I. O. Macari, Morpho-syntax, Lecture 3 sem.

I, 2014

3. Clause functional categories and functions

3.1. Clause elements

In accordance with the rank scale principle, a clause is made up of one or more clause elements,
which are the grammatical functions of the phrases constituting the clause. Kies (papyr.com)
proposes a distinction between functional categories and clause functions, and identifies them as
follows1:

Functional Categories Eight Clause Functions

(1) subject [1] subject
(2) verbal2 [2] verbal
[3] direct object
(3) objects
[4] indirect object
[5] object complement
(4) complements
[6] subject complement
[7] adverbial complement
(5) adverbials
[8] adverbial
The following abbreviations are commonly used for the clause functions: subject (S), verbal (V),
direct object (dO), indirect object (iO), object complement (oC), subject complement (sC),
adverbial complement (aC) and adverbial (A).
The first two elements, the subject and the verbal, have central functions in the clause, while the
rest have peripheral functions. The distinction is similar in Romanian, where we talk about parts
of sentence with syntactic functions. Subiectul and predicatul are the main parts of the sentence,
and the rest are secondary parts. Examples for each type are provided below.
1. subject (S): The student was reading a poem.
2. verbal (V): The student was reading a poem.
3. object (O):
3.1. direct object (dO): The student was reading a poem.
3.2. indirect object (iO): The student was reading a poem to her.
1
Examples will be provided and discussed further on.
2
Although most grammars use the term verb, this course has adopted the term verbal proposed by Hasselgård,
Lysvåg and Johansson in Glossary of grammatical terms used in English Grammar: Theory and Use (2nd
edition), because it avoids confusion between verb as word class and as function.

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 I. O. Macari, Morpho-syntax, Lecture 3 sem. I, 2014

4. complement (C):
4.1. subject complement/ subject predicative (sC/ sP): It was beautiful. / He became a
student.;
4.2. object complement/ object predicative (oC/ oP): She found it beautiful. / They made
it a symbol of their love.
5. adverbial (A): The student was reading a poem in his room.
At this point it might be useful to look at the correspondences that can be identified between the
English and the Romanian clause functions.
English Romanian
clause element/ function funcție sintactică/parte de
propoziție
subject subiect
-3 atribut
verbal predicat
direct object complement direct
indirect object complement indirect
subject complement nume predicativ
object complement element predicativ suplimentar
adverbial complement circumstanțial
By seeing the elements in both languages side by side, the similarities and the differences
between them become more obvious, and such awareness can be very useful in the process of
grammatical analysis. Further comments and examples will be provided below.

3.2. The Subject

3.2.1. Definition and properties

The subject is the element of a clause – or, in other words, the syntactic function - normally
positioned before the verb phrase and consisting of a noun phrase. Thus, in The old man is
climbing the ladder and Recently they have won the elections, the old man and they are the
subjects, preceding the verbals is climbing and have won.
Unlike in Romanian, where the subject can be omitted quite frequently, in English it must be present
in affirmative, negative and interrogative clauses. In both languages, it is not required in the
imperative and in sequences of two or more conjoined clauses which have the same subject (except
in the first clause, where the subject must appear).
In Romanian and in English, subjects influence certain grammatical choices within the clause. Thus,
subject – verbal agreement, as well as (where relevant) person, number, case, and gender agreement
of several other elements within the clause are governed by the subject.

3
Although there are English grammars that use the term attribute, this constituent is only rarely assigned a function in
syntax that is similar to that in Romanian. The terms subject attribute (for subject complement) and object attribute (for
object complement) may serve as examples of differences in terminology and assignation. In order to avoid a possible
source of confusion for the Romanian student, the approach taken by this course will not list the attribute among the
elements of the clause.

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 I. O. Macari, Morpho-syntax, Lecture 3 sem. I, 2014

As for its definition, Kies (Kies) objects to traditional semantic definitions of the subject, by
referring to it as ―what the sentence is about‖ or as ―the topic of the sentence‖ or as the ―actor
performing the action described by the verb‖, and considers them grammatically misleading,
because such definitions ―blend different ideas that are best understood if kept apart‖. He prefers
to define the subject by the properties that can be used to identify it within a clause: form,
position, agreement, pronouns, and voice. Actually, much of the discussion of the clause
elements will be tailored on Kies‘ approach (Kies) for reasons related to conciseness and clarity.
property property description example
form The subject usually consists of a noun phrase or |Her claim| proves nothing.
clause. |That she claims her innocence| proves
nothing.
position The subject is usually positioned before the verb |The old man| is climbing the ladder.
in the indicative mood, after the operator in [indicative mood]
interrogative structures, and absent, but implied,
in the imperative mood. Is |the old man| climbing the ladder?
[interrogative]

Climb |the ladder|! [imperative mood]

Notice: In questions where who, what or an Who (S) let (V) the dogs out?
interrogative phrase such as which person is the
subject, the subject comes before the Verb.

agree- 1. Subjects usually determine the number (sg. or |The old man| is climbing| the ladder|.
ment pl.) and person (1st, 2nd, 3rd) of other elements in [sg., 3rd person]
the clause. The subject determines the number |The old men |are climbing |the ladder.
and person, where relevant, of the verb in finite [pl., 3rd person]
clauses.
|The old man| is |my grand-father| (sC).
2. The subject determines the number and person,
[sg., 3rd person]
where relevant, of any noun phrase functioning as
the subject complement. |The old men| are |my uncles| (sC). [pl.,
3rd person]
3. The subject determines the number, person, |He| could get in and out of the rented
and gender, where relevant, of 'reflexive' hospital bed in our living room, half
pronouns — pronouns ending with the -self or - sliding, half pulling himself into it like a
selves inflections. large, damaged animal seeking shelter
[…]. (thesunmagazine. org) [sg., 3rd
person, masc.]

|They| could get in and out of the rented

hospital bed […] pulling themselves […].
[pl., 3rd person, masc./ fem.]

4. The subject determines the number, person, In the colonies, when |a gentleman|
and gender, where relevant, of the emphatic sounds his own trumpet he 'blows.' [sg.,
pronoun own in structures such as my own or 3rd person, masc.] (www. phrases.org.uk)

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 I. O. Macari, Morpho-syntax, Lecture 3 sem. I, 2014

their own. In the colonies, when |gentlemen |sound

their own trumpets they 'blow.' [pl., 3rd
person, masc./fem.]

pronouns The subject determines the case, where relevant, |They| got in just under the wire.
of any pronoun in subject function; that is, the (www.phrases.org. uk)
subject function requires the
subjective/nominative form of the pronoun.

voice There is a systematic relationship between the
subject of a clause and voice (active or passive).
The active voice subject corresponds to an
adverbial (beginning with the preposition by) in
the passive voice.
|Immediately| I (S)| airbrushed away| a
persistent thought|. [active voice] (thesun
magazine.org)
|A persistent thought (S)| was airbrushed
away| by me (A)|. [passive voice].

Notice: We can omit the subject of the active |A persistent thought (S)| was airbrushed
sentence when we form the passive sentence, and away|.
indeed we generally do so. The agent is omitted
whenever the doer carrying it out is either
unknown or unimportant to the context.

Downing and Locke provide a clear and easy criterion to identify the subject: ―The subject is that
element which is picked up in a question tag […] and referred to anaphorically by a pronoun:
Your brother is a ski instructor, isnt he?, Susie won’t mind waiting a moment, will she?”(2006, 43)
It would be useful now to look at the table above from the viewpoint of the Romanian grammar,
in order to identify the similarities and the differences between the criteria used for the
identification of the subject in the two languages. For reasons of clarity and comprehensibility, I
will retain the examples above and translate them into Romanian; where necessary, I will provide
additional ones.
property property description example

form 1. The subject in Romanian usually consists of a |Afirmația| ei nu dovedește nimic.

noun/fixed nominal expression4 , a pronoun, a verb/
fixed verbal expression 5 in the infinitive, supine or
gerund, a numeral, or an interjection.Notice that in the
example the subject consists only in the noun

4
locuțiune substantivală
5
locuțiune verbală

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 I. O. Macari, Morpho-syntax, Lecture 3 sem. I, 2014

afirmația6 (while in English the subject consisted in

the whole NP – her claim).

2. Unlike in English, in Romanian the subject can be a. Bătrânul urcă scara și

elided 7 in two situations: a. when it was already fredonează un cântec.
expressed in a previous clause/ sentence8 and b. when
it can be inferred from the verb desinence9.

b. Urc încet scara abruptă.

3. The subject cannot consist of a clause in Romanian. [Că își afirmă nevinovăția] nu
dovedește nimic.

position The subject is usually positioned before the verb in the Bătrânul urcă scara. [indicative
indicative mood, after the verb in interrogative wh- mood]
structures, and absent, but implied, in the imperative
mood. Ce urcă bătrânul? [interrogative]

Urcă scara! [imperative mood]

agree- 1. Subjects usually determine the number (sg. or pl.) Bătrânul urcă scara. [sg., 3rd
ment and person (1st, 2nd, 3rd) of other elements in the person]
clause. The subject determines the number and
person, where relevant, of the verb in finite clauses. Bătrânii urcă scara. [pl., 3rd
person]

2. The subject determines the number, gender and Bătrânul este bunicul meu. (nume
person, where relevant, of any noun phrase predicativ). [sg., 3rd person]
functioning as nume predicativ.
Bătrânii sunt unchii mei. (nume
predicativ). [pl., 3rd person]

3. The subject determines the number, person, and Bătrânul se pregătește să urce
gender, where relevant, of 'reflexive' pronouns. scara. [sg./pl., 3rd person, masc./
fem.]

Ți-ai pregătit plecarea cu grijă.

6
ei este atribut. Atributul este definit ca partea secundară de propoziție care determină un substantiv sau un substitut al
acestuia (pronume, numeral sau adjectiv substantivizat) pe care îl precizează, îl identifică sau îl califică indicând o
caracteristică sau o calitate a acestuia. Răspunde la întrebările: care?, ce fel de?, al/a/ai/ale cui?, câți?, câte? (ro.wikipedia.org).
7
neexprimat
8
subiectul subînțeles
9
subiectul inclus

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 I. O. Macari, Morpho-syntax, Lecture 3 sem. I, 2014

[sg., 2nd person]

The subject determines the number, person, and Bătrânul însuși se pregătește să
gender, where relevant, of the emphatic pronoun10 . urce scara. [sg., 3rd person, masc.]

Ți-ai pregătit tu însuți plecarea cu

grijă. [sg., 2nd person, masc.]

pronouns The subject determines the case, where relevant, of Voi ați întârziat, nu el.
any pronoun in subject function; that is, the subject
function requires the subjective/ nominative form of
the pronoun.

voice There is a systematic relationship between the subject El (S) îndepărtă un gând enervat.
of a clause and voice (active or passive). The active [active voice]
voice subject corresponds to the complement de agent
(beginning with the preposition de către) in the Un gând enervant (S) fu
passive voice. indepărtat de el. (complement de
agent). [passive voice].

Notice: We can omit the subject of the active sentence Un gând enervant (S) fu
when we form the passive sentence, and indeed we îndepărtat de el. (complement de
generally do so. The agent is omitted whenever the agent). [passive voice].
doer carrying it out is either unknown or unimportant
to the context.

Downing and Locke (2006, 44-48) identify the various classes of phrases and clauses Subjects can
consist of. Thus, the subject is realised by:
1. noun phrases, the most prototypical realisation of the subject, as they refer to persons and
things. NPs can consist of the head only, as in the first two examples below, or of extended
structures, as in the third11 (also see 4.3.).
It is alarming.

Cocaine can damage the heart as well as the brain.

The precise number of heart attacks from using cocaine is not known.

2. dummy it, which is a non-referential/semantically empty use of the pronoun it, which occurs
in expressions of time, weather and distance.

10
Pronumele de întărire, care este folosit în româna actuală doar ca adjectiv pronominal pe lângă un pronume sau
substantiv.
11
I use here Downing and Locke‘s examples.

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 I. O. Macari, Morpho-syntax, Lecture 3 sem. I, 2014

It’s nearly three o’clock.

It’s raining.

It is six hundred kilometres from Madrid to Barcelona.

There is no plural concord between the NP complement and the verb, unlike in their Romanian
counterparts. The last example above would become Sunt șase sute de kilometri de la Madrid la
Barcelona.

3. unstressed there fulfils several of the syntactic criteria for subject (position, inversion with
auxiliaries and repetition in tag phrases) but, unlike normal subjects, it cannot be replaced by a
pronoun. Concord, when made, is with the following NP.
There was only one fine day last week, wasn’t there?

There were only two fine days last week, weren’t there?

Notice that concord with the following NP is made in writing, but not always in informal speech
with the present tense of be, and is never made when the NP is a series of proper names:
How many are coming? Well, there’s Andrew and Silvia, and Jo and Pete.

There are Andrew and Silvia and Jo and Pete.

Because of the lack of concord and pronominalisation, unstressed there can be regarded as a
subject ‗place-holder‘ or ‗syntactic filler‘, rather than a full subject.

4. prepositional phrase and adverbial phrase, which function only marginally as subject and usually
specify meanings of time or place. However, instrumental meanings and idiomatic manner uses can also
occur.
Will up in the front suit you? (PP of place)

Before midday would be convenient. (PP of time)

By plane costs more than by train. (PP of means)

Just here would be an ideal place for a picnic. (AdvP of place)

Slowly/gently does it! (AdvP of manner)

5. the head of an adjective phrase12 preceded by the definite article the, which represents
either (a) conventionally recognised classes of people, as in The handicapped are given special

12
Only certain adjectives can fulfil this position. See 4.3.

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 I. O. Macari, Morpho-syntax, Lecture 3 sem. I, 2014

facilities in public places, or (b) abstractions, as in This novel plunges the reader into a universe
in which the comic, the tragic, the real and the imagined dissolve into one another.
6. Embedded clauses.
As Downing and Locke note, ―clauses can realise every element or function of clause structure
except the verbal. [...] Both finite and non-finite clauses are available for embedding but not
every clause function is realised by all types of clause.‖ (Downing & Locke, 2006, p. 46)
They are illustrated in the following examples, where they all realise the subject element the two
main types of embedded finite clause (A): a) that-clauses and b) wh-clauses, the latter being
either indirect interrogative clauses or nominal relative clauses.
That he failed his driving test surprised everybody. (that-clause)

Why the library was closed for months was not explained. (wh-interrogative)

What he said shocked me. (wh-nominal relative clause)

a) that-clauses at subject are used only in formal styles; in everyday use they are preceded by the
fact. The that-clause thus becomes part a NP functioning as subject:

The fact that he failed his driving test surprised everybody. (NP)

o the subject that-clause is frequently extraposed, as in It surprised everybody that he

failed his driving test.
b) wh-interrogative clauses express indirect questions. They do not take the inversion
characteristic of ordinary interrogatives.

Why was the library closed for months was not explained is not acceptable.

 nominal relative clauses also have a wh-element, but they express entities and can be
paraphrased by ‗that which‘ or ‗the thing(s) which‘: What he said pleased me = ‗that
which’/the things which he said pleased me.
(B) Non-finite clauses as subject are of two main types, depending on the VP they contain: a)
to-infinitive, which can be introduced by a wh-word, and b) -ing clauses. Bare infinitive clauses
are very rarely used (4th example).
To take such a risk was rather foolish. (to-inf. clause)

Where to leave the dog is the problem. (wh- + to-inf. clause)

Having to go back for the tickets was a nuisance. (-ing clause)

Move the car was what we did. (bare infinitive clause)

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 I. O. Macari, Morpho-syntax, Lecture 3 sem. I, 2014

Unlike bare infinitive clauses, to-infinitive and -ing clauses at subject can have their own subject.
A to-infinitive clause with its own subject is introduced by for:
For everyone to escape was impossible. (For + S + to-inf.)

Sam having to go back for the tickets was a nuisance. (S + ing-cl.)

The pronominal subject of an -ing clause can be in the genitive or the accusative case. The
accusative form is the less formal:
Him/his having to go back for the tickets was a nuisance.
7. Anticipatory it + extraposed13 subject
Downng and Locke note that ―subjects such as that he failed to pass the driving test and for
everyone to escape sound awkward and top-heavy, especially in spoken English. The derived
structure with ‗anticipatory it‘ is now generally preferred, as it is much easier to encode and the
pronoun it is the ‗lightest‘ possible subject filler‖ (Downing & Locke, 2006, p. 47)
It surprised everybody that he failed his driving test.

It was impossible for everyone to escape.

Both the that-clause and the to-infinitive clause are extraposed, that is, placed after the dO
(everybody) or sC (impossible). The initial subject position is filled by the pronoun it.
Extraposition is used in both speech and writing when the subject is long and is better placed at
the end of the sentence.
Extraposed subjects frequently occur as postmodifiers of a noun or adjective in S V sC
structures:
It’s a pity (that) you are leaving the firm. (That you are leaving the firm is a pity)

It’s easy to forget your keys. (To forget your keys is easy)

3.3.2. The meanings of the subject14

Though the clause elements are grammatical, not semantic categories, they are however
associated with certain meanings.
1. In sentences with a transitive or intransitive verb, the subject typically has an agentive role (it
denotes the person that performs the action).

13
extraposition = a construction/ transformation in which a clause that acts as a subject is moved (or extraposed) to
the end of the sentence and replaced by dummy it in the initial position. In certain cases extraposition of a
modifying clause is prohibited. In other cases, with a small set of verbs (including appear, happen, and seem),
extraposition is obligatory. (grammar.about.com)
14
The meanings listed here were identified by Sidney Greenbaum and Gerald Nelson in An Introduction to English
Grammar, Longman, 2002

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 I. O. Macari, Morpho-syntax, Lecture 3 sem. I, 2014

The old man climbed the ladder.

2. The identified role of the subject is typical of structures with a linking verb (usually with a sC
consisting of a NP15).
Jane is the new manager.
3. The characterized role is also typical of structures with a linking verb (usually with a sC
consisting of an AdjP).
The girls were happy.
4. With intransitive verbs, the subject frequently has the affected role; it stands for the person or
thing directly affected by the action, but not intentionally performing it.
They were dying.
5. Whenever there is no participant, it takes the function of the subject.
It’s raining.

3.3. The Verbal

3.3.1. Definition and properties

The function of verbal is the least ambiguous in English grammar since only one category (the
verb phrase) realises this function (Hasselgård, Lysvåg, & Johansson, Glossary of grammatical
terms used in English Grammar: Theory and Use (2nd edition)). The verbal is defined at clause
level as the central element, consisting, unlike the Predicate, exclusively of verb words 16 . It
would be useful to note here that it closely corresponds to the Romanian ―predicat verbal‖ and to
the verbal part of ―predicatul nominal‖. However, unlike in Romanian, the verbal function is
realised in English by both finite (e.g. calls) and non-finite (calling) lexical and primary verbs.
A verbal may consist of one word (read) or more than one verb words (might be calling). This is
also true about the Romanian predicat which may consist of simple or compound forms such as
citesc and am citit or aș fi citit, respectively. In both Romanian and English, auxiliaries precede
the main verb.
Like the subject, the verbal is recognizable by a combination of the following formal and
functional properties.
property property description example
form The verbal is composed of a main verb with The man climbs the ladder every day.

15
The level of phrases will be discussed in the next section. Until then note the following abbreviations: noun phrase
– NP, verb phrase –VP, adjective phrase – AdjP, adverb phrase – AdvP, prepositional phrase – PpP.
16
Some grammarians include in the verbal all the elements following it, such as the object and the adverbial, so in
this view, the verbal becomes an equivalent of the predicate, but this book has adopted the first definition.

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 I. O. Macari, Morpho-syntax, Lecture 3 sem. I, 2014

or without auxiliaries. The man is climbing the ladder.

position The verbal usually occurs after the subject in The old man is climbing the ladder. [indicative
the indicative mood, around the subject in mood]
questions, and at the beginning of the clause in
the imperative mood. Is the old man climbing the ladder?
[interrogative]

Climb the ladder! [imperative mood]

agree- The verb corresponds in number (sg. or pl.) The old man is climbing the ladder. [sg., 3rd
ment with the subject in finite clauses. person]

tense The verb of a finite clause is marked for tense The man climbs the ladder every day. [present]
(present or past).
The man climbed the ladder every day. [past]

modality The verb can be marked as predicating The man might climb the ladder every day.
something other than simple fact (modal).

aspect The verb can be marked as completing or The man has climbed the ladder recently.[perfect]
continuing the process indicated by the main
verb (perfect and/or progressive). The man was climbing the ladder. [progressive]

The man has been climbing the ladder. [perfect

and progressive]

voice The verb is marked for voice (active or Immediately I airbrushed away a persistent
passive). thought. [active voice] (thesunmagazine.org)

A persistent thought was airbrushed away by me.

[passive voice].

According to Geoffrey Leech (2006: 121-2), the verbal involves five principal choices. The first
choice, of tense, is between present and past tense, and involves choosing the appropriate form of
the finite verb, e.g., am/is/are ~ was/were; has/have ~ had; write(s) ~ wrote. The remaining four
choices are whether to use two-verb constructions, whether alone or in combination. They are:
modal construction: modal auxiliary+infinitive must eat

perfect construction: have+past participle has eaten

progressive construction: be+-ing participle is eating

passive construction: be+past participle is eaten

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 I. O. Macari, Morpho-syntax, Lecture 3 sem. I, 2014

These constructions can be combined in the order stated:

modal+perfect modal auxiliary+have+past participle must have eaten

modal+progressive modal auxiliary+be+ing must be eating

modal+passive modal auxiliary+be+past participle must be eaten

perfect+progressive have+been+past participle has been eating

perfect+passive have+been+past participle has been eaten

progressive+passive be+-ing+past participle is being eaten

A further combination, namely of three constructions, is also possible, though rare.

modal+perfect+ progressive: modal auxiliary+have+been+-ing must have been eating

modal+perfect+ passive modal auxiliary+have+been+past must have been eaten

participle

modal+progressive+ passive: modal auxiliary+be+being+past participle must be being eaten

perfect+progressive+ passive: have+been+being+past participle has been being eaten

(Leech 2006: 121-2)

3.3.2. The meanings of the verbal17

The main distinction is between the meanings of stative and dynamic verbs.
1. Stative verbs introduce a quality attributed to the subject or a state of affairs.
She is a member of the board.

He has two cousins in London.

2. Dynamic verbs introduce events (actions, activities, processes, etc.) as opposed to states. They
refer to something that happens.
They work hard all day.
3. Dynamic verbs can normally occur in the progressive form.
They were listening to her.
4. When stative verbs occur in the progressive form, they change their meaning and become
dynamic verbs.

17
The meanings listed here were identified by Sidney Greenbaum and Gerald Nelson in An Introduction to English
Grammar, Longman, 2002

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 I. O. Macari, Morpho-syntax, Lecture 3 sem. I, 2014

She is seeing him in an hour. (that is, they will meet in an hour.)

3.4. The Direct Object

3.4.1. Definition and properties

The direct object is the element of the clause which normally follows the main verb, and
corresponds to the subject of a passive clause. Compare:
But the surgeon had smashed the idea of privacy in the hospital. - the idea of privacy is the object.
But the idea of privacy had been smashed in the hospital […]. (thesunmagazine.org) - the idea of
privacy is subject of the passive.
There is a close similarity between the direct object in English and the Romanian complement
direct, as well as between the indirect object and the complement indirect. Their functions are
analogous in the two languages and similar steps are taken in the course of the grammatical
analysis for identifying them. Nevertheless, you should note that, from a grammatical viewpoint,
the terms complement (English) and complement (Romanian) are false friends.
The direct object is also identifiable by its formal and functional properties.
property property description example
form The direct object usually has the form of a The man is climbing the ladder. [NP]
noun phrase or clause.
At the time she thought [that he’d had the
flu]. (the sunmagazine.org) [nominal-Cl18]

position Direct objects usually occur after the subject

and verb, as in the examples above.

pronouns If the subject and the direct object of a clause You (S) should see yourself (dO)!
refer to the same entity, then the direct object
will be in the form of a reflexive pronoun. The
reflexive pronoun will agree with the subject in
number, person, and gender, where relevant.

All other pronouns assuming the object Bob loves her.

function will take the objective/accusative form
(me, him, her, us, them – not I, she, we, they).

voice There is also a systematic relationship between Immediately I airbrushed away a persistent
the direct object of an active voice clause and thought. (thesunmagazine.org) [active

18
Cl will thereafter be used as an abbreviation for clause.

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 I. O. Macari, Morpho-syntax, Lecture 3 sem. I, 2014

the subject of a passive voice clause. The object voice]

of the active voice clause corresponds to the
subject in the passive voice equivalent. A persistent thought was airbrushed away
by me. [passive voice].

Because the identification of the direct object can pose problems, I find it useful to resort to an
adaptation of Downing and Locke‘s enumeration of the main forms (they call them realisations)
illustrated with the original examples (2006: 51-2). Thus, a direct object may consist of:
1. a noun phrase. As in the case of the subject, the NP can range from a pronoun or proper name (a) to
longer and more complex NPs as in (b), or even to clauses (c).
a. I don’t understand it.

b. Forest fires are threatening the world’s remaining population of orangutangs.

c. Have you read that new novel I lent you?

2. the semantically empty pronoun it - necessary as an ‗anticipatory direct object‘ in SVOC structures
in which the direct object is realised by a finite or non-finite clause.
S V (dO) oC dO

I find it strange that he refuses to come.

She might consider it insulting for you to leave now.

You must find it flattering having so many fans.

3. prepositional phrases of time or place can marginally realise direct object.

I would prefer before noon for a meeting.

Don’t choose by a swamp for a picnic.

4. finite clauses: nominal that-clauses19 and wh-clauses

They fear that there may be no survivors. (nominal that-clause)

No-one knows where he lives. (wh-clause)

You can eat whatever you like. (wh-nominal clause)

Both that-clauses and wh-clauses functioning as direct objects can sometimes become subject in a
passive clause and then be extraposed:

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that is often omitted in informal styles.

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 I. O. Macari, Morpho-syntax, Lecture 3 sem. I, 2014

It is feared that there may be no survivors. (extraposed cl.)

It is not known where he lives. (extraposed cl.)

However, passivisation is not a unique criterion for assigning object status. A more reliable test is the
wh-cleft paraphrase; it can be applied to the following example, which rejects passivisation but fulfils
the wh-cleft test:
I wonder whether they know the truth.

Whether they know the truth is wondered.

What I wonder is whether they know the truth.

5. non-finite clauses: infinitive clauses with or without to and -ing clauses.

Many Londoners prefer to travel by train.

Many Londoners prefer travelling by train.

 Notice that the non-finite clause can be replaced by a NP (prefer the train) or by it/that (prefer it).
 Also note that the non-finite clause can be made the focus of a wh-cleft sentence (What many
Londoners prefer is to travel/ travelling by train).
By using the criteria above, an analogous table can be compiled for the direct object in Romanian. For
reasons of clarity and comprehensibility, where possible, I will retain the original examples in the English
table and translate them into Romanian. Where necessary, I will provide additional ones.
Property Property description Example
Form The direct object in Romanian usually consists of a Bărbatul urcă scara înaltă. [NP]
noun/fixed nominal expression, a pronoun, a verb/
fixed verbal expression in the infinitive, supine or A asculta tăcerea e o artă. [NP]
gerund, a numeral, or an interjection. A asculta cum tace muntele e o
Notice that, in the example, the direct object consists artă. [NP]
only in the noun scara (while in English the direct
object would consist in the whole NP – the high
ladder).
Also note that the non-finite verbs (the infinitive, supine
and gerund) can also take direct objects.
The direct object cannot consist of a clause in
Romanian

Position Direct objects usually occur after the subject and verb, Pe fată nimeni n-o cunoștea.
as in the examples.

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 I. O. Macari, Morpho-syntax, Lecture 3 sem. I, 2014

Nevertheless, due to a freer word order in Romanian, in [NP]

combination with the preposition pe, the direct object
can precede both the verbal and the subject.

Pronoun The direct object is reiterated in the weak forms of Nimeni n-o cunoștea pe fată.
s the pronoun in the accusative. [-o in the example
above] when the direct object precedes the verb.
When the direct object follows the verb, it is Pe fată nimeni n-o cunoștea.
anticipated by pronouns. Such pronouns will agree
with the object in number, person, and gender, where
relevant20.
All pronouns assuming the object function will take M-a sunat pe mine întâi.
the objective/accusative form.

Voice There is also a systematic relationship between the M-a sunat pe mine întâi.
direct object of an active voice clause and the subject
of a passive voice clause. The object of the active Eu am fost sunat întâi. [passive
voice clause corresponds to the subject in the passive voice].
voice equivalent.

In both English and Romanian grammars, in terms of meaning, the direct/indirect object is often
identified with the person, thing, etc. that is directly/indirectly affected by the action described by
the verb. Put differently, while the subject typically represents the doer, the object typically
represents the doee.

3.4.2. The meanings of the direct object21

1. affected (the typical role of the dO)
She waved her hand.
2. resultant (the dO may refer to something that is a result of the action)
He’s written a novel.
3. eventive (the dO may refer to an event) The eventive object generally contains a noun derived
from a verb.
We were having a fight. (cf: We were fighting.)

20
Pe fată și -o formează un complement direct simplu dublat fie prin anticipare, fie prin reluare.
21
The meanings listed here were identified by Sidney Greenbaum and Gerald Nelson in An Introduction to English
Grammar, Longman, 2002

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