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I, 2014 , Lect
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Verb/clause patterns will be discussed further on.
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Downing and Locke use the abbreviation „Od‟ for direct object.
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I. O. Macari, Morpho-syntax, Lecture 3 sem. I, 2014 , Lect
transitive You can also end up eating more than you would have done if you'd served up your
own portions. (http://www.nhs.uk)
intransitive If you're eating at a restaurant or cafe, you can make choices to ensure that your meal is healthy
and balanced. (http://www.nhs.uk)
start
transitive More recently these organizations have started receiving corporate support.
(thesunmagazine.org)
intransitive Your book starts close to home with the story of Yosemite National Park.
(thesunmagazine.org)
The same Downing & Locke argue that “we should talk about transitive or intransitive uses of
certain verbs, as a great many verbs can be used in English both transitively and intransitively
[...]. Land is transitive in The pilot landed the plane safely, but intransitive in The plane landed.
Carry is transitive in They carried backpacks, but it has an intransitive use in His voice carries
well (= „projects‟)” (2006, pp. , 37).
In Romanian, transitivity is defined as the capacity of a verb to govern a direct object. According
to this feature, verbs are divided into a) transitive verbs (= have or can have a direct object) and
b) intransitive verbs (= do not have and cannot have a direct object). One observation can be
especially useful for this discussion, because it goes in line with Downing and Locke‟s
suggestion above: the transitive verbs with no direct object present 3 (= with their transitivity
valency free) are called tranzitive absolute/ folosite absolut, as in Am mâncat la ora opt.
(Neamțu, 1989, p. 171).
To further highlight the similarities between the approaches to transitivity in the two languages,
it can be useful to translate the examples for eat in the table above into Romanian, and thus to
see the comparable behaviour of the verbs with regard to transitivity.
mânca
transitive Poți, de altfel, să sfârșești prin a mânca mai mult decât ai fi mâncat...
intransitive Dacă mănânci la un restaurant sau bufet, poți să alegi ....
As I have already pointed out, the valency of the verb decides how many clause elements need to
be present to form a complete clause. In the two examples above, as well as in their English
counterparts, mânca and eat used transitively have a valency of 2 in Poți, de altfel, să sfârșești
prin a mânca mai mult decât ai fi mâncat.../You can also end up eating more than you would
have done... Mânca and eat used intransitively have a valency of 2 in Dacă mănânci la un
restaurant sau bufet, poți să alegi ..../If you're eating at a restaurant or cafe, you can make
choices ...
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Al căror complement direct nu este exprimat.
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I. O. Macari, Morpho-syntax, Lecture 3 sem. I, 2014 , Lect
However, if a verb that can be used transitively is used intransitively, then we can say that its
valency is reduced to 1, because in English finite clauses normally require a subject (also see 3.2.
and 3.9.).
Depending on their valency, transitive verbs fall into three classes:
1. monotransitive verbs have only one object, a direct object, as in She knows you. and He hurt
himself.
2. ditransitive verbs have two objects. There are two main patterns for ditransitive verbs: a.
direct object preceded by indirect object (SViOdO) and b. direct object followed by prepositional
object (SVdOppO).
a. The basic ditransitive pattern contains verbs of transfer (give, lend) and intended transfer (buy,
get), as in I gave her a present and I got her a present. Downing and Locke argue that ”three-
place verbs like give have a subject and two Objects, representing the transfer of goods or
information from one person to another. They also include speech act verbs such as „offer‟ and
„promise‟” (2006, pp. , 92).
Other verbs in the give category are: hand, lend, offer, owe, pass, promise, read, send, show,
teach, throw, write.
The get category includes: book, bring, build, buy, cash, cut, fetch, find, leave, spare, keep,
make, pour, save.
The same authors illustrate the existence of a prepositional counterpart for the indirect object, the
give type with to, the get type with for (I gave a present to her. I got/bought a present for her).
In the examples, the PP functions as a prepositional/oblique object, defined by Hasselgård,
Lysvåg and Johansson as
a clause element with a semantic role characteristic of an object (affected, effected or
beneficiary), but realized by a prepositional phrase. An oblique object may occur in the
same clause as a direct object. An oblique object may be a variation on an indirect
object, as in I gave some flowers to my neighbours. (Cf. I gave my neighbours some
flowers). Alternatively, an oblique object may be a element which might have been
expressed as a direct object, but which has lost that status in competition with another
phrase, as in He stuffed his mouth with peanuts. (Cf. He stuffed peanuts into his mouth.)
[...] Objects of prepositional verbs are analysed as direct objects, and prepositional
phrases with meanings similar to direct or indirect objects are analysed as adjunct
adverbials. (Hasselgård, Lysvåg, & Johansson, Glossary of grammatical terms used in
English Grammar: Theory and Use (2nd edition))
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I. O. Macari, Morpho-syntax, Lecture 3 sem. I, 2014 , Lect
In simpler terms, three object types are generally acknowledged in mainstream English
grammars: direct objects, indirect objects, and prepositional/oblique objects, all illustrated in
the following table.
type description example
direct object (dO) entity acted upon I gave her a present.
indirect object (iO) entity indirectly affected by the action I gave her a present/I gave a present to her.
prepositional/oblique object (ppO/oO) object introduced by a preposition I was looking for a present for her.
Notice that there are iOs that consist of a prepositional phrase, just like the ppO/oO. The
difference is that an indirect object cannot occur without a dO, while a ppO/oO can.
Downing and Locke (2006, pp. , 93) also point to the existence of two passives with the give
type:
Active: I gave Jo a copy.
Passive 1: Jo was given a copy. (Oi in active clause → S in passive clause)
Passive 2: A copy was given to Jo. (Od in active clause → S in passive clause)
? A copy was given Jo.4
In Romanian, ditransitive verbs5 have two direct objects. According to Neamțu (1989, pg. , 177),
only few verbs fall into this category: a asculta, a întreba, a examina, a învăța, a ruga, a trece, a
sfătui.
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Downing and Locke use ? to indicate divided acceptability.
5
They are called verbe bitranzitive or dublu tranzitive.
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According to Neamțu, pe Ion = complement direct al persoanei, reluat prin pronumele personal l-; lecția =
complement direct al obiectului, nedublabil.
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I. O. Macari, Morpho-syntax, Lecture 3 sem. I, 2014 , Lect
In both English and Romanian, the large majority of verbs may be used transitively as well as
intransitively, often with the same meaning. Downing and Locke identify the following types:
1 Verbs with an implied Object, such as smoke (cigarettes), drive (a car), park (a car),drink
(alcohol), save (money), wave (one’s hand), as in Do you smoke? and He doesn’t drive.
The authors comment on the valency of such verbs:
Such intransitive uses can be considered as instances of valency reduction, that is the
normal valency of two of these verbs is reduced to one. As these reductions are based on
cultural schemas and tend to have an implication of habituality, they are not extended to
other object referents such as wave a flag, drink milk. With certain verbs such as read,
write, eat and teach the deleted direct object is not specific, and is perhaps unknown, as
in He teaches and she writes. (Downing & Locke, 2006, p. 91)
2 Causatives with an intransitive counterpart, constituting an ergative pair
SVdO SV
He opened the door. The door opened.
She clicked the camera. The camera clicked.
tranzitiv intranzitiv
Mi-l amintesc pe Ion. Îmi amintesc de Ion.
3 Verbs with a reflexive meaning: He shaved (himself), She dressed (herself).
4 Verbs with a reciprocal meaning: Tom and Jo met at a concert. (met each other)
There are some verbs that are always intransitive. They are grouped by Downing and Locke (2006, pp. , 85) in
verbs of behaviour which is typically involuntary or semi-voluntary: laugh, smile, cry, blink, blush,
cough, sneeze, sigh, tremble, yawn; wait, stay; die, collapse, faint, fall.
They all laughed, someone yawned, one soldier fainted.
verbs of weather: rain, snow
It’s raining. It’s snowing. The sun rose.
verbs of occurrence: appear, disappear, go, come, arrive, depart, vanish, fade, happen.
Has everyone arrived?
Hopes of avoiding war are now fading.
idiomatic intransitive phrasal verbs where there is no verb of the same meaning.
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In Romanian, the indirect object is defined very similarly.
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I. O. Macari, Morpho-syntax, Lecture 3 sem. I, 2014 , Lect
Notice that the indirect object consisting of a prepositional phrase normally comes after the
direct object; consequently, there are two possible variants of a SVOO clause, I will give Jane
my umbrella. (SViOdO) and I will give my umbrella to Jane. (SVdOiO). The two structures
differ to some extent in their use, because of the general tendency for the more important
information to come at the end. For example, if Jane has already been mentioned, but not the
umbrella, we would expect the first to be used rather than the second, though in speech the focus
can be indicated by giving it prominence in the intonation pattern.
In line with Kies, Downing and Locke (2006, pp. , 56) identify the following realisations of the
indirect object and illustrate them with examples:
a. typically, NPs (see examples in the table above)
b. less typically, wh-nominal relative clauses, which occur more usually as a prepositional
alternative:
You can lend the dictionary to whoever needs it. (recipient as nominal relative Cl.)
Phil has booked all his friends tickets for the show. (beneficiary as NP)
c. marginally, a non-finite -ing clause or a PP. These options are only open to a recipient iO.
I’m giving reading magazines less importance lately. (-ing cl)
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I. O. Macari, Morpho-syntax, Lecture 3 sem. I, 2014 , Lect
An action verb affects a direct object directly (there is no preposition between them).
Before looking for the indirect object, look for the direct object. A direct object is possible only if the direct
object is present in the clause.
An indirect object is normally a person who receives something, such as a gift or a favour, or who
beneficiates from an activity performed by the subject.
The direct object answers the question << subject + verbal + what/whom? >>.
I told the children a story. I told what? A story (dO).
The indirect object answers the question << subject + verbal + to/for/from whom? >>.
I told the children a story./ I told a story to the children. I told to whom? The children (indirect
object).
If the direct object is omitted, the meaning of the sentence will alter or no longer make sense.
I told the children a story.
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The object complement is a type of complement because it completes the object in that it
describes what the object refers to:
At the time, she thought him a quiet, gentle man. (thesunmagazine.org)
In the example above, a quiet, gentle man is the object complement, and him is the object. The
object complement refers to a property or the identity of the direct object, but has a link to the
verbal at the same time (Hasselgård, Lysvåg, & Johansson, Glossary of grammatical terms used
in English Grammar: Theory and Use (2nd edition)). The relation between the object and the
object complement is representable by the verb be: an implied meaning of the above sentence is
that „in her view, he was a quiet, gentle man‟.
The object complement can be realised by a noun phrase - as in the example above - or by an
adjective phrase, as in She has dyed her hair red. Here the implied meaning is that „her hair has
become red as a result of dying.”
Much on the same line, in Kies‟ view, the object complement completes a reference and/or an
implication suggested by the object of the clause. The object complement is recognizable by a
combination of the following formal and functional properties.
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These authors, as well as others, call the object complement object predicative.
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I. O. Macari, Morpho-syntax, Lecture 3 sem. I, 2014 , Lect
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I. O. Macari, Morpho-syntax, Lecture 3 sem. I, 2014 , Lect
Position EPSs normally occur after the predicate, but other See above.
positions are possible.
When EPS consists in anAdjP, the presence of the De la gârlă […] zgomotoși copiii vin.
dO is not compulsory. [AdjP]
Le-am văzut vesele. [AdjP]
When EPS consists in aNP, either the dO or the El este socotit de revoluționari ca specialist.
agent is present. [NP]
I-am găsit directori. [NP]
Refer- EPSs may complete references to the object, I-am găsit directori.
ence subject and to the predicate. There is in effect a {I performed an action directed at them.}
copular relation that exists between the object or {Ei sunt directori.} SVC
subject and the EPS, in that the object or subject
and EPS can be paraphrased by a SVC
structure. Another relation is between the
predicate and EPS, in that the action or state of
the verb is described by the EPS (especially
when it consists of an AdjP).
Agree- EPSs agree with the object in gender Le credeau studente.[fem., pl.]
ment (feminine, neuter or masculine) and number Îi credeau studenți. [masc. pl]
(singular or plural). If the object is not present,
Copiii vin voioși. [masc., pl.]
then EPSs agree with the subject.
Fata vine voiasă. [fem., sg.]
In both Romanian and English, the EPS and the oC can be quite easily taken for adverbials of
manner, so extra attention should be paid to their basic features and behaviour.
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I. O. Macari, Morpho-syntax, Lecture 3 sem. I, 2014 , Lect
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I. O. Macari, Morpho-syntax, Lecture 3 sem. I, 2014 , Lect
structure of the predicat nominal. In both languages, the relation created in the clause by the
linking verb is representable by the „=‟ sign, and can be diagrammed as follows:
Jane = the new manager.
Lloyd George was a man of principle but he was also intensely pragmatic.
b. verbs of becoming are dynamic and introduce resulting attributes. In addition, grow suggests
gradual change, while go is used to indicate drastic changes:
Her latest novel has become a best-seller.
c. other linking verbs can function as copulas with specific adjectives as sC:
The child fell flat on its face.
d. a verb phrase can also function as copular verb, if it indicates some kind of identity of the subject and
the subject complement, according to Hasselgård, Lysvåg and Johansson, as in She is called Susan. and
She has been voted 'woman of the year'.
As be links the subject not only to a characteristic (sC realized by AdjP) or a status (sC realized by NP)
but also to a circumstance of position, place or time (Your mother is on the phone.). The complement,
underlined in the example, is then identified as adverbial complement, as described in 3.8.2.
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For reasons of clarity, during analysis and discussion, the term adverbial will commonly refer to adjuncts.
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I. O. Macari, Morpho-syntax, Lecture 3 sem. I, 2014 , Lect
then, etc.
addition also, besides, then too, for one thing ...for another (thing), furthermore, in addition, likewise, moreover,
partly...partly, etc.
similarity likewise, similarly, etc.
concession/ exactly the opposite , however, instead, nevertheless, on (the) one hand...on the other hand, on the contrary,
contrast rather, still, etc.
result accordingly, as a result, consequently, hence, then, therefore, thus, etc.
condition otherwise (= if not)
Hasselgård, Lysvåg and Johansson describe conjuncts as “text organizers, in that they guide the
hearer/reader through the text, showing how the different pieces hang together, and where they
belong in the text” (Glossary of grammatical terms used in English Grammar: Theory and Use
(2nd edition)).
c. Disjuncts are adverbials that are always optional in the clause. According to Hasselgård, Lysvåg
and Johansson, they are evaluative and express
a. the speaker's judgement of the truth of the utterance (modal disjuncts, e.g. probably,
certainly, maybe)
b. the speaker's evaluation of a fact (fact-evaluating disjuncts, e.g. fortunately, actually, to
my surprise)
c. the speaker's comment on his/her own wording of the sentence (e.g. briefly, in other
words, to tell you the truth)
d. the speaker‟s comment on the subject referent (subject-evaluating disjuncts, e.g. Wisely,
she spent the money = 'she was wise to spend the money')
The table below provides further explanations and examples regarding the form, position,
meaning and reference of the adverbial (A).
Property Property description Example
Form The adverbial is normally an adverb phrase, She quickly put her gloves on. [AdvP]
prepositional phrase, or a clause. She put her gloves in her purse. [PpP]
Occasionally, a noun phrase can function as She put her gloves on as soon as she
adverbial. could.[Adv-Cl]
Last week she put her gloves away. [PpP]
Position The adverbial is described by grammars as Quickly, she put her gloves on. [initial]
mobile, that is, it can occur in many different She quickly put her gloves on. [medial]
positions within a clause: at the beginning She put quickly her gloves on. [medial]
(clause-initial), in the middle (clause-medial), or She put her gloves quickly on. [medial]
at the end (clause-final). Additional examples She put her gloves on quickly. [final]
are provided in the table of conjuncts above.
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In such contexts, only is a „focusing adverb‟ that point to one part of a clause, in this example to the subject I.
When only focuses on the subject, it usually comes before it. Other focusing adverbs are: also, either, even, just,
mainly, mostly, neither, nor, etc.
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In such context, only is an adjective meaning either „having no equal or rival for excellence or desirability‟ or
„being the one or ones of a class with no other members‟ (only adjective)
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I. O. Macari, Morpho-syntax, Lecture 3 sem. I, 2014 , Lect
giving information about its location, as in the example above, and this makes be copular.
However, for the Romanian speaker it is more convenient to adopt the view that recognizes be as
a lexical verb expressing the existence or location of the subject, in line with the Romanian
grammar, and label adverbial complements expressing location/existence as obligatory
adverbials.
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Also called verb pattern.
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I. O. Macari, Morpho-syntax, Lecture 3 sem. I, 2014 , Lect
intransitive S-V-A Your mother| is| on the phone. pattern with obligatory A
Each pattern specifies what is required for completeness, in other words, all the elements that are
sufficient and necessary for meaningful complete clauses. However, optional adverbials can always be
added, but this does not affect the description of the basic pattern. For instance, if we add an adverbial
to a SVO clause pattern, as in The man/ is writing/ a poem/ for his lover, the verb pattern will still be
recognized as SVO.
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Also called verb pattern.
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a verb with a valency of one (=a one-place verb) needs only a subject in order to build a
complete sentence. A verb with a valency of two (=a two-place verb) needs two other
clause elements (subject + direct object, subject + subject predicative, or subject +
adverbial). A verb with a valency of three (=a three-place verb) needs three other clause
elements (subject+ indirect object + direct object, subject+ direct object + object
predicative, or subject + direct object + adverbial). No English verb has a valency of
more than three (Hasselgård, Lysvåg, & Johansson, Glossary of grammatical terms
used in English Grammar: Theory and Use (2nd edition)).
There are many verbs in English that admit more than one type of complementation and thus
have different valencies in different patterns. They are mostly verbs of general meaning, such as
get, turn and make, as well as some of the sense verbs (smell, see, etc.). Downing and Locke
chose make, a verb that can enter into all but intransitive patterns, and propose the following
examples:
I|’ll make| some tea. SVdO
I|’ll make| you| a pizza. SViOdO
He| made| the coffee| too strong. SVdOoC
They| make| a good couple. SVsC
It| makes| for good relations. SVpO
To summarize, in English there are one-place verbs, which require a subject only (SV), two-place
verbs which involve a subject and one other element (SVO, SVC and SVA) and three-place
verbs, with a subject and two other elements ( SVOO and SVOC).
EXERCISES
Exercise 3.1 Subject, predicate, verbal
In each sentence below, underline the subject and circle the verbal.
1. Since September, the airline industry has suffered its greatest ever slump in business.
2. Analysts predict several years of diminished business.
3. Several thousand airline workers lost their jobs.
4. The general public is still nervous about flying.
5. People prefer to travel by train.
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1. The president promised the end of racial discrimination, but he rejected the black demand for
one man, one vote.
2. That sort of democracy would mean rule by a black majority, which might feel an
understandable urge for retribution for past oppressions.
3. Whites, equally understandably, want safeguards for white rights, but you cannot ensure
safeguards once you surrender your power.
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