Energy and Buildings 34 (2002) 573–579

Displacement ventilation environments with chilled ceilings:

thermal comfort design within the context of the
BS EN ISO7730 versus adaptive debate
D.L. Lovedaya,*, K.C. Parsonsb, A.H. Takic, S.G. Hodderb
a
Department of Civil and Building Engineering, Loughborough University, Loughborough, UK
b
Department of Human Sciences, Loughborough University, Loughborough, UK
c
School of Architecture, De Montfort University, Leicester, UK

Abstract

The current design standard BS EN ISO7730 [Moderate thermal environments—determination of the PMV and PPD indices and
specification of the conditions for thermal comfort, International Standards Organisation (1995)] is based upon the work of Fanger, and
essentially comprises a steady-state human heat balance model that leads to a prediction of the sensation of human thermal comfort for a given
set of thermal conditions. The model was derived from laboratory-based measurements conducted in the mid-1960s in relatively
‘conventional’ environments. However, a chilled ceiling operated in combination with displacement ventilation represents a more
sophisticated environment as compared with the original conditions in which the Fanger model was derived. This raised a question about
the applicability of the current standard when designing for thermal comfort in offices equipped with chilled ceiling/displacement ventilation
systems. This paper presents findings from an EPSRC-funded study that sought to answer the above question. Human test subjects (184 in
total) carried out sedentary office-type work in a well-controlled environmental test room that simulated an office fitted with the above system.
Measurements of environmental variables were taken at a number of locations near the subjects, each of whom wore a typical office clothing
ensemble. The reported thermal comfort sensations were compared with values predicted from BS EN ISO7730 over a range of system
operating conditions. It was shown that the current standard BS EN ISO7730 may be used, without modification, when designing for the
thermal comfort of sedentary workers in offices equipped with chilled ceiling/displacement ventilation systems. These findings are interpreted
within the context of a proposed modification to thermal comfort design standards that includes adaptive effects, and the influence of BS EN
ISO7730 on the development of other radiant surface/displacement ventilation configurations is discussed. # 2002 Published by Elsevier
Science B.V.

Keywords: Chilled ceiling; Displacement ventilation; BS EN ISO7730; Adaptive thermal comfort.

1. Introduction
In industrialised countries, energy usage in buildings is
responsible for approximately 50% of carbon dioxide emis-
sions. A significant fraction of this energy is consumed to
provide comfortable, habitable, conditions indoors. In many
countries, the prevailing climate frequently leads to the use
of air-conditioning for providing such indoor comfort. How-
ever, air-conditioning is recognised as an energy-intensive
solution. For example, in the United Kingdom alone, air-
conditioning systems consumed about 3% of annual national
electricity production in 1995 [2], yet the UK cannot be
regarded as possessing a climate that necessitates significant
use of air-conditioning. Fears about global warming have
*
Corresponding author. Tel.: þ44-1509-222635.
E-mail address: d.l.loveday@lboro.ac.uk (D.L. Loveday).
added urgency to the search for lower energy techniques for
the conditioning of building spaces. Among these techni-
ques are displacement ventilation and radiant surface heat-
ing or cooling.
Displacement ventilation of a room takes place by intro-
ducing the supply air at low level and at low velocity. The air
enters at a temperature slightly less than that of the average
room air, and density differences cause the supply air to form
a layer over the floor. Warm sources in the room (occupants,
appliances) cause the lower level air to rise and form
convective plumes that remove heat and contaminants from
the sources. The warm, contaminated air is then extracted at,
or near, ceiling level. The system is able to provide an
environment of improved air quality as compared with the
mixing of air, which occurs in conventional HVAC systems
(for the same air flow rate conditions). Also, the same heat
loads can be removed for a supply air temperature of

0378-7788/02/$ – see front matter # 2002 Published by Elsevier Science B.V.

PII: S 0 3 7 8 - 7 7 8 8 ( 0 2 ) 0 0 0 0 7 - 5
574 D.L. Loveday et al. / Energy and Buildings 34 (2002) 573–579
typically 19 8C, as compared with an air temperature of
about 13 8C in HVAC systems. As a result of thermal
comfort limitations given in BS EN ISO Standard 7730
[1], and currently assumed by practitioners to hold well in
displacement ventilation environments (namely, that the
vertical air temperature gradient should be less than
3 K m1), a displacement ventilation system is limited to
removing a convective load of upto about 30 W m2 of floor
area. However, since office thermal loads can frequently
exceed this figure, additional cooling in the form of radiant
surfaces is employed.
Chilled ceilings are the form of radiant surface that is
most usually specified with a displacement ventilation sys-
tem to provide the additional load removal. The ceiling
surface is typically operated at a temperature of 16–19 8C.
Chilled ceilings can remove thermal loads of up to
100 W m2 of floor area by the combined processes of
radiation and convection, and are considered to enhance
the thermal comfort sensation of occupants in a manner
analogous to the outdoors and beneath the open sky. When
combined with displacement ventilation, the advantages
offered by each system separately (improved air quality,
enhanced thermal comfort) are claimed to be retained for the
combined arrangement, but is this actually the case?
An EPSRC-funded research project was set up to answer
not only the above question, but also to determine the extent
to which existing guidance in the form of standard BS EN
ISO7730 [1] can be used to design for thermal comfort in
combined chilled ceiling/displacement ventilation environ-
ments. The standard is based upon the work of Fanger,
whose steady-state model for predicting thermal comfort
Fig. 1. Illustration of the experimental facility.
was derived from measurements made in the mid-1960s in
more ‘conventional’ environments. Chilled ceilings, displa-
cement ventilation, and the combined system produce envir-
onments that are more sophisticated than those used in the
original derivation of the Fanger comfort model, and so it
became necessary to investigate the applicability of the
existing standard to such new situations.
The full results of the above investigation have been
published elsewhere [3–5]. In this paper, we provide a
summary of the key results relating to the applicability of
the current standard BS EN ISO7730 for thermal comfort
predictions in such environments. This is followed by a brief
review of recent developments in the technology of radiant
surfaces/displacement ventilation with particular emphasis
on the influence that the current standard has had in shaping
such developments. Finally, the findings are interpreted
within the context of the adaptive approach for thermal
comfort determination. Outcomes are discussed in relation
to recent deliberation on the question of discrepancies
between predicted and reported comfort sensations.
2. Test facility and measurements
A test room was constructed to act as an office environ-
ment, employing a chilled ceiling and displacement ventila-
tion system (Fig. 1). It is a lightweight room 5.4 m long, 3 m
wide and 2.8 m high, and its four walls are clad with Frenger
panels offering control of the wall surface temperatures. The
chilled ceiling and displacement ventilation system con-
sisted of commercially available units. The chilled ceiling
 D.L. Loveday et al. / Energy and Buildings 34 (2002) 573–579
has a 90% active area and consists of six individual circuits
connected in parallel. Each circuit, in turn, comprises four or
five chilled panels connected in series, and the area of each
circuit is approximately 2.5 m2. The circuits can be activated
individually or collectively. Displacement ventilation is
provided by a semi-cylindrical wall-mounted diffuser
fitted at one end of the room; this is supplied with fresh
air which can be tempered and humidified prior to entry into
the space.
The room is equipped with a window which overlooks the
external environment, so as to preserve the impression of a
normal office. However, the window consists of seven layers
of glass, providing insulation from the external environment,
and thus, minimising temperature differences between wall
and glass surfaces; this effect is enhanced by extending the
water flow network (used to achieve a suitable temperature
for the internal surfaces of the test room) to include the
window itself. All environmental parameters within the
room are controllable; these include supply air flow rate,
air temperature, relative humidity, mean radiant temperature
and the surface temperature of the chilled ceiling.
The test room is carpeted and furnished to a normal office
standard, and is equipped with thermal dummies to simulate
human heat sources. All surface temperatures in the room
are measured using copper/constantan thermocouples (Type
T) to a resolution of 0.2 8C. The vertical air temperature
profile in the room was recorded using eight radiation-
shielded thermocouples (Type T) mounted on a column.
The mean radiant temperature and the mean air velocity
were measured at three heights (0.1, 0.6 and 1.1 m) above
the floor using a Type 1213 Bruel and Kjaer indoor climatic
analyser. All environmental parameters were logged every
5 s and average values were calculated every 5 min.
3. Validity of BS EN ISO7730
To investigate the validity of the current standard, paid
volunteer subjects were recruited for experiments in the test
room. An ensemble of appropriately sized typical office
clothing was provided by the experimenters for each subject,
consisting of, for males, long sleeve, white cotton shirt
buttoned to the neck; neck tie; dark mixed-fibre trousers
(65% polyester, 35% viscose), and for females, long sleeve,
white cotton shirt buttoned to the neck (same type as for
male subjects); dark, mixed-fibre knee-length skirt (65%
polyester, 35% viscose, and with 100% nylon lining); a pair
of 15-denier nylon tights. The subjects wore their own
undergarments (males—cotton underpants and cotton
socks); females—bra and cotton pants) and their own office
shoes (no sandals or training shoes). The clo value of both
the male and female ensemble was estimated to be 0.75 clo.
This value was obtained from data presented in EN ISO
(1995) for that combination of garments. The thermal
insulation afforded by the subject’s chair was also accounted
for in the analysis.
575
In order to determine the effect of ceiling temperature and
relative humidity on thermal comfort, 128 subjects (64
males, 64 females) in the age range of 21–60 years took
part. Subjects were admitted to the test room in groups of
four (two males, two females) to carry out office tasks
(1.2 met) at their individual work stations for a period of
3 h. Eight experimental conditions were set up: four values
of chilled ceiling surface temperature (14, 16, 18, and 21 8C)
at two levels of relative humidity (‘‘medium’’ and ‘‘low’’,
corresponding to 47 and 26% RH, respectively).
For all eight conditions, a displacement supply air tem-
perature of 19 8C at 3.9 air changes per hour was maintained.
Subjects completed a questionnaire at 15 min intervals
throughout the 3 h test, the data from the last 30 min being
used in the analysis (steady-state conditions). In calculations
of predicted mean vote (PMV) values shown in Figs. 2–4, the
values used for air temperature were those recorded at a
height of 1.1 m above the floor and, similarly, values for
mean radiant temperature (these data also being the values
recorded during the last 30 min). Calculation of PMV using
data recorded at a height of 0.6 m give values that are
reduced by less than 0.2 scale value for all conditions. This
has an insignificant effect on the results.
Figs. 2 and 3 show the comparison of PMV from BS EN
ISO7730 [1] and actual mean vote (AMV) over the condi-
tions tested. Each experimental point is the average of
16 subjects’ responses. Fig. 2 additionally shows error bars
that represent the standard deviations of the subjective
responses; similar spreads in subjective responses can be
expected in the other results given (not shown). For both low
and medium relative humidity levels, there is excellent
agreement between PMV and AMV values across the range
of ceiling temperatures investigated. As regards relative
humidity, no significant relationship with reported thermal
comfort sensation was found [4].
The effect of air change rate was investigated in another
set of experiments involving a total of 64 subjects (32 males,
32 females). Subjects followed the same procedure as above
for the following experimental conditions: four values of
displacement air supply flow rate (2.5, 3.9, 6.0 and 8.0 air
changes per hour), each at a fixed supply air temperature of
19 8C, and a chilled ceiling temperature fixed at 18 8C. The
values for air changes per hour that were selected for testing
represent a wider range than might normally be encountered
in practice so as to ensure a thorough investigation. In all
cases, the same wall-mounted diffuser was employed, the
highest air change rate tested remaining well within the
manufacturer’s recommended flow rate for the diffuser.
Fig. 4 shows the comparison of PMV and AMV.
The exceptionally good agreement between PMV and
AMV that is seen in Figs. 2–4 is considered to be the result
of, firstly, the high degree of accuracy to which each variable
(used in the Fanger model) is known under steady state
conditions. Secondly, the good agreement is considered to
also be indicative of the apparent suitability of the model
itself for the prediction of thermal comfort sensations in the
576 D.L. Loveday et al. / Energy and Buildings 34 (2002) 573–579

Fig. 2. Comparison of AMV and PMV as a function of ceiling temperature, at low relative humidity, (N ¼ 16 subjects per ceiling temperature).

type of environment under investigation. It is interesting to
note that agreement between AMV and PMV is still good,
even with the use of different values for the metabolic rate
(1.1 and 1.2 met) and for the use of different values for
the thermal insulation of clothing ensembles (0.7, 0.75
and 0.8 clo) in the calculation of PMV. From these findings,
it is concluded that Fanger’s model in the form of BS EN
ISO Standard 7730 [1] is valid, without modification,
for predicting the mean whole-body thermal comfort sen-
sations of sedentary occupants performing office-type
tasks in combined chilled ceiling/displacement ventilation
environments.

Fig. 3. Comparison of AMV and PMV as a function of ceiling temperature, at medium relative humidity, (N ¼ 16 subjects per ceiling temperature).
 D.L. Loveday et al. / Energy and Buildings 34 (2002) 573–579
Fig. 4. Comparison of AMV and PMV for four different air mass flow rates (N ¼ 16 subjects per condition).
4. System developments
In this section, we briefly review some of the recent
developments in the technology of radiant surface/displace-
ment ventilation systems, and discuss the role of BS EN
ISO7730 in shaping these developments. This review is by
no means exhaustive.
4.1. Radiant heating/cooling
As well as the use of ceilings, several papers have
considered the use of floors as radiant surfaces. Simmonds
[6] used simulation to determine strategies for optimal
design for the case of a museum equipped with a cooled
floor. The use of a radiant cooled floor and variable volume
displacement conditioning system in a large airport was
reported by Simmonds et al. [7]; here, PMV and predicted
percentage of dissatisfied (PPD) were used to assess thermal
comfort. Thermal comfort design guidance for radiant floor
cooling is given by Olesen [8] who states that floor tem-
peratures should not be lower than 19 8C for comfort of
seated/standing people, but that the temperature could be
reduced for higher activity levels. Further design guidance
for such a system is also given.
4.2. Displacement ventilation
A critical review of displacement ventilation has been
given by Yuan et al. [9]. As regards thermal comfort, they
577
report that previous investigations show (i) that large vertical
temperature differences (the current recommended maxi-
mum is 3 K m1) and (ii) draught, (risk currently evaluated
by the draught rating model in BS EN ISO7730) are
potentially the main causes of discomfort in displacement
ventilation. By increasing the flow rate (and the ability to
remove greater thermal loads), the vertical temperature
gradient can be reduced, but this could increase draught risk.
Olesen et al. [10] and Akimoto et al [11,12] have inves-
tigated the use of perforated floors for the supply of dis-
placement air (here, the larger supply area could allow greater
flow rates without increased draught risk). Heat removal rates
in excess of 40 Wm2 have been reported whilst remaining
within current thermal comfort design limits.
Another approach was reported by Loomans [13] in which
a desk displacement ventilation system was employed in an
attempt to create a local mircoclimate around a desk-seated
subject. Due to the proximity of the diffuser to the subject,
supply conditions are important, the current thermal com-
fort design standard placing limits on supply temperature
with this system (greater than 20 8C recommended) with
limited air flow rate due to draught risk. These, in turn,
restrict the convective cooling load from one unit. Other
studies of desk-mounted ventilation systems have been
conducted by Tsuzuki et al. [14] to which the reader is
referred.
In view of the above findings, it is worth mentioning an
experiment conducted and reported by Wyon and Sandberg
[15] to investigate the effect of vertical temperature gradients
578 D.L. Loveday et al. / Energy and Buildings 34 (2002) 573–579
on thermal comfort in a chilled ceiling/displacement venti-
lation environment. They found that local and whole body
comfort sensations are unaffected by thermal gradient and
they suggest that thermal gradients due to displacement
ventilation up to at least 4 K m1 are likely to be acceptable,
provided that air quality is satisfactory and that individual
control of whole body heat loss is provided for sensitive
individuals. These findings are important, as some degree of
relaxation of the 3 K m1 limit for chilled ceilings/displace-
ment ventilation environments would have significant impli-
cations for the design of such combined systems and for
the load removal capacity by displacement ventilation.
However, since the paper also reports that discomfort due
to dry eyes increased significantly above a thermal gradient
of 2 K m1, further investigation is desirable before such a
relaxation is recommended.
It is also interesting to note that the imposition of a
3 K m1 limit on the vertical temperature gradient arose
from work conducted by Olesen et al. [16], who exposed 16
sedentary subjects (8 males, 8 females) for 3 h to a range of
vertical temperature gradients (0.4, 2.5, 5.0, and 7.5 K m1).
The subjects were tested in a room in which the lower walls
and floor could be cooled, while the upper walls and ceiling
could be heated; no displacement ventilation was employed
nor was the ceiling chilled. It was concluded that the vertical
air temperature difference between positions 0.1 and 1.1 m
above the floor should not exceed 3–4 K in order to maintain
acceptable thermal comfort. However, it was pointed out by
the authors that some of the discomfort expressed in the
experiments had been caused by a difference in radiant
temperature rather than a difference in air temperature
(higher air and radiant temperatures at head level than at
ankle level); it was then stated that if the radiant temperature
of the upper and lower half of the room had been equal, the
subjects would probably have tolerated a higher vertical air
temperature difference.
In view of the above, there may be scope to revisit some
aspects of the earlier work upon which current design
guidance is based with a view to confirming, modifying
or relaxing the limits originally set.
5. Relationship to the adaptive approach
Current guidance for thermal comfort design is based
exclusively upon a deterministic heat balance approach
as embodied within the current design standard BS EN
ISO7730 [1]. This standard has been shown to adequately
account for human thermal comfort sensations in radiant
surfaces/displacement ventilation environments. However, an
alternative ‘adaptive’ approach to the evaluation of thermal
comfort asserts that other factors, beyond those of heat
transfer considerations alone, play a role. It is therefore
considered appropriate to interpret the work on chilled ceil-
ings/displacement ventilation systems described above [3–5]
within the adaptive context.
The adaptive approach to the assessment of thermal
comfort takes the view that numerous other factors, includ-
ing psychological and contextual effects, also influence the
human thermal comfort sensation. For a comprehensive
literature review of the adaptive concept, refer to Brager
and de Dear [17]. The approach considers the human subject
to be an interactive participant within the process, rather
than being simply a passive recipient of his/her thermal
environment. Evidence to support this view has been
reported over a number of years. These generally take the
form of discrepancies observed in field studies between
reported thermal sensations and those predicted using the
current standard. Among the reasons suggested for this are
the fact that the present (heat balance approach) standard is
based upon tests conducted in laboratory climate chambers
where conditions are well-controlled and all necessary data
for comfort prediction are known accurately, but the envir-
onment differs from ‘real’ offices.
This background has led Brager and de Dear [18] to
propose a modification to the existing standard. They argue
‘that an adaptive model of thermal comfort may usefully
augment laboratory-based predictive models in the setting
of thermal comfort standards’. The current approach
appears to be able to predict comfort sensations with good
accuracy in centralised air-conditioned environments
(conditions for which the design standard was originally
set up, and which are similar to those of climate chambers).
However, the current standard does not predict well the
thermal comfort sensations in naturally ventilated environ-
ments (where occupants have more opportunity to ‘interact’).
They, therefore, propose an empirically-based correc-
tion to the current design standard to account for these
conditions.
The results reported in this paper show clearly that the
current standard (BS EN ISO7730) is able to predict very
well the comfort sensations in chilled ceiling/displacement
ventilation environments. It was therefore, concluded that
current thermal comfort design guidance can be applied to
the relatively more ‘sophisticated’ environment of chilled
ceilings/displacement ventilation. Interpreting these find-
ings within the context described above, it could be argued
that this result is entirely consistent with the centralised air-
conditioning category for which the current standard is
valid. This is because the investigation was based in a
well-controlled climate chamber and that all relevant data
were known accurately. Furthermore, the chilled ceiling/
displacement ventilation system could be regarded as
another form of air-conditioning system. Viewed in this
way, it is tempting to say that, for chilled ceiling/displace-
ment ventilation environments, the exceptionally good
agreement between reported comfort sensations and those
predicted by BS EN ISO7730 [1] should come as no
surprise. However, the question remains as to the nature,
extent and cause of the discrepancies between predicted and
reported thermal comfort sensations in naturally-ventilated
environments.
 D.L. Loveday et al. / Energy and Buildings 34 (2002) 573–579
6. Conclusions
(i) The standard BS EN ISO7730 (ISO, 1995) has been
shown to be valid, without modification, for the
prediction of thermal comfort sensations of sedentary
occupants working in offices equipped with chilled
ceiling/displacement ventilation systems. The finding
is considered to be consistent with the general validity
of the current standard in analysing and designing for
air-conditioned, non-naturally ventilated spaces, and
for situations where conditions are well controlled and
where necessary data are known accurately. In this
respect, chilled ceiling/displacement ventilation envir-
onments can, therefore, be regarded as a special form
of air-conditioning system.
(ii) A brief review of some of the modifications to chilled
ceiling/displacement ventilation technology and the
relation of BS EN ISO7730 to system development,
configuration and operation concludes that there is
scope for revisiting some of the original research with
respect to vertical temperature gradients upon which
the current standard is based.
Acknowledgements
The funding of the UK Engineering and Physical Sciences
Research Council is gratefully acknowledged.
References
[1] ISO, BS EN ISO Standard 7730. Moderate thermal environments—
determination of the PMV and PPD indices and specification of the
conditions for thermal comfort, International Standards Organisation
(1995).
[2] DTI, Energy projections for the UK, Energy Paper 65, Department of
Trade and Industry, HMSO, London, 1995.
[3] A.H. Taki, D.L. Loveday, K.C. Parsons, The effect of ceiling tem-
peratures on displacement flow and thermal comfort—experimental
and simulation studies, in: Proceedings of the 5th International
579
Conference on Air Distribution in Rooms, Roomvent’96, Yokohama,
Japan, July 1996, pp. 307–314.
[4] D.L. Loveday, K.C. Parsons, A.H. Taki, S.G. Hodder, L.D. Jeal,
Designing for thermal comfort in combined chilled ceiling and
displacement ventilation environments, ASHRAE Transaction 104
(Pt. 1B) (1998) 901–911.
[5] S.G. Hodder, D.L. Loveday, K.C. Parsons, A.H. Taki, Thermal
comfort in chilled ceiling and displacement ventilation environments:
vertical radiant temperature asymmetry effects, Energy and Buildings
27 (1998) 167–173.
[6] P. Simmonds, Control strategies for combined heating cooling
radiant systems, ASHRAE Transaction 100 (Pt. 1) (1994) 1031–
1039.
[7] P. Simmonds, S. Holst, S. Reuss, W. Gaw, Using radiant cooled
floors to condition large spaces and maintain comfort conditions,
ASHRAE Transaction 106 (Pt. 1) (2000) 695–701.
[8] B.W. Olesen, Possibilities and limitations of radiant floor cooling,
ASHRAE Transaction 103 (Pt. 1) (1997) 42–48.
[9] X. Yuan, Q. Chen, L.R. Glicksman, A critical review of displacement
ventilation, ASHRAE Transaction 104 (1998) 78–90.
[10] B.W. Olesen, M. Koganei, G.T. Holbrook, J.E. Woods, Evaluation of
a vertical displacement ventilation system, Building and Environment
29 (3) (1994) 303–310.
[11] T. Akimoto, T. Nobe, Y. Takebayashi, Experimental study on the
floor-supply displacement ventilation system, ASHRAE Transaction
101 (Pt. 2) (1995) 912–925.
[12] T. Akimoto, T. Nobe, S. Tanabe, K. Kimura, Floor-supply
displacement air conditioning: laboratory experiments, ASHRAE
Transaction 105 (Pt. 2) (1999) 739–749.
[13] M.G.L.C. Loomans, Study on the applicability of the desk
displacement ventilation concept, ASHRAE Transaction 105 (Pt. 2)
(1999) 759–768.
[14] K. Tsuzuki, E.A. Arens, F.S. Bauman, D.P. Wyon, Individual thermal
comfort control with desk-mounted and floor-mounted task/ambient
conditioning (TAC) systems, in: Proceedings of the Indoor Air’99,
Vol. 2, Edinburgh, Scotland, 1999, pp. 368–373.
[15] D.P. Wyon, M. Sandberg, Discomfort due to vertical thermal
gradients, in: Proceedings of the Indoor Air’96, Vol. 6, Pt. 1,
Nagoya, Japan, 1996, pp. 48–54.
[16] B.W. Olesen, M. Scholer, P.O. Fanger, in: P.O. Fanger, O. Valbjorn
(Eds.), Discomfort caused by vertical air temperature differences,
Indoor Climate, Danish Building Research Institute, Copenhagen,
1979, pp. 561–579.
[17] G.S. Brager, R.J. de Dear, Thermal adaptation in the built
environment: a literature review, Energy and Buildings 27 (1)
(1998) 83–96.
[18] G.S. Brager, R.J. de Dear, A standard for natural ventilation,
ASHRAE Journal 42 (10) (2000) 21–28.