-amp is negative the PNP transistor will switch on and
current will flow through the load from the ground rail, 0V, to the negative supply rail
-Vcc.
+Vcc
I
OP-AMP -V LOAD
SIGNAL I
I
0V
I
-Vcc

Assignment 4
A proportional control system is used to regulate the flow rate of coal onto a conveyer
belt. The system should sense the weight of coal on the conveyer belt and
automatically adjust the gate height to ensure that a constant flow of coal is supplied.
POWER
SUPPLY
RACK
AND CONTROL
PINION UNIT
VARIABLE HEIGHT
GATE
P
CONVEYOR
FRAME PIVOTED
HERE CONSTANT SPEED
DRIVE MOTOR
LOAD SENSOR
a) Draw a systems diagram of the flow rate control system.
b) Explain the term 'proportional control'.
c i) Name the configuration of op-amp used in proportional control systems.

c ii) Draw a circuit diagram of the op-amp.
d i) Name a suitable output driver circuit which could be used with the control
system.
d ii) Draw a circuit diagram of the driver circuit.

Assignment 5
The figure shows the layout of an audio mixing desk.

TACHOGENERATOR
AUDIO MIXING
HEAD
RECORDING REEL DRIVEN BY DC MOTOR
The tape is fed through the audio mixing head by being pulled on to a recording reel
driven by a dc motor. As the tape builds up on the recording reel, the tape speed
through the audio mixing head will increase.
To prevent this from happening, the dc motor is fitted to a closed loop control system.
A tachogenerator connected to a pulley senses the tape feed rate and sends an error
signal to the control system.
a) Name the type of closed loop control used in this application.

b) Name the amplifier used in this type of closed loop control.
c) Draw a control diagram of the system.
d) Draw a circuit diagram of the control system and explain the function of each
part of the circuit.

Assignment 6
The figure illustrates a system for controlling the wing mirrors on a car by adjusting
remote dials on the dash.
DIALS
A control diagram of the system for rotational movement in the X-axis (one mirror) is
shown in the figure below. Similar systems are used for the Y-axis and for the other
mirror.
FEEDBACK
SENSOR
REMOTE OPERATIONAL OUTPUT WING MIRROR

MOTOR
DIAL AMPLIFIER DRIVER POSITION
a) With reference to the control diagram, explain clearly how the system
operates.
b) Name the type of control used in this system.
c) Name the configuration of op-amp required.
d) State two reasons why the op-amp cannot be used to drive the motor directly.
e) Name a suitable output driver which could be used with this system.
f) Draw a circuit diagram of the output driver.

Sequential Control Systems
Sequential control is used to control systems whose outputs are required to follow a
fixed cycle of events (i.e. a sequence).
An interesting example of sequential control was used in music boxes. Actuators on

the drum are arranged to produce notes, as the rum rotates the notes are played in the
correct sequence to produce a tune.
A more modern example of sequential control is a robot arm used to weld cars
together on a large production line.
Most modern sequential control systems use discrete logic circuits, or a programmable
controller.

Section 1 - Introduction
What is a microcontroller?
A microcontroller is often described as a 'computer-on-a-chip'. Microcontrollers have

memory, processing units, and input/output circuitry all built into a single chip. As they
are small and inexpensive they can easily be built into other devices to make these
products more intelligent and easier to use.
Microcontrollers are usually programmed to perform one specific control task - for
instance, a microwave oven may use a single microcontroller to process information
from the keypads, display user information on the seven segment display, and control
the output devices (turntable motor, light, bell and magnetron).
Microcontrollers are computers designed to control specific processes or products.

The microcontroller is programmed with a specific software program to complete the
desired task. By altering this software program the same microcontroller can be used
to complete different tasks. Therefore the same device can be used in a range of
different products by simply programming it with a different software program.

One microcontroller can often replace a number of separate parts, or even a complete
electronic circuit. Some of the advantages of using microcontrollers in a product
design are:
• increased reliability and reduced stock inventory (as one microcontroller replaces
several parts)
• simplified product assembly and smaller end products
• greater product flexibility and adaptability since features are programmed into the
microcontroller and not built into the electronic hardware
• rapid product changes or development by changing the program and not the
electronic hardware
Applications that use microcontrollers include household appliances, alarm systems,

medical equipment, vehicle subsystems, and electronic instrumentation. Although
microprocessor systems (such as those based around the Intel Pentium™ processor)
tend to be more widely publicised (mainly via personal computer systems),
microcontroller manufacturers actually sell hundreds of microcontrollers for every
microprocessor sold.

Microcontroller Architecture
The main features of the microcontroller are shown in the block diagram.
PROGRAM
ROM RAM
COUNTER
PROGRAM REGISTER
MEMORY FILES
DATA
BUS
ALU
PROGRAM I/O “REAL”
BUS PORTS WORLD
TIMERS
CLOCK
SIMPLIFIED PIC MICROCONTROLLER

BLOCK DIAGRAM
Microcontrollers contain all these features within a single package, as opposed to the
microprocessor system where each block in the diagram above is normally a separate
integrated circuit. In general the only component that needs to be added to a
microcontroller is a clock resonator, which sets the operating speed of the
microcontroller.
Arithmetic / Logic Unit (ALU) and Clock

The processing unit (full name arithmetic and logic unit (ALU)) is the 'brain' of the
microcontroller. It operates by reading instructions from the read only memory ROM
(permanent program memory) and then carrying out the mathematical operations for
each instruction. The speed at which these operations occur is controlled by the clock
circuit.
The clock circuit within the microcontroller 'synchronises' all the internal blocks (ALU,
ROM, RAM etc.) so that the system remains stable. The clock circuit is built into the
microcontroller, but an external crystal or resonator is required to set the clock
frequency. A typical clock frequency for use with a microcontroller is 4MHz, but
speeds as high as 20MHz can also be achieved. With a clock frequency of 4MHz the
microcontroller completes one million instructions a second!

Memory (ROM and RAM)
Microcontrollers contain both ROM (permanent memory) and RAM (temporary
memory).
The ROM (Read Only Memory) contains the operating instructions (i.e. the 'program')
for the microcontroller. The ROM is 'programmed' before the microcontroller is
installed in the target system, and the memory retains the information even when the
power is removed. Most microcontrollers are one-time-programmable types, which
means the ROM can only be programmed once. If you make a mistake, and have to
change the program, the chip has to be thrown away and a new chip programmed with
the revised program. To overcome this problem some microcontrollers now use
FLASH EEPROM memory instead. This type of 'erasable-permanent' memory allows
the ROM to be re-programmed if a mistake is made.
The RAM (Random Access Memory) is 'temporary' memory used for storing
information whilst the program is running. This memory is 'volatile', which means that
as soon as the power is disconnected the contents of the memory is lost.
Buses.
Information is carried between the various blocks of the microcontroller along 'groups'
of wires called buses. The 'data bus' carries the 8-bit data between the ALU and RAM
/ Input-Output registers, and the 'program bus' carries the 13-bit program instructions
from the ROM.
The size of the data bus provides a description for the microcontroller. Therefore an '8
bit microcontroller' has a data bus '8-bits' wide. Microcontrollers with 16-bit and 32-bit
data buses are also available.
Input/Output Circuitry
Microcontrollers communicate with the outside world via pins which are grouped
together in 'ports', with up to eight pins in each port. Smaller microcontrollers may
only have one port, whilst larger devices may have five or more. Generally each pin
within the port can be configured as an output or as an input, or can even be
multiplexed to change functions as the program is run!
The CMOS fabrication techniques used to build modern microcontrollers provides a

relatively high current capability (approx. 20mA) for each pin. However further
'interfacing' circuits are required for most output devices.
Timers
Most microcontrollers have one or more 'timers' built into the system. The 'watchdog
timer' is the most common type of timer. This is a special timer that 'resets' the
microcontroller if it stops processing for any reason (e.g. a 'bug' in the program). This
ensures that the microcontroller continues working at all times - which is essential in
some applications, for instance medical monitoring equipment.

Assignments:
1.1) List the advantages of using a microcontroller within a product design.
1.2) Describe the input sensors and output transducers that may be linked to a
microcontroller in the following common household appliances:
- microwave oven
- washing machine
- electronic bicycle speedometer
1.2) Explain the following microcontroller terms: ALU, bus, clock
1.4) Explain the differences between the following types of memory:

- RAM, ROM, EEPROM
1.5) Describe the similarities and differences between programming, and

constructing interfacing circuits for, a 'true' microcontroller and the 'Basic
Stamp' system.

Port Addressing and the Data Direction Register
Microcontrollers communicate with the outside world by input/output pins which are
grouped together in 'ports'. The Stamp Controller has one input/output port, which
contains eight input/output pins.
Each pin can be addressed individually, or all eight pins in the port can be addressed
simultaneously. In the PBASIC language the pins are labelled 0 to 7, and the whole
port address is allocated the label 'pins'.
For example, to switch pin 3 'high' individually the command would be:
high b.3
To switch pin 3 'low' individually the command would be:

low b.3
Each pin is referenced to by a single bit in the port address called 'pins'.
input/output pin 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
bit of address 'pins' 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
decimal value 128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
To switch all pins 'high' the command would be

let pinsb = 255
To switch all pins 'low' the command would be

let pinsb = 0
To switch pins 0-2 'high' and pins 3-7 'low' the command would be
let pinsb = %00000111
Note how the use of the binary number system can be used on this occasion to clearly
illustrate which pins are switched high (=1) or low (=0).

Each pin can be configured to be an output (to send digital signals) or an input (to
receive digital signals). The Data Direction Register (DDR) is used to configure the
port, and in the PBASIC language the DDR is allocated the label 'dirs'.
If all the bits in the DDR are set high then all the pins will be set as outputs. If all the
bits are set low each pin will be set as an input.
For example,
let dirsb = 255 ' set all pins as outputs

let dirsb = 0 ' set all pins as inputs
let dirsb = %11110000 ' set 0-3 inputs, 4-7 outputs

Beginning Programming
A simple example of a control operation is represented by the flowchart shown below.
START
SWITCH PIN 7
HIGH
WAIT2 SECONDS
SWITCH PIN 6
HIGH
WAIT1 SECOND
SWITCH PINS 4& 5

HIGH
WAIT3 SECONDS
SWITCH ALL
OFF
STOP
A PBASIC program which would achieve this control operation is:
let dirsb = %11110000 ' set pins 0-3 inputs, 4-7 outputs

pause 2000 ' wait for 2 seconds (= 2000 ms)

Activity 3.1
Key in the program listed above, and then download it to the Stamp Controller.
The LED indicator on pin 7 should light first, followed by the indicators on pin 6, and
then indicators 4 and 5. To re-run the program press the reset switch on the Stamp
Controller.
Read through the program carefully, and make sure you understand exactly what each
program line achieves.
Note the 'comments' at the end of each line. A comment starts after an apostrophe (')
and continues to the end of the line. Although the comments are not needed to make
the program work, they are an essential part of the program as they explain in 'plain
language' what the program is doing. You should always add a comment to every line
of your program, particularly if the program is to be studied by someone else at a later
date.

Labels and Addressing
START
SWITCH PIN 7
HIGH
WAIT2 SECONDS
SWITCH PIN 6
HIGH
WAIT1 SECOND
SWITCH PINS 4& 5

HIGH
WAIT3 SECONDS
SWITCH ALL
OFF
WAIT1 SECOND
Sometimes it is necessary to create programs that loop 'forever', as shown by the

flowchart. In this case it is necessary to add labels to the program, and to use the
'goto' command to jump to the line marked by the label.

A PBASIC program which would achieve this control operation is listed below.
init: let dirsb = %11110000 ' set pins 4-7 as outputs
main: high b.7 ' set pin 7 high

Activity 3.2
Key in and simulate the program listed above in 18M2 mode.
After the first line (which simply sets up the DDR), a label called 'main' has been added
to the listing. Note that all address labels must end with a colon (:) when they are first
defined. It is also a good programming technique to use tabs (or spaces) at the start of
lines without labels so that all the commands are neatly aligned. The term 'white-
space' is used by programmers to define tabs, spaces and blank lines, and the correct
use of white-space can make the program listing much easier to read and understand.
The last line 'goto main' causes program flow to 'jump back' to the line labelled 'main'.
This means that this program will loop 'forever'.
Note:
Some early BASIC languages used 'line numbers' rather than labels for 'goto'
commands. Unfortunately this line number system can be inconvenient to use, because
if you modify your program by later adding, or removing, lines of code you then have
to modify all the line numbers within the 'goto' commands accordingly. The label
system, as used in most modern BASIC languages, overcomes this problem
automatically.
Assignments
3.3) What is the function of the Data Direction Register (DDR)?
3.4) What is meant by the term "white-space"? Why is it important to use

white-space and comments when writing programs?

Assignment 3.5
A set of temporary traffic lights are required for a system of road-works.
red 10 sec
red and amber 2 sec
green 10 sec
amber 2 sec
Draw a flowchart for the lights sequence shown by one set of the traffic lights. Use the
times shown in the table for each stage.
Write a PBASIC program to achieve this operation. Use the following pin
configuration - red (7), amber (6) and green (5).
Flowchart Program

For...Next Loops
START
SETCOUNTER= 5
SWITCH PIN 7
HIGH
WAIT1 SECOND
SWITCH PIN 7
LOW
WAIT1 SECOND
HAVE WE N
LOOPED 5
TIMES?
STOP
A for...next loop is used when you wish to repeat a section of code a number of times.
The number of times the program runs for is set by a variable. A variable is a number
that is stored in the RAM memory of the Stamp Controller. There are 14 memory
locations that byte variables can be stored in. These locations are labelled b0 to b13,
but can also be 'renamed' to more appropriate names by use of the 'symbol' command.

Activity 3.7
symbol counter = b0 ' define the variable "counter"

symbol red = 7 ' define pin 7 with the name "red"
init: let dirsb = %10000000 ' set up pin 7 as an output
main: for counter = 1 to 5 ' start a for...next loop

high red ' switch pin 7 high
low red ' switch pin 7 low
next counter ' end of for...next loop
end ' end program
Note again how white-space (extra spaces) has been used to clearly illustrate all the
commands that are contained between the for and next commands. The 'symbol'
command is also used to label pins and variables to make them easier to use.
Assignment 3.9
As part of a Christmas decoration, a lighting sequence is to be controlled by a
microcontroller. The output connections are shown below.

7
6 Yellow Light
5 Purple Light
4
3 Blue Light
2 Green Light
1
0 Red Light
The red and green lights should come on together and stay on for 5 seconds. Then they
both go off and the yellow and blue lights should come on together for 8 seconds.
They then go off and the purple light flashes on and off 6 times (the 'on' and 'off' times
being 0.5 seconds each). The sequence then repeats itself.
Draw a flowchart and write a PBASIC program for this sequence.

Flowchart Program

If...Then...
START
SWITCH PIN 7
HIGH
IS PIN 3 N
HIGH?
SWITCH ALL
LOW
STOP
The if...then programming structure allows the computer to make a decision based on
information received from an input pin.
The following program switches pin 7 high, and then waits for an input connected to
pin 3 to go high. When the input switch is pushed the output pin is switched low
Activity 3.10
Key in and simulate the program below:

if pinb.3 = 1 then skip ' jump to 'skip' if input 3 is high
goto main ' loop
skip: let pinsb = 0 ' switch all pins off

Note:
Unlike some other BASIC languages, the then command can only be followed by a
label to jump to. You cannot add extra commands on the same line within the PBASIC
language.

Assignment 3.11
below.
Program
START
SWITCH ALL
PINS HIGH
WAIT5 SECONDS
SWITCH ALL
PINS LOW
WAIT0.5 SECONDS
SWITCH ALL
PINS HIGH
WAIT0.5 SECONDS
HAS THIS BEEN N

DONE 10 TIMES?
SWITCH ALL
PINS LOW
STOP

Assignment 3.12
A motor, connected to pin b.7, is to run when a 'start' switch (connected to pin c.7) is
momentarily pressed. The motor continues to run until another 'stop' switch (connected
to pin c.6) is pressed - at which point the motor switches off. The system should then
reset to wait for another 'start' signal.
Draw a flowchart and write a PBASIC program for this sequence. Test this on the
PicAXE board.
Flowchart Program

Assignment 3.13
above. Use the pin configuration on the next page in 8M” mode
Program
START
GREEN LED ON
SWITCH
PUSHED?
NO
YES
GREEN LED OFF

AMBER LED ON
WAIT 3 sec.
AMBER LED OFF

RED LED ON
WAIT 4 sec.
AMBER LED ON
WAIT 2 sec..
RED/AMBER LED OFF

GREEN LED ON

Start Switch 3
2 Green Light
1 Amber Light
0 Red Light
Now test your program on the 8M2 board.
Sub-Procedures
FLASH
START
B1 = 5 HIGH 7
FLASH WAIT 0.1s
B1 = 20 LOW 7
FLASH WAIT 0.1s
B1 = 10
HAS THIS
BEEN DONE
B1 TIMES? NO
FLASH
YES
STOP
RETURN
It is often useful to be able to re-use sections of code within a program. A sub-

procedure is a small section of code that can be 'called' from a different part of the
program. After the sub-procedure is finished program flow moves back to the original
section of the program.
To 'call' a sub-procedure the gosub (go-to-sub-procedure) command is used. The last

line of the sub-procedure must be return, which means 'return to the original position'.

Activity 3.14



end ' end the main program
' Sub-procedures start here.
flash:
for b2 = 1 to b1 ' setup a for...next loop using b2
high b.7 ' output pin on
low b.7 ' output pin off
next b2 ' next loop
return ' return form sub-procedure
In this example the flash sub-procedure is used to actually flash the LED on and off.
The number of times the LED flashes is set by variable b1, which is set before the sub-
procedure is called. Therefore by changing the value of b1 the number of flashes can be
changed.
Note the end command between the main program and the sub-procedure. This is
essential because it stops the system accidentally 'running into' the sub-procedure after
the main program has been completed.
One further advantage of sub-procedures is that they are easily copied from one
program to another. Therefore a 'standard' sub-procedure can be created to carry out a
specific task. This task can then be carried out in a number of different programs by
simply copying the sub-procedure from program to program.

Assignment 3.14
As part of a shop display, a lighting sequence is to be controlled by a microcontroller.
The output connections are shown below.

b.7 Red Light
b.6 Yellow Light
b.5 Green Light
b.4 Orange Light
b.3
switch 2 b.2
switch 1 b.1
b.0
If switch 1 is pressed, each light should flash on and off 5 times in sequence i.e. orange
then green then yellow then red (each 'on' and 'off' time should be 0.5 seconds). the
system then resets for the next switch push.
If switch 2 is pressed all lights should flash simultaneously 3 times. There should then
be a 2 second pause, before all lights should flash simultaneously 6 times (each 'on' and
'off' time should be 0.5 seconds). The system then resets for the next switch push.
Draw a flowchart and write a PBASIC program for this sequence (use a sub-procedure
for the flash routines).
Simulate your program in 18M2 mode.

Flowchart Program

Assignment 3.18
MAINS WATER
INLETVALVE
HEAD STORAGE TANK
AGITATOR
MOTOR DUMP PUMP MOTOR
CONVEYOR
MOTOR
The diagram shows the layout of a pulper machine used in a paper mill.
A batch of pulp and fillers, i.e. 5 x 20 kg bales of pulp and 2 x 50 kg bags of fillers, is
mixed during the pulping process with 1600 litres of water.
The operation of the pulping process is controlled by a microcontroller. The

microcontroller connections are as follows:

b.7 Agitator motor
b.6 Dump Pump
b.5 Conveyer
b.4 Inlet valve
b.3
b.2
b.1
Start switch b.0
Event Operator Action Control Activity

1 Load conveyer with batch
2 Press start button Sequence commences.
3 Open inlet valve. Close valve after 10 minutes.
4 1 minute after inlet valve opens, start agitator
motor. run agitator motor for 11 minutes.
5 Start conveyer 2 minutes after inlet valve
opens. Run conveyer for 3 minutes.
6 1 minute after agitator motor stops, start dump
pump. run dump pump for 3 minutes.
7 Reset and wait for next start command.

Based on the instructions given in the table, draw up a flow chart and high level
program in PBASIC to control the operation of the pulper.
Assume use of a pre-written time delay sub-procedure called 'delay' which will produce
a time delay in multiples of one minute, according to the value set in the variable 'mins'
before the sub-procedure is called.
Example - To wait five minutes: let mins = 5

gosub delay

Section 4 - Mechatronic System Interfacing Circuits
The microcontroller input/output pin can only provide a small drive current when
configured as an output. Therefore most output devices require an interfacing circuit.
The simplest interfacing circuit uses a bipolar transistor, and the Darlington pair
configuration is often used to increase the drive current capabilities.
Vt
0V
The ULN2803A integrated circuit can be very useful because it contains eight
'Darlington transistor pairs' in a convenient 18 pin DIL package. For added
convenience the back emf protection diodes are also included on the integrated circuit.
BIMETALLIC
STRIP
CONTROL OUTPUT
DRIVER

For devices which use larger currents (e.g. a solenoid), or a separate power supply
(e.g. mains electricity) , a relay can be used. The relay is usually driven by a transistor
as shown in the diagram.
+ 5V
+ 12V
RELAY
SOLENOID
0V
0V

Connecting Digital Switches
+ 5V
SWITCH OPEN = LOW

SWITCH CLOSED = HIGH
10K
0V
NORMALLY OPEN SWITCH
Digital switches are available in two main 'families'. Normally-open switches are the
most common. As the name suggests, the contacts on these switches are normally
open, so the switch is electrically 'off'. When the switch is activated the contacts close
and so the switch is electrically 'on'.
+ 5V
SWITCH CLOSED = HIGH

SWITCH OPEN = LOW
10K
0V
NORMALLY CLOSED SWITCH
Normally-closed switches operate in reverse. The contacts are normally closed, and so
the switch is normally electrically 'on'. When the switch is activated the contacts open
and so the switch is electrically 'off'. This type of switch are commonly used in alarm
systems, when a 'break' in the circuit needs to be detected.

Assignment 4.1
Draw appropriate interfacing circuit diagrams for the following output devices. Clearly
explain your choice of circuit in each case.
a) LED
b) Buzzer
c) 6V DC motor
d) 12V DC solenoid
e) 24V pneumatic solenoid valve

Stepper Motors
Stepper motors are very accurate motors that are commonly used in computer disk
drives, printers, XY plotters and clocks. Unlike dc motors, which spin round freely
when power is applied, stepper motors require that their power supply be continuously
pulsed in specific patterns. For each pulse, the stepper motor moves around one 'step',
typically 7.5 degrees (giving 48 steps in a full revolution).
Stepper motors do have some limitations. First, the power consumption is greatest
when the stepper motor is stopped (as all coils are still energised). Secondly the output
torque is not very high, and so some type of gearbox is normally required. Unless this
gearbox is very carefully designed the 'backlash' of the gears can disrupt the accuracy
of the final system. Finally the speed of revolution is limited to around 100 steps per
second, which provides a rotational speed of 2 rev / s or 120 rev / min.

There are two main types of stepper motors - unipolar and bipolar. Unipolar motors
usually have four coils which are switched on and off in a particular sequence. Bipolar
motors have two coils in which the current flow is reversed in a similar sequence. It is
the unipolar type which is described in this section.
The stepper motor contains magnets which are fixed to the central armature. Four
electronic coils are located around the casing. When a current is passed through these
coils they generate a magnetic field, which attract/repels the permanent magnets on the
armature, and so the armature spins one 'step' until the magnetic fields align. The coils
are then energised in a different pattern to create a different magnetic field, and the
armature spins another step.

+ 12V
7 1 18
6 2 17
5 3 16
ULN2803A
4 4 15
5 14 STEPPER
6 13
7 12
8 11
9 10
0V 0V
To make the armature rotate continuously the four coils must be switched on and off in
a certain order. Many microcontroller systems use four output lines to control the
stepper motor, each output line controlling the power to one of the coils.
As the stepper motor operates at 12V, a transistor switching circuit is used to switch
each coil. As the coils create a back EMF when switched off, a suppression diode on
each coil is also required. The ULN2003 Darlington driver integrated circuit provides a
convenient device housing these transistors and coils.
The table below show the four different steps required to make the motor turn
Step Coil 4 Coil 3 Coil 2 Coil 1

1 1 0 1 0
2 1 0 0 1
3 0 1 0 1
4 0 1 1 0
1 1 0 1 0
Note:
The wiring configuration of stepper motors varies from different manufacturers.
Therefore, it may be necessary to rearrange the coil connections for the above
sequence to operate correctly. An incorrect coil arrangement will result in the stepper
motor oscillating back and forth rather than rotating.
The sequence of wires for the Middlesex Stepper Motor is, from the top:
white white blue yellow brown red and you may have to change the wires on these
stepper motors to this sequence

Activity 4.3
12V DC
SUPPLY
STAMP OUTPUT STEPPER

CONTROLLER DRIVER MOTOR
Build the circuit as shown.
Key in, download and run the program listed below. The program demonstrates how
to continuously spin the stepper motor. Try changing the speed by altering the value of
delay.
symbol delay = b0 ' define the variable
init: let dirs = %11110000 ' make pins 4-7 outputs

let delay = 100 ' set delay to 100ms
main: let pins = %10100000 ' first step

pause delay ' pause for delay
let pins = %10010000 ' next step
Assignments
4.4) Describe three products which may contain stepper motors. Describe how the
motor is used in each case.
4.5) A toy manufacturer is designing a new programmable robot toy. Describe the
advantages and disadvantages of using stepper motors (rather than dc motors)
to manoeuvre the robot.

Assignment 4.6
12V DC
SUPPLY
STAMP OUTPUT STEPPER

CONTROLLER DRIVER MOTOR
Connect a stepper motor to the output driver module as shown.
Develop a PBASIC program that will rotate the stepper motor 48 steps in one
direction, and then 48 steps in the other direction.

Activity 4.8
12V DC
SUPPLY
STAMP MFA MFA

CONTROLLER ADAPTER STEPPER
MOTOR
DRIVER
STEPPER
MOTOR
Build the circuit as shown.
Key in, download and run the program listed below. This program moves a stepper
motor a full rotation (48 steps) in each direction.
symbol direct = 5 ' pin 5 is direction pin

symbol clock = 4 ' pin 4 is clock pin
symbol counter = b0 ' variable b0 is loop counter
init: let dirs = %00110000 ' pin 4 & 5 outputs
main: high direct ' set dir pin high
for counter = 1 to 48 ' setup a for...next loop

high clock ' clock pin high
low clock ' clock pin low
next counter ' next loop
low direct ' set dir pin high
for counter = 1 to 48 ' setup a for...next loop

high clock ' clock pin high
low clock ' clock pin low
next counter ' next loop

Assignment 4. 9
Crystal glassware is decorated by cutting grooves on to the outside surface. The

process leaves the untouched parts of the glass clear and reflective, whereas the cut
grooves are dull and rough and require to be polished.
The diagram shows the layout of a prototype system, developed by a student, to polish
crystal glasses with eight parallel grooves cut along the length of the glass.
GROOVE SENSOR
4-PHASE
STEPPER MOTOR
CRYSTAL
GLASS
GROOVES
POLISHING BRUSH
DRIVEN BY DC MOTOR
PNEUMATIC CYLINDERS
MOVE BRUSH MOTOR
INTO/OUTFROM THE GLASS
The system is to be controlled by a microcontroller. With a glass in place, the start

button is pressed to cause the cutting disk to switch on and move into the cutting
position. The first groove is cut for five seconds. The cutter is then withdrawn. The
stepper motor rotates the glass through 90 degrees into position for the next groove.
The process continues until all four grooves have been cut.
The stepper motor used by the student has a step angle of 7.5 degrees. It is controlled
by means of an SAA1027 driver IC signalled from the microcontroller.

7 Pneumatic Cylinder
(1 = outstroke, 0 = instroke)
6 DC Motor
(1 = on, 0 = off)
5 Stepper Direction
(0 to 1 pulse = 1 step)
4 Stepper Pulse
(1 = clockwise, 0 = anticlockwise)
3
Start button 0
(logic 1 when pressed)
(a) Calculate the number of steps the stepper motor must rotate to rotate the glass
through 90 degrees.
(b) Draw up a flow chart which shows the control sequence for the polishing process.
(c) With reference to your flow chart, write a high level program in PBASIC to control
the polishing process.

DC Motor Speed Control
The speed of a dc motor varies directly with the voltage applied across it.
Microcontroller do not normally have an analogue output, and so they cannot be used
to vary the voltage to a motor in this manner.
However there are two main methods by which a microcontroller can control the speed
of a DC motor:
• Digital to Analogue Conversion (DAC)
• Pulse Width Modulation
Digital to Analogue Conversion

The simplest way to control the speed of a DC motor is to vary the voltage applied to
the motor coils - the higher the voltage the faster the motor will spin (within the motor
operating limits).
However the digital output from a microcontroller is at a fixed voltage, and the
microcontroller cannot supply enough current to drive the motor. Therefore an
interfacing circuit is required to boost the supply current for the motor and to provide
different voltage levels.
1 DAC
0
ANALOGUE
DIGITAL
A Digital to Analogue Converter (DAC) is an integrated circuit that decodes binary

information and generates an analogue voltage proportional to the binary information
provided.
A three bit DAC, with an output range of 0-5V, may produce a voltage output
according to the table below:
binary input analogue output (V)

000 0.00
001 0.62
010 1.25
011 1.87
100 2.50
101 3.12
110 3.75
111 4.37

Each increase in the binary input produces a step increase of 0.625V (5V ÷ 8 steps) in
the analogue output. In most practical applications the DAC cannot supply the full
output voltage (e.g. 5V) due to the technical operating limitations of the device.
V
4.4
2.5
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 INPUT
When plotted as a graph this transfer function appears as a 'staircase' shape. An

increase in the number of input bits will increase the resolution of the DAC, therefore
producing 'smaller steps'.
The simplest form of DAC is made from a summing amplifier, as shown in the diagram
below.
10K
10K
2
22K
1 +5V
39K
0
-5V
0V
In this example the output voltage is equal to
Vo = -5 (Pin 2 x (10K/10K) + Pin 1 x (10K/22K) + Pin 0 x (10K/39K))

= -5 (Pin 2 + 0.5 (Pin 1) + 0.25 (Pin0))
where the pin value is 0 or 1 (presuming a high logic signal of 5V)

Pulse Width Modulation
With DAC, the voltage applied to the motor is directly varied. As the voltage is
decreased the motor turns more slowly. However the current flowing through the
motor coils also decreases, and so the output torque (turning moment) of the motor
also falls.
Therefore this solution is often unsatisfactory for controlling DC motors due to the
undesirable loss of motor torque. Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) is a digital
method which can be used to vary the motor speed. In this method the full voltage is
applied to the motor, but it is rapidly pulsed on and off. By varying the on and off ratio
of the pulses the speed of the motor can be varied. As the full voltage is applied to the
motor during the 'on' pulses the torque of the motor remains high.
V
MARK
t
SPACE
The graph shows how the technique is applied. The 'on' time for the motor is called the
mark, the 'off' time is called the space. When the voltage is applied to the motor it
accelerates to top speed. However before the top speed is reached the motor is
switched off, thus slowing it down. By increasing the frequency of the pulses this
acceleration/deceleration becomes negligible, and the motor rotates constantly at a
slower speed.
The PWM technique does have certain limitations. It cannot be used with mechanical
relays, as the rapid switching would damage the mechanical contacts. The frequency of
the pulses must also be carefully selected - if the frequency is too slow the motor will
stall.

Activity 4.14
Build the circuit as shown. This is most simply achieved by connecting the dc motor
across the 'V+' and '7' Darlington Driver terminals on the Output Driver module.
Key in, download and run the program listed below. This program drives the motor at
approximately half speed, as the space is twice the length of the mark.
symbol mark = b1
symbol space = b2
symbol motor = 7
init: let dirs = %11110000 ' pin 4-7 outputs

let mark = 10 ' set mark to 10ms
let space = 20 ' set space to 20ms
main: high motor ' output high

pause mark ' pause for mark time
low motor ' output low
pause space ' pause for low time
goto main ' loop
Try out different speeds (by experiment) by altering the values of 'mark' and 'space'.

Soft Start of DC Motors
In some devices, such as electric drills, it is desirable for the motor to start rotating
slowly and then build up speed, rather than rapidly 'accelerating' up to full speed. This
is called 'soft starting' the motor, and the use of PWM is often appropriate in these
situations. The motor is started at a low speed and then gradually accelerated by
varying the mark to space ratio over a period of time.
Activity 4.15
Key in, download and run the program listed below. This program gradually increases
the speed by increasing the length of the mark time over a period of time.
symbol counter = b0 ' variable b0 is loop counter

symbol mark = b1
symbol space = b2
symbol motor = 7
init: let dirs = %11110000 ' pin 4-7 outputs
let mark = 10 ' set mark to 10ms

let space = 20 ' set space to 20ms
main: gosub puls ' call sub-procedure

let mark = mark + 2 ' increase mark time
goto main ' loop
' sub-procedure
puls: for counter = 0 to 50 ' start a for...next loop

high motor ' output high
pause mark ' pause for mark time
low motor ' output low
pause space ' pause for low time
next counter ' loop
return ' return from sub-procedure

Assignment 4.16
Details of a speed control unit for a dc motor are shown below.
10K
10K
2
22K
1 +5V
39K
0
-5V
0V
a) Name the configuration of operational amplifier being used.
b) Name the method of dc motor speed control being used.
c) Explain clearly how the system operates.
d) State what the output voltage supplied to the motor will be when the following
values are applied to the input pins (presume the feedback resistor is at it's
maximum value of 10K).
i) 1
ii) 3
iii) 4

Assignment 4.17
A small dc motor, which is used to drive a model conveyer belt, is to be controlled by a
microcontroller. The microcontroller gives out a 6V signal when an output bit is
switched to logic 1. The speed of the motor must be varied according to the loads
which are being carried. for convenience, the speed is to be reduced using pulse-width
modulated control.
Output connections to the microcontroller are as follows.

7
6
5 Motor Anticlockwise
4 Motor Clockwise
3
2
1
0
Develop a short PBASIC procedure which could be used to drive the motor is a
clockwise direction with a mark-to-space ratio of 2:1. Explain how you could alter the
procedure to make the motor rotate in an anti-clockwise direction, with the same
mark-to-space ratio.
push

ENGINEERING SCIENCE
HIGHER
ENERGY
Higher Engineering Science - Energy 1

ENERGY
What is energy?
Energy is all around us and comes in many different forms. Although it cannot be
seen or touched you can be sure when anything happens energy is responsible.
Energy is often defined as the ability to make things happen e.g. we can give a golf
ball the energy to move by hitting it with a club as shown below.
Where does energy come from?

All energy ultimately comes from the sun: the food we eat, the petrol used in cars,
the hydrogen in rocket fuel. Some energy such as coal and oil was stored in the earth
many years ago, other energy is still reaching the earth today in the form of sunlight.
If we could capture only one hundredth of the solar energy falling on the earth we
would have more than sufficient power for all our needs.
When energy is used we say that work is being done. If a car is being driven along a
road then work is being done and energy is being used. If the car is driven further
more work is done and more energy is used. In the present day and age enormous
amounts of energy are used in the industrial world. The diagram below shows the
distribution of the way energy is used in the UK.
DOMESTIC
INDUSTRY 28%
32%
TRANSPORT OTHERS
26% 14%

Understanding Energy
Being able to understand energy is of fundamental interest to the technologist and

once it is understood you will be able to:
a) recognise energy in various forms;
b) quantify the main forms of energy;
c) use rules to recognise when energy changes from one form to another - that is
when energy is transformed.

WORK AND ENERGY
Work Done
When a force is used to move an object, “Work” is said to be done.
Consider pushing a car along a road from position A to position B.
A B
The amount of work you do will depend on how hard you have to push the car (the
size of the force) and on how far you have to push it (the distance).
The amount of work can be calculated using the formula: -
Work Done = Force applied x Distance moved
W=FxD
Force is normally measured in Newtons (N) and distance in metres (m).
The unit for measuring Work is therefore Newton metres (Nm).

Worked Example: Work done
A winch raises a lift of mass 1000 kg to a height of 20 m. Calculate the minimum

amount of work that must be done by the winch.
Weight of lift = mg
Weight of lift = 1000 x 9.8
= 9800 N
Work = Force x Distance
= 9800 x 20
= 196000 Nm

Assignments: Calculating work done
1) In lifting an engine out of a car, a mechanic uses a block and tackle. How much
work is done if a force of 500 N is used in pulling the rope a distance of 4 m?
2) During the loading process a fork lift truck lifts a pallet of bricks of mass 740 kg up
to a height of 2 m.
Calculate the minimum amount of work the truck must do during the lift.
Suggest why the actual work done during the lift will be greater than this.
3) A weight lifter “snatches” a dumbbell from the floor to arm’s length, a vertical
height of 1.2 m. Calculate the weight in kg of the dumbbell if the minimum work
done in lifting it is 1800 Nm (remember F=mg).
4) A mass of 50 kg is raised to a height of 5 m by a rope, which is wound around a

motor shaft of diameter of diameter 150 mm as shown.
Determine the amount of work done by the motor and the number of
revolutions made during the lift.

TYPES OF ENERGY
Energy is defined as the capacity of a body to make things happen (or to work). It is
measured in Joules (J). We know that to do more work we require more energy but
we can use various types of energy to do this work for us. Energy comes in several
different forms but the ones we shall deal with in this course are;
1) Kinetic
2) Potential
3) Electrical
4) Strain
5) Thermal
1) Kinetic Energy (Ek)
Kinetic energy is the energy of movement. It is the name given to the energy a body
possesses due to its motion. The car in the diagram below can be described as having
kinetic energy because it is moving.
2) Potential Energy (Ep)
Potential energy can be best thought of as energy stored in a static object. It can be
due to how high the object is above a datum ( starting point ), or due to the fact that
work has already been done on the object and the energy is stored in it. The bucket
supported by the pulley in the diagram below contains potential energy.

3) Electrical Energy (Ee)
Electrical energy is one of the most convenient and commonly used forms of energy
since it can be transported easily from place to place ( along electrical cables ) and
can be easily changed into other forms of energy.
Most electrical energy is generated in power stations where one type of energy is
converted into electrical energy.
The diagram below shows a simple fossil fuel power station. The fuel is burnt in a
boiler and the chemical energy in the fuel is converted into heat energy. This heat
energy is used to produce steam at very high pressure ( kinetic energy ). The high-
pressure steam is then used to turn turbine blades (rotational kinetic energy). The
turbine is in turn connected to an alternator, which converts the kinetic energy into
electricity. This electricity can now transported around the country along electrical
pylons and cables.
COAL BURNING
ELECTRICAL TRANSFORMER
GENERATOR
BOILER
STEAM
TURBINE
PYLON

4) Strain Energy (Es)
Strain energy is the energy stored when a body is stretched or compressed. To store
strain energy you first have to do work, therefore a body that has strain energy also
has the ability to do work. The diagram below shows an elastic band, which has been
stretched and therefore contains strain energy.
5) Thermal Energy (Eh)
Thermal energy is the energy transferred to a body, which results in a change in the
body’s temperature. The diagram below shows a kettle boiling, therefore a certain
amount of thermal energy was required to raise the temperature of the water in the
kettle to boiling point.

Assignments: Identifying different forms of energy
1) A heating element is used to make sure that the water temperature in the
pool is maintained at a suitable level. Copy and complete the simple systems
diagram below showing one energy input and one energy output for the
heating system that will solve this problem.
HEATING
ELEMENT
2) Name four sources of energy that can be converted (directly or indirectly)

into electrical energy.
3) The diagram below shows a representation of a hydroelectric power station.
A
DAM
WATER B C D
TURBINE GENERATOR MOTOR
Name the energy output at each of the stages A, B, C and D.

CALCULATIONS INVOLVING ENERGY
1) Calculating Kinetic energy
The kinetic energy of a moving object is dependent on two factors; the mass ( m ) in
kg of the object and its velocity ( v ) in m/s.
Kinetic energy is calculated using the formula:
EK  12 mv 2
Worked Example: Kinetic Energy
1) If a buggy of mass 90 kg travels at 40 m/s, how much kinetic energy does it

contain?
Ek = ½mv²
= ½ x 90 x 40²
= 72000 Joules
= 72 kJ

Assignments : Kinetic Energy
1) During a sheet making process, 50 kg ingots of metal are passed along rollers at
a speed of 0.5 m/s.
Calculate the kinetic energy of each ingot.
2) A racecar drives around a circuit at a speed of 50 m/s. If the car has a kinetic
energy of 500 kJ what is the mass of the car?
3) A girl who weighs 50 kg is riding on her bicycle and has a kinetic energy of
2.5 kJ.
What speed is the girl moving at and what is the kinetic energy of the bicycle if it
weighs 30 kg?

2) Calculating Potential energy
The most commonly used method to calculate Potential energy is :
EP  mgh
where m is the mass of the object, g is the force of gravity acting on the object and h
is the height the object above the ground or datum.
Worked example: Potential energy
1) Metal piles are driven into the ground using a pile driver. This consists of a
500 kg driver which is raised by a winch to a height of 3 m above the pile and
then released.
DRIVER
PILE
Calculate the potential energy stored when the driver is lifted.
Ep = mgh
= 500 x 9.8 x 3
= 14700 Joules
= 14.7 kJ

Assignments : Potential energy
1) Baggage handlers at an airport, place suitcases onto a conveyor belt, which lifts
them up to the hold of the aeroplane as shown.
3.5m
Calculate the potential energy stored when a 20 kg case is moved up the belt.
2) At what height must a drum of mass 100 kg be suspended above the ground if it
possesses 4 kJ of potential energy?
3) Calculate the potential energy available from a reservoir holding 1800 litres of
water at a height of 260 m. (1 litre of water = 1 kg )
4) Metal piles are driven into the ground using a pile driver. This consists of a
driver being raised to a height of 5 m above the ground and then released.
Calculate the weight of the driver if the potential energy stored when it has
been lifted is 9,810 Joules.

3) Calculating Electrical energy
Electrical energy can be calculated using the formula :
Ee  ItV
where V is the voltage of the circuit, I is the current flowing through the circuit and t
is the time that the circuit has been operating in seconds.
Worked Example: Electrical Energy
1) An electric cooking ring has an operating voltage of 230 volts with a current of
5 amps. Calculate how much electrical energy has been used if the cooking ring
takes five minutes to heat a pot of soup.
Ee = ItV
= 5 x 300 ( sec. ) x 230
= 345000 Joules
= 345 kJ

Assignments : Electrical Energy
1) A hot air hand drier is activated for 30 seconds when the switch is pressed.
The drier operates from a 230 V supply and draws a current of 12 A. Calculate
the amount of electrical energy used when the drier is operating.
2) If the amount of electrical energy used by a 110 V, 30 A dc motor is 1.98 MJ.

How long has the motor been in operation for ?
3) A 3 Amp turbine is used to drive a 110 V electrical generator.

How much electrical energy does the generator produce in one hour ?

4) Calculating Strain energy
Strain energy can be calculated using the formula:
ES  12 Fx
where F is the force applied to the object in Newton’s and x is the change from the
original length of the object ( extension or compression ) in metres.
Worked Example: Strain energy
1) A spring with stiffness 10 N/mm is stretched by 30 mm. Determine the strain

energy store in the spring.
BEFORE
AFTER
Force on spring = stiffness x extension = 10 x 30 = 300N
Es = ½Fx
= ½ x 300 x 0.03
= 4.5 Joules

Assignments: Strain energy
1) When a diver of mass 80 kg jumps on the end of a springboard, the board is

stretched by 2mm in length as it bends downwards. Calculate the strain energy
stored in the spring board.
2) Calculate the amount of strain energy stored in a spring if a force of 20 N

stretches the spring from a length of 100 mm to 160 mm.
3) How far must an elastic band be stretched by with a force of 100 N to give it a
strain energy of 10 Joules?

5) Calculating Thermal energy
Thermal energy can be calculated using the formula:
Eh  mcT
where m is the mass of the material in kg, T is the change in temperature in degrees
( Celsius or Kelvin ), and c is the specific heat capacity of the material being heated.
The specific heat capacity of a substance is the amount of energy required to raise
the temperature of the material by 1ºK.
The values for the specific heat capacity of important materials are given in your data
booklet.
Worked Example: Thermal energy
1) A hot water tank contains 200 litres of water at 18C.
Calculate how much energy is required to raise the temperature of the water to
50C ? (1 litre of water = 1 kg).
The specific heat capacity of aluminium = 4200 kJ/kgK
Eh = mcT
= 200 x 4200 x 32
= 26.88 kJ

Assignments: Thermal energy
1) Calculate the heat energy required to heat 2 kg of water from a temperature of

20ºC until it begins to boil.
2) A hall has dimensions of 8m x 30m x 10m. Assuming no heat losses, calculate

the amount of heat energy required to raise the temperature of the air in the
hall from 10C to 20C.
The density of air is approximately 1.3 kg/m³ and the specific heat capacity is
850 J/kgK.
3) 57 kJ of thermal energy are supplied to 1.7 kg of oil having a specific heat

capacity of 2.7 kJ/kgK.
If the initial temperature of the oil is 3C, what will be its final temperature ?

5) Calculating Power
Power can be calculated using the formula
E
P
t
Where E is the energy in the system in joules and t is the time in seconds.
Power is simply a measure of how fast energy is used or transferred. The energy
used in this equation can be in any form, from work done (J), kinetic (J), electrical (J)
or indeed any type of energy - providing it is measured in joules.
Power in measured in joules per second or watts (W)
Worked Example: Power
1) A large tanker is stuck on a mud bank. If a tug engine develops 10 MW of power

and takes 35 min to move the ship 3 m, calculate the average force exterted by
the tug.
Energy
P
time
E  Power  time
E  10  10 6  2.1  10 3
E  21  10 9 J
Energy  Force  dis tan ce

Energy  F  s
Energy
F
s
21  10 9
F
3
F  7  10 9 N
The average force exerted by the tug is 7x109 N

Assignments: Power
1. A portable crane is used to lay sections of a sewage drain in an excavation 4 m

deep. Each section has a mass of 800 kg. If the average time taken to lay one
section is 3 min, calculate the power developed if the crane must raise the section
2 m prior to lowering it into the excavation.
2. A press used to punch a tunnel section into position is to operate by oil pressure
and is to exert a force of 2 MN. Calculate the power developed if the ram of the
press is to operate once every 40 min and moves 240 mm in this time. If
the diameter of the press ram is 150 mm, calculate the oil pressure needed to
exert the 2 MN force.
3. 20 containers of average weight 180 kN per container is to be loaded on to a bulk

carrier. Each container has to be raised 15 m by the loading crane, move over the
ship and lowered 18 m. Calculate:
a) The total work done in loading the bulk carrier.

b) The power developed by the crane if the total time taken to load one
container is 5 min.

Energy conservation
In everyday usage the term energy conservation has come to mean conserving
energy in the sense that less of it is used to do the same amount of work. Examples
include improving the heat insulation of houses and other buildings, improvements in
the efficiency of lighting and other electrical devices, making cars which use fuel
more efficiently etc.
Fig.1 shows the insulating jacket around a hot water tank, which is used to reduce
heat loss.
In technology and science “ Conservation of energy ” has an older and different

meaning. It is looked upon as a rule.
The rule states that energy cannot be created or destroyed but can only are changed
from one form to another (“ transformed ” or “ converted ”). This rule is also
termed a natural law.
The Law of Conservation of Energy
This asserts that for a closed system, where no energy goes in or out, the total energy
within the system must always be the same, although its form may change. On the
other hand, in an open system such as a power station this rule leads to the
conclusion that the total energy input to the system must be exactly equal to the
total energy output. The converse must also be true.
The extent to which the output energy is able to do useful work, that is, of the
desired type, is called the efficiency of the system. We calculate this by comparing
the useful output from the system with its energy input.

Energy conversion
How energy can be converted is of prime importance to the technologist. Some

forms of energy are directly interchangeable (e.g. potential and kinetic) but others
need to go through several changes to arrive at the final desired form (e.g. chemical -
heat - kinetic - electrical).
The following system diagrams show some very simple energy transformations:
A light bulb converts electrical energy into light energy.
ELECTRIC LIGHT
LIGHT BULB
ENERGY ENERGY
An electric motor converts electrical energy into kinetic energy or movement.
ELECTRIC ELECTRIC KINETIC

ENERGY MOTOR ENERGY
An electric generator converts kinetic energy into electrical energy.
KINETIC ELECTRIC
GENERATOR
ENERGY ENERGY

Assignments: Simple energy conversions
Copy and complete the following system diagrams showing the energy conversions
taking place.
1) A stretched elastic band
ELASTIC
BAND
2) Electric kettle
ELECTRIC
KETTLE
3) A wind-up toy car
WIND-UP
TOY CAR
4) Water passing over a waterfall
WATERFALL

Assignments: Complex energy conversions
A hydroelectric power station is shown in fig.10a as an outline diagram.
WATER LEVEL
DAM
RESERVOIR
PENSTOCK
A
GENERATOR C
B
OUTPUT
NOZZLE
1) State the form of energy at each of the points A, B, C and D.
2) Complete the following statement to describe, using appropriate terminology,

the energy changes, which take place between stages A and E.
At A the water has .................. energy, but as the water flows down the penstock ...

3) Identify the form of energy at each of the points A, B, C, D, E, F, G and H indicated
belwo.
MASS
ELECTRIC MOTOR
B
ELECTROLYTIC CELL
(WATER) H
EXPANSION
CYLINDER
G
- D C
+ MICROPHONE
LOUD SPEAKER
F
E
SOLAR CELL
ELECTRIC BULB

4) A diagrammatic representation of a simplified Thermal Power Station is shown
below.
MECHANICAL LINK STEAM INLET
M A
MOTOR
OUTPUT
B C VOLTAGE
a) List the energy changes that take place between the input and the output of the
Power Station.

Energy “losses” during conversions
Although we have stated that energy cannot be destroyed and that the energy
output from a system is equal to the energy input to the system, not all the energy in
the system is used efficiently.
When an energy conversion takes place there is always an energy change that we do
not desire - usually a loss in the form of heat, sound or friction from moving parts of a
mechanism.
If we look at the simple energy conversions from earlier we can expand the system
diagrams to also show the waste energy or energy losses.
Example 1:
A light bulb converts electrical energy to light energy but it also produces heat
energy.
ELECTRIC LIGHT ENERGY

BULB
ENERGY HEAT ENERGY
Example 2:
An electric motor converts electrical energy to produce kinetic energy along with
sound energy and heat energy.
KINETIC ENERGY
ELECTRIC ELECTRIC
SOUND ENERGY
ENERGY MOTOR
HEAT ENERGY

Assignments : Energy losses in a system
A windmill used for generating electricity can have the generator in either of two
positions. It can be as shown in fig. 14a, located at the top connected directly to the
rotating vanes. Alternatively, it can be at ground level connected by shafts and gears
to the rotating vanes as shown in fig. 14b.
fig.14a
1) List the energy conversions, which take place when a windmill is operating.
fig.14b
2) The system shown in figure 14b does not produce as much electricity as the
system in figure 14a. Describe any energy losses in the system.

3) Figure 14c shows sub-systems of a power station
KEY
FUEL OIL
COLD WATER
HOT WATER
CLEAN WET STEAM
GASES DRY STEAM
FILTER
A
CONDENSER
HEAT
EXCHANGERS
B
E
C BOILER PLANT TURBINES OUTPUT

D
fig.14c
a) Use the key to identify the fluid at points A, B, C, D, and E.
b) Describe how the power station operates.
c) What is the purpose of the heat exchangers?
d) From the information given below, calculate the overall efficiency of the power
station. Efficiency = Electrical Energy / Fuel Energy x 100%
ELECTRICAL
FUEL ENERGY
POWER ENERGY
STATION
100 UNITS 27 UNITS
WASTE ENERGY 73 UNITS

4) The diagram below shows a method of using the energy from wind.
a) Identify the forms of energy at points A ( wind vane ), B ( generator ), C ( pump ),

D (water tank ), E ( water wheel ) and F ( generator ).
E
F
b) Describe the energy changes taking place within the system.
c) Identify and describe any energy losses within the system at points A, B, C, D, E
and F.

Energy transfers
Energy can neither be created nor destroyed, but when used it is changed
( or transferred ) into other forms of energy. e.g. A light bulb will transfer or change
electrical energy into light and also heat energy.
ELECTRICAL LIGHT ENERGY

BULB
ENERGY HEAT ENERGY
No machine however, can completely transfer all the available energy into useful
work. In other words, no machine is 100% perfect. Friction exists in every moving
system, and the effect of friction is to convert mechanical energy into heat energy,
which is usually lost to the surrounding air.
It has already been stated that energy cannot be created or destroyed, it can only be
made to change form.
During an energy transformation therefore, the total energy contained within any
closed system must remain constant.
Knowing the total amount of energy at the start ( or end ) of any energy
transformation
tells us the total energy at any given time during the transformation.

Example : Energy transfer
Consider a ball that is released from a high building.
EP1
EP2
EK1
EK2
E.Int2.O3.fig.2
When the ball is at the top of the building, it has gravitational potential energy (Ep 1 ).
The total energy E = Ep1
When the ball is released, it falls and some of the potential energy (Ep2) is converted
into kinetic energy Ek1. The total amount of energy ( E ) the ball possesses at this
time is equal to the potential energy plus the kinetic energy.
Total energy E = (Ep2 + Ek1 ) = Ep1
Just as the ball hits the ground, it no longer has Ep, all the potential energy Ep1 has
been converted into kinetic energy Ek2. The total amount of energy is just due to the
Ek.
Total energy E = Ek2 = (Ep2 + Ek1 ) = Ep1

Worked Example : conversion of energy ( potential to kinetic )
A body of mass 30 kg falls freely from a height of 20 metres. Find its final velocity and
kinetic energy at impact.
Firstly calculate the initial Potential energy.
Ep = mgh
= 30 x 9.81 x 20
= 5.9 kJ
This Potential energy is converted or transferred into kinetic energy, which means
that the kinetic energy at impact is equal to 5.9 kJ.
To calculate the final velocity of the body we begin by taking Ek = 5.9 kJ.
Ek = ½mv²
5.9 x 10³ = ½ x 30 x v²
v² = 393.3
v = 19.8 m/s
This type of calculation can be completed for any type of energy conversion,
knowing the total energy at any given time ( start, end, middle, etc. ) tells us the
total amount of energy at all other given times.

Assignments : Transfer of Energy
1) A 5 kg mass is raised steadily through a height of 2 m. What work is done and

what is the body’s potential energy relative to the start?
2) A body of mass 30 kg is projected vertically upwards with an initial velocity of

20 m/s. What is it’s initial kinetic energy and to what height will it rise?
3) A mass of 20 kg is allowed to fall freely from a certain height above a datum.

When the body is 16 m above the datum, it possesses a total energy of 3531 J.
What is the starting height of the object?
4) In a stamping machine, the die has a mass of 35 kg and falls through a height of
2 m onto a metal block.
If the depth of indentation is 10 mm, find the average stamping force. Assume
no rebound.
5) A car manufacturer carries out a safety test on the bumper system of a new
model as shown in fig. 3. The test involves propelling the car at a constant
speed of
8 km/hour towards a vertical wall. The resistance to motion of the car is 600 N
and the mass of the car is 800 kg.
Four life sized dummies are placed in the car to allow additional data to be
recorded. Each dummy has a mass of 70 kg.
The bumper system is designed to absorb all the energy at impact. During the
test, the bumper was found to have compressed by 30 mm before returning to
its original shape.
E.Int.2.O3.fig.3
Determine :
a) the kinetic energy of the car before it hits the wall.
b) the maximum force exerted on the bumper during impact.

6) A derrick is used to lower containers into the hold of a ship as shown in fig. 4.
The speed at which the containers are lowered is controlled by a brake pad
pushing against the side of a brake drum.
The derrick is used to lower 1 tonne containers at a steady speed.
BRAKE PAD
BRAKE DRUM
E.Int.2.O3.fig.4
a) Calculate the potential energy lost by the containers as they are lowered.
b) Assuming all this energy is converted into heat energy at the brake drum, use
the following data to calculate the change in temperature of the drum.
Specific heat capacity of drum = 400 J/kgK

Mass of brake drum = 20 kg
When the containers are lifted out of the hold using a petrol driven hoist, 0.03 kg
of petrol is used.
c) Calculate the amount of fuel energy supplied if the specific energy of petrol is
20 M J/kg
7) A spring has a length of 500 mm when no external forces are present. When a
force of 600 N is applied to the spring it doubles its length.
a) Calculate the spring stiffness in N/mm.
b) What size of force is required to increase the length to 600 mm.
c) Calculate the Work done in stretching the spring from 600 mm to 800 mm.

8) The spring in an air rifle has a stiffness of 5 N/mm and a free length of 120 mm.
The spring is compressed half the distance just before a slug of mass
1.0 gram is fired from the rifle.
a) Calculate the energy stored in the spring when the slug is inserted.
b) What is the velocity of the slug immediately after it has been fired?
9) Cars are designed with a safety cage, which surrounds the passengers, and a
crumple zone front and back to absorb any energy on impact.
During a test run, a car of mass 800 kg is driven at 12 m/s into a solid wall. The
crumple zone deforms but the safety cage remains intact thus protecting the
passengers.
The crumple zone deforms 500 mm on impact.
a) Calculate the kinetic energy of the car just before impact.
b) What will be the average stopping force (work) acting on the car during
impact?
10) A piece of brass of mass 5 kg is dropped onto a hard surface without

rebounding, resulting in a temperature rise of 2 C.
The specific heat capacity of brass is 370 J/kgK
Calculate the speed with which the brass hits the surface.

Tasks : Transfer of Energy
Task 1
1) Build a simple windlass system like the one shown in fig. 5 to raise a small load.
MOTOR & GEARBOX WINDLASS
LOAD
E.Int.2.O3.fig.5
Set the load to 0.1 kg and raise the load through a distance of 0.5 metres.
Connect an ammeter and a voltmeter to record readings from the motor as shown in
fig. 6.
E.Int.2.O3.fig.6
Record the time it takes to raise the load through the set distance.
Now calculate the following :
a) the electrical energy used to raise the load ;
b) the speed of the load ( distance / time ) ;

c) The kinetic energy of the load ;
d) the potential energy of the load ;
e) the efficiency of the windlass system.
Efficiency = Ep/Ee x 100%

Task 2
Use a 12 V heating element to heat a container of water from 20 C to 30 C.
12V
E.Int.2.O3.fig.7
Use an ammeter to measure the current used by the heating element and also record
the time it takes to raise the water to the set temperature.
Find the weight of the water by weighing the container before you add the water and
then re-weighing it with the water.
Calculate :
a) the electrical energy used to raise the temperature of the water by 10 C

;
b) the heat energy of the water ;
c) the efficiency of the heater.
Efficiency = Eh/Ee x 100%
Repeat your readings and calculations for temperatures of 40 C, 50 C and every 10
degrees up to boiling point.
d) Plot a graph of your results for temperature against efficiency.

%
EFFICIENCY
O
O C
TEMPERATURE
E.Int.2.O3.fig.8
e) Describe what your graph shows ( mention energy losses ).

Task 3
Fix an elastic band at both ends and use a spring balance to safely stretch the middle
backwards a set distance e.g. 50 to 100 mm.
E.Int.2.O3.fig.10
Record the reading on the spring balance.
a) calculate the strain energy of the elastic band.
Build a very simple buggy, which will be able to be propelled from the elastic band
along a flat surface.
Record the time it takes for the buggy to travel a set distance e.g. 0.5 m to 1 m.
Calculate :
b) the average speed of the buggy ( speed = distance / time ).
c) the kinetic energy of the buggy.
d) the efficiency of the propulsion system.
Efficiency = kinetic energy / strain energy x 100%

ENGINEERING SCIENCE
HIGHER
ENERGY
Higher Engineering Science - Energy

OUTCOME 4
Carry out calculations relating to an energy audit for a system.
When you have completed this unit you should be able to:
• Correctly calculate energy inputs to a system from data.

• Correctly calculate energy outputs from a system from data.
• Correctly calculate/estimate energy losses for a system from data.
• Correctly calculate the overall efficiency of a system.
Before you start this unit you should have a basic understanding of:
Outcome 1.
Outcome 2.
Outcome 3.

Outcome 4 - Carry out an energy audit for a simple system
Efficiency
The efficiency of an energy transformation is a measure of how much of the input

energy appears as useful output energy.
The efficiency of any system can be calculated using the equation :
Efficiency = Useful energy Output

Total energy Input
= E out
E in
N.B.  is the ratio of output: input energy. This can never be greater than 1. In order
to convert  to a percentage efficiency,  is multiplied by 100.

Worked Example : Efficiency
An electric lift rated at 110 V, 30 A raises a 700 kg load a height of 20 m in 2 minutes.
E.Int.2.O4.fig.1
By considering the electrical energy input and the potential energy gained by the
mass, determine the percentage efficiency of this energy transformation.
Energy into the system is Electrical
Ee = ItV
= 30 x 120 x 110
= 396 kJ
Potential energy gained is calculated by ;
Ep = mgh
= 700 x 9.81 x 20
= 137.3 kJ
% Efficiency = Useful Energy Out x 100

Total Energy Input
= 137.3 x 100
396
= 34.7 %

Assignments : Efficiency
1) An electric kettle is rated at 240 V, 10 A. When switched on it takes 3 minutes to

raise the temperature of 0.5 kg of water from 20 C to 100 C.
Determine :
a) the electrical energy supplied in the three minutes ;
b) the heat energy required to raise the temperature of the water ;
c) The efficiency of the kettle.
2) In a Hydroelectric electricity generating stations, water is allowed to flow

downhill through a turbine, which is connected to a generator.
UPPER RESERVOIR
GENERATOR
TURBINE
E.Int.2.O4.fig.2
The water falls through a vertical height of 500 m at a rate of 5,000 kg/s. If the
energy transfer is 65% efficient, determine the amount of electrical energy
produced per second.

CHUTE
7m
dm
E.Int.2.O4.fig.3
3) Boxes in a factory are transferred from one floor to another using a chute
system as shown in fig. 3.
The boxes start from rest at the top of the chute and during the decent there
is a 40% loss of energy. The boxes weigh 10 kg each.
a) Calculate the velocity of the boxes at the bottom of the chute.
b) What is the distance “d” that each box will travel along the bottom floor
before coming to rest if the frictional force opposing the motion of each
package is 25% of its weight?

Energy Audits
It has already been stated that energy cannot be created or destroyed, it can only be
made to change form.
During an energy transformation, all the energy going IN to the system must come
OUT and appear as other forms. We cannot “ lose ” energy, it must go somewhere !
Unfortunately, not all of the energy being put into a system appears as useful energy
at the output, e.g. a generator is designed to convert kinetic energy into electrical
energy however due to the frictional forces, some heat energy will also be produced.
KINETIC ELECTRICAL ENERGY

GENERATOR
ENERGY HEAT ENERGY
E.Int.2.O4.fig.4
Since this heat energy is “ useless ” in terms of generating electricity, it is sometimes

referred to as “ waste ” energy or (confusingly) as “ lost ” energy.
Even systems that are designed to produce heat will have some energy losses. e.g.
the element of a kettle is designed to heat up water, but not all of the energy will go
into heating up the water, some of the energy is used to heat up the kettle, some
heat will be “ lost ” to the room etc.
Since we know however that the total energy in any closed system must be constant,
we can still carry out meaningful calculations if we remember to take all types of
input and output energy into account.
In the generator example above :
the input energy is in the form of kinetic energy ( Ek );
the total output energy will be electrical energy plus the heat energy (Ee + Eh );
hence, through conservation of energy Ek = Ee + Eh

Energy Audits cont.
In order to ensure that we have taken all energies into account, it is useful to carry
out an energy audit.
An energy audit is a list of all the energies coming IN and going OUT of a system.
The total for the energies IN must be the same as the totals for the energies OUT.
Worked Example
In order to estimate the efficiency of an electric light bulb, the bulb is immersed into
a beaker of water as shown.
E.Int.2.O4.fig.5
Assuming all the heat energy generated by the bulb is transferred to the water, use
the data provided to calculate the efficiency of the light bulb as a light energy
producer and also the amount of waste energy.
Data Power Supply = 12 V

Current drawn by bulb = 5 A
Volume of water in beaker = 0.5 litres
Initial temperature of water = 18C
Temperature of water after 10 minutes =
30C
Energy IN to the system is electrical (Ee)
Ee = ItV
= 5 x 600 x 12
= 36000 J

= 36 kJ
Energy OUT of the system is light ( El ) and heat ( Eh ).
Eh = mcT
= 0.5 x 4200 x 12
= 25200 J
= 25.2 kJ
Energy OUT = Energy IN
Energy In = 36 kJ
Energy OUT = Eh + El = 25.2 kJ + El
Therefore 25.2 + El = 36
El = 36 - 25.2 = 10.8 kJ
Efficiency = Energy Out

Energy In
= 10.8 x 100%
36
= 30%
Waste energy = 70% of input = heat energy = 25.2 kJ

Assignments - Energy Audits
1) A deep fat frier uses 2 kJ of electrical energy per second. It can raise the
temperature of 1.5 kg of cooking oil from 20C to 80C in 6 minutes.
If the specific heat capacity of the oil is 2400 J/kgK, calculate the heat energy
taken in by the oil every second and hence the efficiency of the frier.
2) When full, a container of water holds 1.5 litres of water. The initial temperature
of the cold water is 20C. A heater operates from a 240 V supply, draws a
current of 8 A and has an efficiency of 75%.
Determine how long it will take to heat the container of water to 90C.
3) A lift is used to raise a mass of 200 kg to a height of 10 m in 2 minutes. If the lift

motor produces 12 MJ of energy in one hour, how efficient is the lift?
Pop
Fizzy
Kolah
Juice
Ginger
Yuk
E.Int.2.O4.fig.6
4) A vending machine, which dispenses hot drinks, heats one cupful of water
(0.15kg) from 30C to 90C.
The heating element operates from a 240 volt supply and has a resistance of
12 ohms.
a) Calculate the current drawn by the heating element.
b) Calculate the heat energy transferred to the water.
c) Calculate the time taken to heat the water if the system is 100% efficient.
d) Calculate the percentage of energy lost if it actually takes 10 seconds to heat

the water.
e) Draw a systems diagram showing the input and outputs to the system. Include
the percentages.
HIGHER – HIGHER- HIGHER - HIGHER
Pneumatics
Name:___________________
Teacher:_________________
Engineering Science – Higher recap booklet
St Paul’s Academy
Higher Engineering Science: Pneumatic Systems 1

Actuators
There are a number of different ways that we can operate a 3/2 valve. The most common
way is by using a push button. By pressing the button, the valve changes to the actuated
state and allows main air to flow through to other components. If we release the button, a
spring inside returns the valve to its off state. The symbol for a push button, spring return
3/2 valve is shown below.
Below is a list of the most common types of actuators. They are always drawn onto the
standard symbol for the 3/2 valve.
PLUNGER ROLLER
TRIP
PUSH
BUTTON SOLENOID
LEVER DIAPHRAGM
FOOT
ROLLER PEDAL
PILOT AIR SPRING
2 Higher Engineering Science: Pneumatic Systems

Pilot air
5/2 valves can be operated or actuated in the same way as 3/2 valves. However, the most
common way of actuating a 5/2 valve is by pilot air. A pilot air 5/2 valve will change state
when a brief air signal acts at either end of the valve. This signal is most often supplied
from a 3/2 valve. In the example shown below, the button on valve A only needs to be
pressed for a moment in order to change the state of the 5/2 valve. The 5/2 valve supplies
the double-acting cylinder with air to make it outstroke.
Valve A Valve B
Notice that the pilot airlines to the 5/2 valve are drawn as broken or dashed lines to
distinguish them from the other air lines in the circuit.

Flow control valves
You should have noticed in the circuits you have built so far that the pistons move very
quickly. Sometimes this can be dangerous or it may prevent the circuit from working
properly. To slow down the speed of a piston we use a flow control valve.
There are two types of flow control valve available to us. The first type is called a
restrictor (or sometimes a throttle valve). This valve works by reducing the amount of
space that the air can flow through. We can adjust the airflow by turning the small screw
on top of the valve. The symbol for a restrictor is shown below.
Figure 40
This restrictor slows down the flow of air in both directions. This means that using only one
extra component can slow both the outstroke and instroke of a cylinder.
In the circuit shown below, the restrictor is used to slow down the speed of the single-
acting cylinder. We can adjust this speed by turning the small screw on the top of the
restrictor.
The problem with this type of restrictor is that it always slows down the speed of the
piston in both directions. In many cases, we would only want either the outstroke or the
instroke to be slowed down. Also, if we study the piston movement very carefully, we
sometimes find that it is quite jerky  not smooth as we would want it to be.

Unidirectional restrictor
To solve these problems we can use a component called a unidirectional restrictor. As its
name suggests, it only slows down the air in one direction. The symbol is shown below.
1 2
Figure 42
When air flows into port 1 of the restrictor, some of the air takes the bypass route. A small
ball is blown against a valve and blocks this path. The air is then forced to go through the
restriction and this slows down the airflow.
BYPASS
AIR- 1 2
F
FLOW
RESTRICTION
When air flows into port 2 of the restrictor, again some of the air takes the bypass route.
This time, the ball is blown away from the valve and the air passes through unrestricted.
BYPASS
1 2 AIR-
FLOW
RESTRICTION
In pneumatics, unidirectional restrictors are much more useful to us. However, we must
always be careful to insert them in the circuit the correct way round.

Remember our car park barrier. The attendant has complained that the barrier rises too
quickly and is worried that this may damage it. Someone suggests changing the circuit to
the one shown below.
Valve A Valve B
Study this circuit and take note of the position of the unidirectional restrictor. Is it where
you expected? The restrictor is placed so that it slows down the exhaust air coming from
the cylinder. When valve A is pressed, the 5/2 valve changes state and starts to supply the
cylinder with air to make it outstroke. Air trapped on the other side of the piston escapes
through the restrictor slowly. This makes the piston outstroke slowly.
We always restrict the exhaust air coming from a cylinder as this makes the piston
move much more smoothly.

And control
Although pneumatic circuits are very safe, it is important to take safety

precautions. AND control circuits can be used to help prevent accidents
by ensuring that guards are in position before machines are switched on.
These circuits can also be used SLIDING
to stop a machine being switched DOOR
on accidentally or to stop
operators placing their hands in
the machine when it is running.
VALVE
POSITION
AND control involves connecting 3/2 valves together in series. This means that the output
from one valve becomes the input to another. Study the diagram below.
Valve A Valve B
The single-acting cylinder will only outstroke when valve A and valve B are pressed at the
same time. When the button on valve A is pressed, main air passes through and reaches
valve B. The air cannot flow any further until valve B is pressed. This then supplies the
cylinder with air and it outstrokes.
We can summarise how the circuit behaves in a truth table.
VALVE A VALVE B CYLINDER
OFF OFF INSTROKE
ON OFF INSTROKE
OFF ON INSTROKE
ON ON OUTSTROKE

OR control
Sometimes we need to control a pneumatic TO CYLINDER

circuit from more than one position. This can be
done using OR control circuits. These circuits
are quite simple but they need another
component called a shuttle valve. FROM FROM
VALVE A VALVE B
A shuttle valve is used to change the direction
of air in a circuit. It has a small ball inside that
gets blown from side to side. A picture is shown below.
When air is supplied from valve A, the ball gets blown across and the air is directed towards
the cylinder. When air is supplied from valve B, the ball is blown to the other side and again
the air flows into the cylinder. If air comes from both directions, air still manages to reach
the cylinder, as this is the only path it can take.
The symbol for a shuttle valve is shown below.
OR control involves connecting 3/2 valves together in Shuttle valve

parallel. This means that either valve will outstroke the
cylinder. Study the diagram below.
If the button on valve A is pressed, the ball in the

shuttle valve is blown across towards B and the cylinder
outstrokes. If the button on valve B is pressed, the ball
is blown across towards A and the cylinder outstrokes.
Valve A Valve B
The circuit works if valve A or valve B is actuated.
We can summarise the behaviour of this circuit in a truth table.
VALVE A VALVE B CYLINDER
OFF OFF INSTROKE
ON OFF OUTSTROKE
OFF ON OUTSTROKE
ON ON OUTSTROKE

TEST YOUR SELF WITH THIS PAST PAPER QUESTION


Time delay
Sometimes in a circuit we want a pause or delay before something else happens. To create a
delay we need to use two components – a unidirectional restrictor and a reservoir.
A reservoir is simply an empty container, just like an empty bottle. The bigger the
reservoir, the longer it takes to fill up with air. To make the delay longer we use a
unidirectional restrictor in front of the reservoir. This slows down the air so that the
reservoir takes even longer to fill. The length of time it takes to fill creates the delay.
Air
We can change the length of a delay by changing the size of the reservoir or adjusting the
restrictor.
Time delays can be very useful in clamping operations when objects need to be held in place
by a cylinder for a specific amount of time to glue or set.
In this type of example the delay has to occur before the cylinder would instroke. Study
the circuit diagram.

When the push button is pressed, the 5/2 valve changes state and the cylinder outstrokes.
As it outstrokes, it pushes the former together and the hot plastic sheet is pressed into
shape. As this happens it also actuates the roller. Air now flows through the restrictor and
starts to fill up the reservoir. Once the reservoir is full, the 5/2 valve changes state and
the cylinder instrokes, ready for the process to begin again.

Assignment
1. Sand is fed into a hopper

from above. When the
hopper is full, the
operator presses the
button and a double-
acting cylinder slides
open the door. This lets
the sand fall into a wagon
underneath. The operator
now presses the other
push button, but there
must be a short delay
before the hopper door
closes to ensure that all
the sand has emptied out.
Study the circuit Valve A Valve B
diagram.
(a) Which two components are needed to create a time delay?
(b) Insert these components into the circuit diagram. Simulate your solution to ensure
that it works properly.
(c) What other improvements would you make to this circuit?


Air bleed
Sometimes with pneumatics we find that the actuators on valves can get in the way of the
circuit. Also, some actuators need a big force to make them work and this is not always
possible. There are different ways to overcome these problems and one of the most
common is to use an air bleed.
An air bleed is simply an open pipe that allows the air in the circuit to escape. This air must
be at a low pressure, otherwise the pipe would ‘wave’ about and be dangerous. Air bleed
circuits rely on a component called a diaphragm valve. This valve is capable of detecting
small changes in air pressure. The valve works in the same way as other 3/2 valves; it is only
the actuator that is new to us. The symbol is shown below.
The diaphragm is a piece of rubber stretched inside the valve. When air flows into the top
of the valve, the rubber expands much in the same way as when a balloon is blown up. When
the diaphragm expands, it presses down inside the valve and changes its state.
The signal to the diaphragm comes from an air bleed. When the air bleed is blocked, air is
diverted back towards the diaphragm. This actuates the 3/2 valve and the cylinder
outstrokes. Notice that the airflow to the air bleed passes through a restrictor. This slows
down the air before it is allowed to escape.

Assignment 12
1. The manufacturer of crystal ornaments wants to print a ‘Fragile!’ warning on every box
before it leaves the factory. A simple pneumatic machine will stamp the boxes, which
vary in size and weight. The packages are not spaced regularly on the conveyor belt and
so the printing should only take place when a package is in the correct position. A
possible solution is shown.
(a) Explain why an air bleed is used to sense the position of the boxes.
2. Crates containing cans of beans are moved to the dispatch area by a series of conveyor
belts. The crates are quite heavy and two single-acting cylinders are needed to push the
crates from one belt to another.
AIR BLEED
(a) Design a pneumatic circuit to solve this problem. Draw it in the box above.
(b) Why are pneumatics often used in food production lines?


Automatic circuits
Automatic circuits are commonly found on production lines. They help to speed up
production and make sure that the goods are all manufactured to the same standard. There
are two types of automatic circuit: semi-automatic and fully automatic.
Semi-automatic
A semi-automatic circuit is one that completes a process once it has been started, usually
by a human operator. We have come across semi-automatic circuits already in the course.
You should recognise the two circuits shown below.
Circuit 1
Circuit 2

Fully automatic
A fully automatic circuit is one that continues to work, performing a task over and over
again. It does not stop or wait for input from an operator. These circuits make use of
actuators such as a roller trip and plunger to detect the position of the piston as it
instrokes and outstrokes.
Automatic circuits produce reciprocating motion. This is motion up and down like the needle
on a sewing machine. It can also be left and right, or forwards and backwards along a
straight line. We can represent reciprocating motion by arrows like these: For example, a
polishing machine requires the reciprocating motion of a double-acting cylinder.
The pneumatic circuit is shown below.
Valve A Valve B
Y X
As the piston instrokes, it trips valve A and the 5/2 valve changes state and the piston is
sent positive. When it is fully outstroked, it trips valve B and the 5/2 valve returns to its
original position, allowing the piston to instroke. The process begins all over again and
continues to operate.

Assignment 13
1. Simulate the circuit for the polishing machine.
Valve A Valve B
(a) You should have noticed that the only way to stop
the circuit is to turn off the main air supply.
It would be much better if we could use a lever-
operated 3/2 valve to do this.
It has been suggested that the valve be placed at
either point X or point Y.
Try both positions and record what happens.
Y X
(b) Which position do you think is better and why?
A small company that makes spice racks wants to automate

some of its production. To begin with, a drilling operation is to
be controlled by a pneumatic cylinder. An operator will start
the sequence and then the drill will be lowered automatically
into the wood. Once the hole has been drilled to the correct DEPTH STOP
depth, the cylinder should automatically instroke ready for

the process to start again.
ROLLER TRIP
A layout of all the components needed is shown with the piping DRILL
missing.
WORK PIECE
(a) Complete the diagram in pencil.

(b) Name each component.
(c) The cylinder outstrokes far too quickly and the drill bits keep breaking. Alter the
circuit so that the cylinder outstrokes slowly.


MOSFETS
Although the base current in a transistor is usually small (< 0.1 mA), some input devices (e.g. a crystal microphone)
may be limited in their output. In order to overcome this, a Field Effect Transistor (FET) can be used.
COLLECTOR DRAIN
ID
BASE
GATE DRAIN
GATE VDS
SOURCE
EMITTER SOURCE
VGS IRF 520
Source
Drain
connections
BIPOLAR TRANSISTOR FIELD EFFECT Gate
TRANSISTOR 0V
Applying a voltage to the Gate connection allows current to flow between the Drain and Source connections.
This is a Voltage operated device. It has a very high input resistance (unlike the transistor) and therefore requires
very little current to operate it (typically 10-12 A).
Since it operates using very little current, it is easy to destroy a FET just by the static electricity built up in your
body.
FET’s also have the advantage that they can be designed to drive large currents, they are therefore often used in
transducer driver circuits.
MOSFET (Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor).
Because of its small size, many billions of MOSFET’s can easily be incorporated into a single integrated circuit. The
high input resistance means extremely low power consumption compared with bipolar transistors.
All these factors mean that MOS technology is widely used within the electronics industry today
Enhancement-type MOSFET's can be used in a similar way to bipolar transistors.
N-channel enhancement MOSFET’s allow a current to flow between Drain and Source when the Gate is made
Positive (similar to an NPN transistor).
Like a bipolar transistor, if the Gate voltage is below a certain
ID
level (the threshold value, VT), no current will flow between the
Drain and Source (the MOSFET will be switched off).
DRAIN
If the Gate voltage is above VT, the MOSFET will start to switch
GATE VDS
SOURCE on.
VGS
Increasing the Gate voltage will increase ID.
0V
For a given value of VGS (above VT), increasing VDS increases the current until saturation occurs. Any further increase
will cause no further increase in ID. The MOSFET is fully ON and can therefore be used as a switch.
When saturation occurs ID
ID = ID(on)
When saturation occurs,

the resistance of the
ID(on) channel, RDS, is normally
VGS>VT
low (RDS(on) less than 1 
for power MOSFET’s)
VDS
VDS(sat)
MOSFET’s can be designed to handle very high drain currents, this means that they can be used to drive high current
output transducers drivers without the need for relay switching circuits (unlike the bipolar transistor).
Vcc
RL
Vin
0V
The load resistor could be any output transducer, bulb, motor, relay etc. Since MOSFET’s are particularly sensitive to
high voltages, care must be taken to include a reverse biased diode over transducers that may cause a back emf
when switched off.
A variable resistor can be used in a voltage divider circuit and adjusted to ensure that the input voltage to the gate =
VT
Vcc
RL
0V
MOSFET’s connected as shown in figure 33b are said to be in common-source mode (c.f. common-emitter mode for
bipolar transistors).
PRACTICAL ASSIGNMENT
MOSFET characteristics - relationship between Drain current (ID) and Gate voltage (VGS)
Construct the circuit shown below using multimeters to measure the drain current and the gate voltage.
Adjusting the power supply will allow you to change VGS.
Construct a table for recording your results (as shown below).
VGS (V) ID (mA)

Measure ID for various values of
VGS. 0.0
1.0
Find the threshold voltage for
2.0
this MOSFET
3.0
3.5
Plot a graph of ID against VGS and 4.0

calculate gm for this MOSFET. 5.0
6.0
MOSFET
Symbol ID
DRAIN
mosfet
GATE VDS
SOURCE
VGS
0V
High Input zero current into gate/high gate resistance/voltage controlled.
Resistance The three are all related and all good. It means that the signal that is controlling the
FET is not affected by putting the FET in the circuit; a Bipolar Junction Transistor will
affect the input signal because of the current it draws.
Zero resistance at zero drain source resistance on saturation, except when given a resistance or Vds
output.
Threshold Voltage The threshold voltage relates to the voltage that switches on the FET, Vt
BJT switching is current-dependent, MOSFET switching is voltage-dependent, so suits

switching on a large current with a voltage
BJT consumes power whenever it is switched, so a MOSFET is more efficient
Input is from a micro-controller, which is low current, so suits MOSFET
MOSFETS are suited to high current applications, like driving a motor
Static Sensitive A disadvantage of FETs is they are static sensitive; they can be destroyed by
handling. (The same goes for CMOS chips, they are made from MOSFETS)
The image below is from the Data Book. In the exam there may be a similar graph with values on it ,
see the following questions for how it is used.
Transconductance is a measure of how the output current changes when the input voltage changes. A big
transcundance figure means a small change in the input voltage will lead to a large change in the output current.
2013 Q8 Higher
A car is fitted with a two-speed heater fan. The power to the heater-fan motor is controlled by a single
pin from a microcontroller. Assuming no losses in the output driver, the heater-fan motor receives
either 100% or 60% of the full power available.
(a) State the full name of the technique used to vary the power to an output device using a single pin
of a microcontroller.
(b) Draw a clearly labelled graph, showing how this technique could be used to control the heater-fan
motor so that it runs at 60% of its full power.
A MOSFET output-driver circuit provides current to the heater-fan motor.

(c) Draw the output-driver circuit showing connections to the motor, the power-supply rails, and to
the output pin of the microcontroller.
Figure Q8 shows the operational characteristics of the output-driver circuit. Lines A, B, C, D, and E
show the characteristics of the MOSFET for five different gate-source voltages (VGS). Line F shows the
characteristics of the motor.
(d) For a signal of 4 V on the microcontroller output pin:

(i) determine the Drain-Source Voltage;
(ii) determine the Drain Current;
(iii) calculate the power dissipated in the MOSFET.
2006
MOSFETS
Although the base current in a transistor is usually small (< 0.1 mA), some input devices (e.g. a crystal microphone)
may be limited in their output. In order to overcome this, a Field Effect Transistor (FET) can be used.
COLLECTOR DRAIN
BASE
GATE
EMITTER SOURCE
BIPOLAR TRANSISTOR FIELD EFFECT

TRANSISTOR
AE.H.LO1. fig 29
Applying a voltage to the Gate connection allows current to flow between the Drain and Source connections.
This is a Voltage operated device. It has a very high input resistance (unlike the transistor) and therefore requires
very little current to operate it (typically 10-12 A).
Since it operates using very little current, it is easy to destroy a FET just by the static electricity built up in your body.
FET’s also have the advantage that they can be designed to drive large currents, they are therefore often used in
transducer driver circuits.
Two different types of FET’s are available:
JFET (Junction Field Effect Transistor); and
MOSFET (Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor).
All FET’s can be N-channel or P-channel.
MOSFET’s can be “depletion type” or “enhancement type”.

D D
G G
S S
N-CHANNEL JFET P-CHANNEL JFET
D D
G G
S S
N-CHANNEL P-CHANNEL
ENHANCEMENT ENHANCEMENT
MOSFET MOSFET
AE.H.LO1. fig 30
The simplicity in construction of the MOSFET means that it occupies very little space. It can also be designed to be
used as a resistor or capacitor.
Because of its small size, many thousands of MOSFET’s can easily be incorporated into a single integrated circuit. The
high input resistance means extremely low power consumption compared with bipolar transistors.
All these factors mean that MOS technology is widely used within the electronics industry today.
Enhancement-type MOSFET's can be used in a similar way to bipolar transistors.
N-channel enhancement MOSFET’s allow a current to flow between Drain and Source when the Gate is made
Positive (similar to an NPN transistor).
P-channel enhancement MOSFET’s allow a current to flow between Drain and Source when the Gate is made
Positive (similar to an PNP transistor).
N-channel enhancement MOSFET - theory
The MOSFET transistor is constructed on a piece of p-type Semiconductor, an Oxide insulating layer separates this
from the Metal ‘Gate’ contact.
Metal
Oxide
Semiconductor
Field
Effect }
Transistor
AE.H.LO1. fig 31
Making the metal contact positive will produce a Field, repelling the positive majority carriers leaving negatives
behind (to produce an N-channel).
If the field produced by the Gate voltage is large enough, a channel is produced connecting the Drain and Source.
When a voltage is applied between the Drain and Source, current will flow along the channel.
GATE
SOURCE DRAIN
AE.H.LO1. fig 32
(In practice, the Drain and Source metal plates are connected to n-type semiconductor within the p-type substrate).
The channel acts as a resistance between the Source and Drain. The size of which depends on:
• the length (l) of the channel between D and S

• the width (w) of the channel
• the thickness (t) of the channel
w
l
D
t
S
AE.H.LO1. fig 32b
l and w are determined during manufacture of the MOSFET, t is adjusted by altering the gate voltage.
For a given MOSFET, the size of the current between the Drain and Source will therefore depend on the Gate voltage
(VGS) and the voltage between the Drain and Source (VDS).
ID
DRAIN
GATE VDS
SOURCE
VGS
0V
AE.H.LO1. fig 33 a
Like a bipolar transistor, if the Gate voltage is below a certain level (the threshold value, V T), no current will flow
between the Drain and Source (the MOSFET will be switched off).
If the Gate voltage is above VT, the MOSFET will start to switch on.
Increasing the Gate voltage will increase the thickness of the channel, increasing the number of charge carriers in the
channel and hence increasing ID.
For a given value of VGS (above VT), increasing VDS increases the current until saturation occurs. Any further increase
will cause no further increase in ID. The MOSFET is fully ON and can therefore be used as a switch.
Saturation occurs when VDS = VGS - VT.
If VDS is  VDSsaturation , ID is constant (for a given value of VGS )
(ID is then known as ID(on)).
When saturation occurs ID = ID(on)
ID
ID(on)
VGS>VT
VDS
VDS(sat)
AE.H.LO1. fig 33 a i
When saturation occurs, the resistance of the channel, RDS, is normally low (RDS(on) less than 1  for power
MOSFET’s)
WORKED EXAMPLE
The threshold gate voltage for the MOSFET shown below is 2 V. Calculate the gate voltage required to ensure that a
saturation current of 10 mA flows through the load resistor.
5V
100R
0V
AE.H.LO1. fig 33 a ii
Step 1
The Drain - Source channel acts as a series resistor with the 100R, since the current is the same in a series circuit, the
voltage over the 100R can be calculated using Ohm’s law
V = IR = 10 mA x 100 = 1 Volt
5V
100R 1V
VDS
0V
AE.H.LO1. fig 33 a iii
Step 2
Using Kirchoff’s 2nd law,
the voltage over the channel + the voltage over the load resistor = supply voltage
hence VDS = 5 - 1 = 4 Volts

Step 3
For saturation to occur,
VDS = VGS-VT
VGS = VDS + VT
VGS = 4 + 2 = 6 Volts.
MOSFET’s can be designed to handle very high drain currents, this means that they can be used to drive high current
output transducers drivers without the need for relay switching circuits (unlike the bipolar transistor).
Vcc
RL
Vin
0V
AE.H.LO1. fig 33 b
The load resistor could be any output transducer, bulb, motor, relay etc. Since MOSFET’s are particularly sensitive to
high voltages, care must be taken to include a reverse biased diode over transducers that may cause a back emf
when switched off.
A variable resistor can be used in a voltage divider circuit and adjusted to ensure that the input voltage to the gate =
VT
Vcc
RL
0V
Changes in VGS (  VGS ) above the threshold value causes changes in ID (  ID )
Whereas the performance of a bipolar transistor is measured by its’ amplification (h fe), the performance of a
FET is measured by its transconductance (gm) and is calculated by
I D
gm 
VGS
gm is measured in Amps per Volt (AV-1)
[These units are sometimes referred to as siemens or mhos]
MOSFET’s connected as shown in figure 33b are said to be in common-source mode (c.f. common-emitter
mode for bipolar transistors).
PRACTICAL ASSIGNMENT 1.2
MOSFET characteristics - relationship between Drain current (ID) and Gate voltage (VGS)
Construct the circuit shown below using multimeters to measure the drain current and the gate voltage.
+12V
330R
ID
I
IRF 520
100k G
VGS
0V
V
Source
IRF 520
Drain
connections
Gate
AE.H.LO1. fig 34
Adjusting the potentiometer will allow you to change VGS.
Construct a table for recording your results (as shown below).
VGS (V) ID (mA)

Measure ID for various values of VGS.
Find the threshold voltage for this MOSFET
Plot a graph of ID against VGS and calculate gm for this MOSFET.
Construct the circuit shown below.
9V
100k
6V, 60 mA
IRF 520
ORP12
0V
Adjust the 100k variable resistor until the light just goes off.
(This means that VGS < VT)
Covering up the LDR will increase VGS and the light should come on.
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(d) Determine the magnitude and direction of the reaction at A. 4
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SECTION A Marks
Attempt all the questions in this Section. (Total 120 marks)
1. Figure Q1 shows a production line for filling and capping bottles. A lid-fitting
device (Z) operates when an ultrasound sensor (A) or a load cell (B) detects that the
bottle is full, and a filling-nozzle sensor (C) detects that filling has stopped.
"
Figure Q1
Transducer State
Ultrasound sensor (A) 1 = bottle full
Load cell (B) 1 = bottle full
Filling-nozzle sensor (C) 0 = filling stopped
Lid-fitting device (Z) 1 = fit lid
(a) Draw the truth table for inputs A, B, C and output Z. 3
(b) Write a Boolean expression for the output Z in terms of the three inputs
A, B and C. 4
(c) Draw the logic diagram for the output Z using only NAND gates.
(2–input and 3–input NAND gates are available.)
Simplify where appropriate. 9
(16)
[X036/12/01] Page two

SECTION A
Marks
Attempt all the questions in this Section. (Total 120 marks)
1. The operation of an industrial stamping machine is controlled by a logic system

with inputs and output as shown in the following table.
INPUTS OUTPUT
L (= 1 when left-hand button is pressed) S (= 1 to operate stamping machine)
R (= 1 when right-hand button is pressed)
G (= 1 when guard is in position)
The logic system shown in Figure Q1(a) ensures that the machine only operates
when the guard is in place and either button is pressed.
L V
G S
W
R
Figure Q1(a)
(a) Write a Boolean expression for the output S in terms of the inputs L, G and R. 3
(b) Using only two-input NAND gates, draw a logic system equivalent to the
logic system shown in Figure Q1(a). Delete any redundant gates. 4
The logic system shown in Figure Q1(b) was designed to provide the same logic
function as the logic system shown in Figure Q1(a).
M
L
P
G Q
S
R N
Figure Q1(b)
(c) Draw and complete a truth table for the logic system shown in Figure Q1(b).
Include the intermediate logic values M, N, P & Q. 5
(d) Draw a logic system equivalent to that shown in Figure Q1(b) using only
two-input AND and OR gates. 3
[X036/12/01] Page two (15)

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MARKS DO NOT
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9. The laser level device shown below has an automatic electronic control THIS
MARGIN
system. The system uses an accelerometer to sense whether the laser beam
LV KRUL]RQWDO ,I LW LV QRW KRUL]RQWDO D PRWRU DGMXVWV WKH ODVHU OHYHOOLQJ
platform position.
(a) Complete a labelled control diagram for this device.
(&
Page nineteen
MARKS DO NOT
WRITE IN
9. (continued) THIS
MARGIN
An electronic engineer designing an op-amp control system for the device

has developed the following specification:
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(4·0 V), and the difference between them amplified by 3·0 to produce
the output.
(b) Complete the op-amp control system below. Show all working and
component values.<RXGRQRWQHHGWRVKRZWKHYHDQGîYHVXSSOLHVWR 6
the op-amps.
12 V
Output from
accelerometer
4·0 V
Signal Output
conditioned
range
0V
Show working here
(&
Page twenty
Marks
7. The temperature of a car’s engine is displayed on the instrument panel by a
bar-graph display. The lower four segments represent normal conditions and
are lit by green and amber LEDs. The top segment indicates that the engine
is too hot and is lit by a red LED. The arrangement of the circuit is shown in
Figure Q7. The voltage divider has six identical resistors (R2).
9V
R2
+9 V R3
–t 0V Red
R2
+9 V R3
R2 Amber
0V
+9 V R3
0V Amber
R2
+9 V R3
R1
Green
R2 0V
+9 V R3
Green
R2 0V
0V
Figure Q7
(a) State the name of the op-amp configuration used in this circuit. 1
(b) The red LED is required to illuminate at 125 °C. A type-6 thermistor is
used.
(i) Calculate the value of resistor R1 required to achieve the correct
operation. 2
(ii)
Calculate the resistance of the thermistor when the lower green
LED comes on. 1
Each LED is rated at 1.5 V and 30 mA.
(c) Determine the required value of resistor R3. 2
(6)
[Turn over
[X036/301] Page seven

Marks
6. An energy-saving system is installed in a new office block. If the natural light level in an
office is high enough, the lights turn off automatically. The control circuit is shown in
Figure Q6.
+9 V
lighting
circuit
RV
+9 V
760 Ω
0V
1 kΩ
8 kΩ
0V
Figure Q6
(a) Calculate the value of RV so that the light circuit switches off at 650 lux. 2
(b) Calculate the base current when the op-amp output is high. 2
The resistance of the relay is 15 Ω.
(c) (i) Calculate the collector current when the transistor saturates. 1
(ii) Calculate the minimum current gain of the transistor. 1
(iii) State which of the transistors shown in the table below is most suitable for this
circuit. 1
(7)
VCE(max) Ic(max)
Device hFE
(V) mA
2N3704 30 600 100
BC108 25 200 100
BC142 60 1000 20
BC182 50 100 120
BC548b 30 100 220
BFY51 30 1000 40
[Turn over
[X036/301] Page seven

Marks
10. Figure Q10(a) shows a gantry which supports the overhead “start” lights at a
motor racing circuit.
E C
27 ° 27 °
A
D B
Light unit
Figure Q10(a)
Each light unit weighs 1·18 kN.
(a) Calculate the magnitude and nature of the forces in members AC, AB, CB,
CD and CE. 17
Due to safety concerns, the strain in member CE and the wind speed are measured
and monitored by a microprocessor-based data logger. The strain in member CE
is measured by strain gauges and the wind speed is measured by a device connected
to a tachogenerator.
(b) Draw a block diagram showing the main sub-systems of the data-logging
system. 6
As the wind speed varies, the strain in member CE changes, and so the sample rate
at which the strain is logged is altered, depending on the wind speed. As the wind
speed increases more frequent strain readings are taken.
A sub-procedure samplerate takes one reading of the wind-speed value and then
ten strain readings. Samplerate uses a prewritten sub-procedure windspeed which
records a wind-speed value and stores it in a variable called DATA. A second
prewritten sub-procedure called readstrain reads one value of strain and stores it
for further processing in the main program.
[X036/12/01] Page twelve

Marks
11. (continued)
As the hopper is filled by an operator, the electronic circuit shown in Figure Q11(c) gives the
operator a visual indication of whether there is too little or too much concrete in the hopper.
+12 V
RG1
1 MΩ
957 kΩ
2 kΩ +12 V green
+12 V
lamp
V1 red
2 kΩ –12 V lamp
RG2 –12 V
1 MΩ Vout
3 kΩ
V2
0V
–12 V
Figure Q11(c)
V2 is preset so that when the required amount of concrete is in the hopper, Vout = 0 V.
(c) Explain the operation of the electronic circuit as concrete is loaded into the hopper.
Include in your answer details for part load, correct load and overload conditions. 3
The unloaded resistance of the strain gauges is 120 Ω. When the weight of the concrete in the
hopper is exactly correct, the combined weight of the hopper and concrete is 140 kN and
RG2 = 120.02 Ω. The potentiometer is adjusted so that Vout = 0 V.
(d) Calculate V2 correct to 4 decimal places. 1

The red lamp is visibly lit when Vout = – 4 V.
(e) (i) Calculate V1 under these circumstances, correct to 6 decimal places. 3

(ii) Calculate RG2 correct to 3 decimal places. 1
There is a linear relationship between change in resistance of the strain gauges and the applied
load.
(f) Calculate the combined weight of the hopper and concrete when Vout = – 4 V and the red
lamp is visibly lit. 2
(20)
[X036/301] Page sixteen

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Marks
9. A strain-gauge system is part of an accurate weighing device used in a
laboratory. Figure Q9(a) shows the arrangement of the strain gauges on the
beam of the weighing device.
gauge
gauge
Figure Q9(a)
The electronic circuit used is shown in Figure Q9(b).

9V
10 kΩ +9 V Rf
RG1
Ri
0V +9 V
+9 V –9 V
Ri Op-amp B
Vout
RG2 10 kΩ V2 Rf
0V
Op-amp A
0V
Figure Q9(b)
(a) State the name of the configuration of op-amp A and of op-amp B in this
circuit. 1
(b) State one reason for placing one strain gauge above the cantilever beam
and a second strain gauge below the beam. 1
The unloaded resistance of the strain gauges = 120 Ω.
For a particular loading RG1 = 119.85 Ω and RG2 = 120.15 Ω and Vout = 6 V.
(c) State which strain gauge is placed on top of the beam. Justify your
selection. 1
(d) Calculate V2, correct to six decimal places. 1
(e) Calculate appropriate values for resistors Rf and Ri to produce the
required output voltage Vout. 2
(6)
[END OF SECTION A]
[X036/301] Page nine [Turn over

Marks
10. A diagram of a lighting gantry above a stage is shown in Figure Q10(a).
30 ° 30 °
11.1 kN
B D
C
3.42 kN 4.68 kN
Figure Q10(a)
(a) Using nodal analysis for the conditions shown in figure Q10(a), calculate the magnitude
and nature of the forces in frame members DE, CD, BC and BE. 6
Spotlights are supported by a bracket at C as shown in Figure Q10(b). Four mild steel bolts
support the bracket and are under tension.
Support at C
3.42 kN
Figure Q10(b)
The tensile force in each of the four bolts due to tightening is 80 N, and the applied loading
on the bracket is 3.42 kN. A Factor of Safety of 8 is applied.
(b) Calculate the minimum diameter of each bolt. 5
[Turn over
[X036/301] Page thirteen

MARKS DO NOT
WRITE IN
2. A mechanical engineer is developing THIS
Door slats MARGIN
the drive and control system for the
automatic garage roller door shown. Drive shaft
The door is to be opened and closed Drum
using a direct current motor
controlled by a microcontroller. Roller door
The motor rolls the door slats around
a drum to open and close it as
shown.
For safety, the garage door must Door guides
slow down gradually and stop when
it is fully open or closed.
(a) Sketch a graph of the pulses sent to the motor by the microcontroller as
the door approaches being fully closed. Label both axes of the graph, a
mark and a space. You should show at least 6 pulses. 3
The diameter of the drum is 0·186 m and the force required to be

applied to the roller slat is 127 N.
(b) Calculate the torque supplied by the drive shaft. 2
(&
Page three
For use in National Qualification Courses
leading to the 2015 examinations and beyond.
Publication date: 2015

Publication code: BB6754
ISBN: 978 1 910180 01 3
Published by the Scottish Qualifications Authority

The Optima Building, 58 Robertson Street, Glasgow G2 8DQ
Lowden, 24 Wester Shawfair, Dalkeith, Midlothian EH22 1FD
www.sqa.org.uk
The information in this publication may be reproduced in support of SQA

qualifications. If it is reproduced, SQA should be clearly acknowledged as
the source. If it is to be used for any other purpose, then written
permission must be obtained from SQA. It must not be reproduced for
trade or commercial purposes.
© Scottish Qualifications Authority 2015

For an up-to-date list of prices visit the Publication Sales and Downloads section of SQA’s website.
For further details telephone SQA’s Customer Contact Centre on 0845 279 1000.
Page two
Contents
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Quantities, symbols and units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Decimal prefixes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Energy and power formulae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Pneumatic Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Properties of materials. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Electrical and electronic formulae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Transistors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Typical operational amplifier circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8—10
Preface
This data booklet is intended for use by candidates in examinations in Engineering Science at
Higher. It may also be used as a reference for assignments at Higher. It is recommended that
candidates should become familiar with the contents of the data booklet through use in
undertaking Units of these Courses.
It should be noted that the range of data contained in the booklet has been limited to the
concepts which may be assessed through written question papers. This range should be
supplemented by other resource material as necessary during the course, eg by using data
sheets. However, should any additional information (or data not included in this booklet) be
required in an examination, such information will be included in the question paper.
Teachers/lecturers should note that all of the material contained in this booklet is likely to be
examined at some time. With regard to tables of information, not every entry in a table will
necessarily be involved in examination questions.
From the variety of data offered in this booklet, candidates will be expected to demonstrate the
ability to select appropriate information or formulae.
Page three
Quantities, Symbols and Units
Quantity Symbol Unit Abbreviation

distance d,x metre m
height h metre m
length l metre m
diameter d metre m
radius r metre m
area A square metre m2
circumference C metre m
time t second s
speed, velocity v metre per second ms-1
mass m kilogram kg
force F newton N
gravitational acceleration g metre per second per second ms-2
work done Ew joule J
energy E joule J
power P watt W
torque T newton metre Nm
efficiency Ť î î
-2
pressure P newton per square metre (pascal) Nm (Pa)
temperature T kelvin, celsius K, °C
joule per kilogram per
specific heat capacity c Jkg-1K-1
degree kelvin
voltage, potential difference V volt V
current I ampere (amp) A
resistance R ohm Ω
frequency f hertz Hz
rotational speed n revolutions per minute revs min-1
revolutions per second revs sec-1
stress Ů newton per square metre (pascal) Nm-2 (Pa)
strain Ž î î
Page four
Decimal Prefixes
3UHÀ[ Symbol Multiplying factor

peta P 1015
tera T 1012
giga G 109
mega M 106
kilo k 103
milli m 10-3
micro 10-6
nano n 10-9
pico p 10-12
Relationships
Energy and power
Potential energy Ep = mgh g = 9·8 ms-2 (to 2 significant figures)
Kinetic energy Ek = ½ mv2
Heat energy Eh FP÷7 Fwater = 4200 Jkg-1K-1 (to 2 significant figures)
Electrical energy Ee = VIt
Work done Ew = Fd
E
Power P=
t
V2
Electrical power P = VI = = I 2R
R
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Energyout Powerout
(IILFLHQF\ Ť =
Energyin Powerin
Mechanisms
speed of input
Velocity ratio VR =
speed of output
Input speed x input size = output speed x output size
Torque T = Fr
&LUFXPIHUHQFHRIFLUFOH & G
Moment of force M = Fx (x is perpendicular distance)
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Pneumatic Systems
F
Pressure, force and area P=
A
G2
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4
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Structures
F
6WUHVV Ů
A
÷O
6WUDLQ Ž
l

Strain energy Es = )
[
Ů
Young's Modulus E=
Ž
ultimate load ultimate stress

Factor of Safety = =
safe working load safe working stress
Properties of materials
Young's Yield Ultimate Ultimate

Modulus stress tensile compressive
Material
E σγ stress stress
kNmmî2 Nmmî2 Nmmî2 Nmmî2
Mild steel 196 220 430 430
Stainless steels î î î î
Low-alloy steels î î î î
Cast iron 120 î î î
Aluminium alloy 70 250 300 300
Titanium alloy 110 950 1000 1000
Nickel alloys î î î î
Concrete î î î 60
Concrete (steel reinforced) î î î 100
Concrete (post stressed) î î î 100
Plastic, ABS polycarbonate 2·6 55 60 85
Plastic, polypropylene 0·9 î î 70
Wood, parallel to grain î î î î
Wood, perpendicular to grain ĊîĊ î î î
Page six
Electrical and electronic
Ohm’s Law V = IR
Resistors in series Rt = R1 + R2 + R3 + …..
1 1 1 1
Resistors in parallel = + + + …..
Rt R1 R2 R3
R1 R2
2 resistors in parallel Rt =
(R1+R2)
.LUFKKRII·VVWODZ ő, DOJHEUDLFVXPRIFXUUHQWVDWDQRGHLV]HUR
.LUFKKRII·VQGODZ ő( ő,5

(algebraic sum of supply voltages = sum of voltage-drops,
in a closed loop)
V1 R1
Voltage Divider =
V2 R2
V2 2
Electrical power P = VI = =I R
R
Transistors
Bi-polar transistor gain hFE = Ic/Ib
MOSFET transconductance gm = ∆Id/∆Vgs
MOSFET Characteristics Curves

Saturation Region
VDS = IDRDS(ON) (MOSFET "ON") D
V
ID = DD G
RDS A S
ID(mA)
1
Slope = −R DS
Cut-off Region
B (MOSFET "OFF")
VDS
When ID = 0
VDS = VDD
3DJHVHYHQ
Typical operational amplifier circuits
Vo = output voltage Vi = input voltage Vcc = supply voltage
output voltage
R f = feedback resistance R i = input resistance A v = gain =
input voltage
Note : Op-amp output saturates at 85% of Vcc
Inverting
Rf
Ri +Vcc
Vi -Vcc
Vo
0V
Vo Rf Rf
Av = Av = - V o= - Vi
Vi Ri Ri
Non-inverting
Rf
+Vcc
Ri -Vcc
Vi Vo
0V
Av=
Vo
Vi
Av = 1 +
Rf
Ri
Vo = 1 +( ) Rf
Ri
Vi
Page eight
Comparator
+Vcc
-Vcc
Vi
Vref Vo
0V
If Vi < Vref , then Vo saturates positively (85% of +Vcc)

If Vi > Vref , then Vo saturates negatively (85% of -Vcc)
Difference Amplifier
Rf
Ri +Vcc
Ri -Vcc
V1
V2 Rf Vo
0V
Vo Rf Rf
Av = Av = Vo= (V2 - V1)
(V2 - V1) Ri Ri
Page nine
Summing Amplifier
Rf
R1 +Vcc
V1 R2
-Vcc
V2 Vo
0V
Rf Rf Rf
A v1 = - A v2 = - A vn = -
R1 R2 Rn
Vo = (A v1 V1) + (A v2 V2) + ...
Vo = - R f
( V1
R1
+
V2
R2
+ ...
)
Voltage Follower
+Vcc
-Vcc
Vi Vo
0V
Vo = V i
[END OF DATA BOOKLET]
Page ten
Graphs for Thermistors, Thermocouple and LDR
Thermistors: Resistance-temperature characteristics
10M
8
5
3
2
1M
8
5
3
2
100k
8
5
Resistance (Ω)
3
2
10k
8
5
3
2
1k 5
8
5
4 6
3
2 2
1 3
100
8
5
3
2
10
–75 –50 –25 0 25 50 75 100125150 200250300
Temperature (°C)
7
Light Dependent Resistor (LDR)
102
7 LDR type ORP12
5
3
10
7
5
Cell resistance (kΩ)
1.0
7
5
3
10–1
7
5
3
10–2
3 5 7 3 5 7 3 5 7 3 5 7
1.0 10 102 103 104

Illumination (lux)

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ENGINEERING SCIENCE

STRUCTURES AND MATERIALS

Mass structures perform due to their own weight.

Frame structures resist loads due to the arrangement of its members. A

Shells are structures where its strength comes from the

Engineering Science: Structures and Materials (Higher) 1

All structures are loaded or exerted upon by external forces.

Engineering Science: Structures and Materials (Higher) 2

In the structure below, three forces are acting on it.

 Fv = 0 - this is one of the conditions of static equilibrium.

There are two other conditions of static equilibrium -

Engineering Science: Structures and Materials (Higher) 3

Trigonometry is used to resolve forces.

Where - hyp = force (F)

Engineering Science: Structures and Materials (Higher) 4

To find the horizontal force (FH)

Horizontal force = 77.94 N

To find the vertical force (FV)

Engineering Science: Structures and Materials (Higher) 5

2. Determine the tension in the two cables.

Engineering Science: Structures and Materials (Higher) 6

Calculate the magnitude of the force in each of the three ropes.

30º 60º 70º

Engineering Science: Structures and Materials (Higher) 7

Principles of Moments - Revision

Engineering Science: Structures and Materials (Higher) 8

Engineering Science: Structures and Materials (Higher) 9

Engineering Science: Structures and Materials (Higher) 10

Engineering Science: Structures and Materials (Higher) 11

Definitions of some of the terms you have met already:

RESULTANT The resultant is that single force that replaces a system of

EQUILIBRIUM Equilibrium is the word used to mean balanced forces. A body

1. The sum of all the moments equals zero.

2. The sum of the forces in the y direction equals zero.

3. The sum of the forces in the x direction equals zero.

Engineering Science: Structures and Materials (Higher) 12

1. Simple supports (knife edge)

2. Hinge and roller

Engineering Science: Structures and Materials (Higher) 13

Consider this loaded beam, “simply” supported.

1. The forces at the supports called reactions, always act vertically.

2. The beam is in equilibrium; therefore the conditions of equilibrium apply.

The value of Reactions RA and RB are found as follows.

Take moments about RA

There are two methods available to find RA

1. Take moments again, this time about RB, or

2. Equate the vertical forces (since the beam is in equilibrium)

Engineering Science: Structures and Materials (Higher) 14

Engineering Science: Structures and Materials (Higher) 15

The reaction at the hinge support can be any direction.

There are three unknown quantities above: -

1. The magnitude of Reaction RB.

2. The magnitude of Reaction RA.

3. The direction of Reaction RA.

Engineering Science: Structures and Materials (Higher) 16

V40  sin 30 0  40 H 40  cos 30 0  40

Vertical forces Horizontal forces

Engineering Science: Structures and Materials (Higher) 17

Engineering Science: Structures and Materials (Higher) 18

Engineering Science: Structures and Materials (Higher) 19

Engineering Science: Structures and Materials (Higher) 20

Engineering Science: Structures and Materials (Higher) 21

STRUTS AND TIES