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systems 11
The Pacific Islands cover an It is now understood that Micronesians used a battery of different sources of data to
enormous area of the Pacific construct a sophisticated and accurate knowledge of the geography of the Pacific, and of
Ocean. how to navigate on it. Here is a description from the Canadian anthropologist Wade Davis.
Clouds [...] provide clues to the wayfinder – their shape, colour, character, and place
in the sky. Brown clouds bring strong winds; high clouds no wind but lots of rain.
[...] Light alone can be read, the rainbow colours at the edge of stars, the way they
twinkle and dim with an impending storm, the tone of the sky over an island, always
darker than over open ocean. [...] A halo around the moon foreshadows rain, for it is
caused by light shining through ice crystals of clouds laden with moisture. [...]
Dolphins and porpoises swimming towards sheltered waters herald a storm, while
the flight of a frigate bird heading out to sea anticipates calm. [...] A sighting of the
white tern indicates that land is within 200 km; the brown tern reaches out as far as
65 km, the boobies rarely more than 40. Phosphorescence and the debris of plants in
the sea, the salinity and taste and temperature of the water, the manner in which a
swordfish swims, all these become revelatory in the senses of the navigator.
330
Davis, 2009
A point of particular interest here is that the navigator on a Micronesian vessel would
not sleep throughout the voyage, nor did such experts think of their knowledge as CHALLENGE
compartmentalized into subject areas, as those with a Western education might. YOURSELF
Before you read on, think about what you have learned about different kinds of Although the claims that
Polynesians and Micronesians
knowledge in your TOK course. Consider also the kind of knowledge that you learn
populated the islands of
in your various diploma subjects. Bearing this in mind, how does the knowledge that the Pacific by purposeful
Micronesians gained about navigation compare? Can you identify some distinctive exploration are now accepted,
features of their knowledge? this view was disputed in the
past. It was said that they
might have come from the
Some suggested features of indigenous knowledge east rather than the west
due to the direction of the
systems prevailing trade winds, and
There are some preliminary comments that can be made while keeping the TOK that they reached unplanned
destinations by accidental
knowledge framework in mind. A key point to grasp is that all of the data used by
drift. By learning about
the Micronesians was integrated in the service of a particular type of activity – in this the voyage made by the
case, navigation on the high seas. But the scope of this knowledge, while drawing Norwegian adventurer Thor
on many sources, was applied to a specific environment – namely the Pacific Ocean. Heyerdahl, and the work of
the New Zealand historian
The methods used to construct this knowledge were clearly empirical in nature –
Andrew Sharp, you may
consisting of observations of diverse aspects of the environment. European navigators discover why their assertions
would probably have filtered out some of it as having limited value, yet the sheer on this matter are no longer
breadth of data shows the degree to which the selectivity of sense perception can vary. given credence.
For most of their history, the Polynesians and Micronesians had no written language,
and so the retention of navigational concepts and techniques relied on powers of
memory that many cultures have allowed to fall into disuse. However, it appears that
much of this indigenous knowledge was lost as a consequence of the general drive
during colonial rule to suppress local practices. It is only in recent decades that a
concerted effort has been made to reconstruct the methods of traditional navigation
and put them once again to use.
331
These features can be connected to aspects of the knowledge framework (Figure 11.1).
The arm concerning historical development will be addressed later (page 343).
concete local
holistic Scope
Knowledge Language oral
framework
Historical
Methods development
empirical/flexible agentic
332
We will focus here on cultures that produce knowledge that might share some of the
general characteristics of the knowledge systems of the ‘first nations’ (such as those in
modern-day Polynesia, Micronesia, and Melanesia). In the spirit of TOK, the questions
of where indigenous knowledge ends and some other kind of knowledge begins, and
whether there is a viable distinction between them at all, are open ones for you to
discuss.
There has been much discussion as to the most useful or accurate term to use for what
we are calling ‘indigenous knowledge’ in this book. Why do you think this is? Some
alternatives are:
• native knowledge • traditional knowledge • folk knowledge
• community knowledge • ethnic knowledge • cultural knowledge
• endogenous knowledge • sustainable knowledge • experiential knowledge
Adapted from Antweiler, 1998
Exercises
1 At this stage in your work, do you think that any of these alternatives might be better? How do
they help you to pin down your pre-conceptions about such people and their knowledge?
2 What might be some of the objections to each of them? What objections do you have?
3 Would it be contradictory to use some of these terms alongside the suggested characteristics of
indigenous knowledge (page 332)?
4 What is the best course of action when there is no linguistic label for something on which
everyone can agree?
333
AY
o
ho
GU ather seas
M i
m
co
td
G
ry
RRU
we
BANrGms
knock’em dNG
storm sea own
son
down by storms
NG
GERE
SEP
in flower
P
on
in flower
OCT
A
f mo
GU
N
gg? rain
OV
to the ground by
on
W son
?
FE now in fruit
?
so
?
NU
m avy
heavy rain
a
on
G
se
DEC sto
e
a
n JAN
M
? h
oo EL sea rm
ns
?? ells
E
mo DJ EN son
p
ts ? GU G
ho rr ?
Everything flooded, firegula
start of danbug,
egg time (magpie goose) ain
heavy r???
mag?
Anbiobede
water apple now fruiting
334
The Krahô people of Brazil also cite the effectiveness of fire in ‘cleaning’ the land for
crop cultivation – especially for the production of honey which plays an important
part in their culture – but also for the collection of fruit and various roots. Cleared
land is considered to have enhanced aesthetic qualities as well as affording increased
visibility. Pests can be eliminated by fire, and the resultant ash can be distributed as a
fertilizer. It is clear that there are many advantages of the use of fire, but the power of
this method rests on its systematic use according to established knowledge acquired
over a long period, with a large element of trial and error.
For the Shona, the human world, the natural world and the spiritual world are linked.
The natural world provides the habitat for the spirits and sends messages from the
spiritual world to the human world. The spiritual world provides guidance,
punishment and blessing to the human world. People therefore have to relate to
both the natural and the spiritual world.
335
Exercises
5 If the situation as described by Haverkort et al. is typical of indigenous knowledge systems, to what
extent do they differ from other AOKs in the TOK programme?
6 What comparisons can be made between indigenous and religious knowledge systems? What is
the connection between them?
7 Note how other AOKs tend to establish territories with boundaries – what is the function of these
boundaries? What is gained and what is lost by erecting them?
There are many examples of interlocking systems of knowledge that are elaborate
responses to local environment. For instance, the Samburu live in the dry conditions
of northern Kenya where drought can be frequent. Consequently, they keep large
populations of cattle to ensure the survival of at least some of the herd, which in turn
creates the need for larger numbers of people for herding. Because this task is allocated
to children, the Samburu society operates on polygamous lines in order to supply the
numbers of herders required. But this results in many young men without wives, so,
to prevent upheaval in the community, such men are dispatched to remote outposts
of the region after a circumcision ritual that is given the highest prestige. Thus,
procedural and propositional knowledge is bound into a set of cultural practices that
dovetail with local circumstances.
336
However, there exist examples that arguably indicate a desire to transcend such
limitations. Political alliances, such as the confederacy created by the Iroquois peoples
– originally inhabiting parts of New York State in the USA – may satisfy the clamour
for knowledge over a broader area of applicability. The League of Five (and later Six)
Nations established between the 16th and 18th centuries was a triumph of political
organization – there are some who claim that it influenced American ideas of federal
democracy in general during the early years of independence.
Exercises
8 Which aspects of the knowledge involved in Micronesian navigation and in the Inca ceque system
could be described as:
a entirely local
b applicable in different places?
9 How many disciplines from the modern curriculum seem to be integrated into the knowledge in
each of these two examples?
10 Could it be persuasively argued that the holistic nature of indigenous knowledge brings with it a
certain degree of flexibility in the way it is conceived and applied?
11 Consider the graph axes below.
Universally applicable
337
The French sociologist Bruno Latour has created a very similar conceptual scheme –
here described with reference to our graph axes on the previous page.
• ‘Immutable mobile’ – This is knowledge arising from strictly tried-and-tested
methods and findings that can be universally applied; such knowledge would be
located in the upper right quadrant.
• ‘Mutable immobile’ – This is knowledge arising from a diverse mixture of adaptable
methods and findings that are applicable only in unique local environments; this
knowledge is to be found in the lower left quadrant.
Exercises
12 What are the advantages and drawbacks associated with ‘immutable mobile’ and ‘mutable
immobile’ knowledge?
13 Have you placed any knowledge in the bottom right or the top left quadrants? If so, why? Can you
describe it? Might there be different problems with such knowledge?
338
O
peach linalyl butyrate (an ester) O
CH2
O
OH
cinnamon cinnamaldehyde (an O
aldehyde)
H
Given the fact that the kind of modern theoretical science exemplified by analytical
chemistry, with all of its laboratories and scholarly sophistication, is not evident in
indigenous knowledge systems, would we be justified in claiming that such systems
are predominantly ‘concrete’ in nature? This would imply that sense perception has
a key role to play in indigenous knowledge, which we could describe as being highly
empirical. It would imply that the recognized links between causes and effects are
relatively simple in nature, and they do not make use of theoretical representations
as a way of elucidating the precise mechanisms that are responsible. This description
would seem to outline a highly pragmatic conception of knowledge – what matters is
what works – rather than knowing the why.
Ethnobiology
It is true that sometimes causal connections are left only partially examined in
knowledge as a whole. This does not necessarily hinder the usefulness of that
knowledge, although it may limit its development. For example, in West Africa, the
baobab tree (we met this tree in a proverb, Chapter 3, page 66) is an important source
of food and building materials, as well as shelter. Extensive studies have shown the
ability of people from this region (particularly older women) to link observable traits
(appearance of leaves, seeds, etc.) with the characteristics that would need further
investigation and might interfere with the integrity of the tree (extracting pulp for
tasting). We are now entering the field of ethnobiology (Figure 11.6, overleaf).
339
The mechanisms that relate leaf hairiness to tastelessness, seed softness to lack of
fruit production, and so on, are unknown, but presumably could be elucidated by
controlled investigation resulting in a theoretical frame of explanation. How useful
would this extra layer of knowledge be?
Nevertheless, causal relations are often examined in detail, with distinctions and
explanations that differ from those likely to be invoked by people of a scientific
disposition. In this passage, the Ghanaian philosopher Kwame Gyekye (1995) explores
a typical case from the Akan peoples of Ghana.
The occurrences that engage [the attention of Akans] are those that they regard as
extraordinary or contingent occurrences that are held to fall outside the course of
nature and so are taken to be exceptions to the laws of nature. [...] Some examples
might be an unusually long period of drought, a tree falling and killing a farmer on
his way to the farm, a pregnancy that extends much beyond a period of nine months,
a person dying from a snakebite, a person being afflicted by a certain kind of disease,
a person being accidentally shot to death by a hunter, and so on. Such occurrences
have certain characteristics: they are infrequent [...], discrete and isolated; they
appear to be puzzling, bizarre and incomprehensible [...]. It is not that Akans do not
know that a falling tree can kill a person or that certain diseases can be fatal. In such
situations, the question the Akan poses is not ‘Why did the falling tree kill him?’ but
‘Why did that tree fall at that particular time and kill that particular person?’. [...]
In an Akan community, if a falling tree kills a man, or if a man dies in a car accident
or from a snakebite, the cause of the death would generally be thought to be a spirit.
A purely scientific or naturalistic explanation would not suffice, because a snakebite
or car accident does not always result in death. For the Akan, then, a purely scientific
or naturalistic explanation of natural events presupposes an absolute regularity of
uniformity in nature. But such an absolute uniformity is subverted by the existence
of irregular, abnormal occurrences.
The Tzeltal are people of Mayan descent who live in Mexico. Recent scientific work
has shown that their knowledge of local butterflies was more advanced than that of
mainstream biology. In one notable case, taxonomists claimed that the population
of the two-barred flasher butterfly comprised a single species, while it was noted
that the Tzeltal possessed a sophisticated vocabulary for describing differences.
340
What can we learn from this? The Tzeltal have not had the
benefit of harnessing the technology for DNA analysis but
they have still succeeded in constructing more accurate
knowledge than biologists achieved with the traditional
methods of taxonomy. This indigenous knowledge is
understood as tightly connected to its utility – sharpening
the perceptual faculty in a direction obviously linked to
usage. This Tzeltal knowledge is highly empirical, but does
it help us in our quest to verify or falsify the other claims for indigenous knowledge on Agriculture is at the heart of
the Tzeltal’s way of life, leading
page 332? them to observe natural
phenomena unknown to
Exercises scientists until recently.
14 Does the above example support the idea that indigenous knowledge is primarily local?
15 Is it an example of knowledge of a holistic character?
16 Do you think it is an illustration of concrete thinking?
A somewhat similar example comes from Brazil and the Kapayó people. Theirs is
a culture that revolves around bees and the products that they provide. According
to Posey (1983), they have a complex taxonomy of different types of bee – with
vocabulary that describes them:
• by behaviour (docile, stinging, biting, blistering)
• by ecozone (campo, forest, mountain, etc.)
• by nest type (height, shape, size, etc.)
• by location within ecozone (in tree, earth, vines, etc.)
• by morphology (colour, markings, size, etc.).
There is a near 90% correlation between the taxonomy of the Kapayó and that
developed by field biologists in the area. There are also rituals that connect the harvest
of honey to the spiritual realm. But what is perhaps particularly striking is the way
that hats are constructed out of beeswax to model key parts and aspects of the Kapayó
universe, including cardinal directions, the daily cycle of day and night, the village and
the field, the Sun and the Moon, and so on.
Exercise
17 Does it appear that the Kapayó knowledge system might be strongly:
a local
b empirical
c holistic
d concrete?
341
It is not too difficult to list some of the dangers to cultures that continue to depend on
oral storage and transmission. How do these dangers relate to personal knowledge?
These kinds of issues are of great interest to American professor of linguistics David
Harrison, who has drawn attention to some of the examples discussed in this chapter,
including those below.
One interesting case study related to these questions is that of the Kallawaya people
of Bolivia. Inheritors of the herbalist traditions of the Inca empire mentioned earlier,
the Kallawaya have succeeded in encoding their specialist knowledge of thousands of
medicinal plants for several centuries in a language that remains unknown to outsiders
– even to certain classes of their own society. How successful in principle do you think
this strategy might be in assuring desirable answers to the questions above? It would
seem likely that it has had an impact on fidelity of knowledge, and may offer a productive
prototype for what we might call collective ownership, even if individual contributions
are not preserved as such. Legally-backed acknowledgement and restricted access to
the knowledge may allow those who own it to extract proper recompense from others
who wish to make use of it – indigenous knowledge systems have in many cases been
342
On the other hand, members of oral cultures sometimes point out that spoken
knowledge is easier to interrogate because those who offer it are immediately
available for discussion. Words in a book just sit there – passively – but the spoken
word is alive. However, spoken words can be alive only in the presence of those who
can speak them. Out of approximately 7000 languages alive today in the world, it is
estimated that perhaps half of them will not outlast this century. The vast majority
of such languages are highly localized and hence the ongoing extinction will have a
disproportionate effect on indigenous knowledge. For example, the language of the
Tofa people of Siberia is already at risk of falling out of use – it is no longer taught
to children, and is thus almost certainly doomed as new generations gravitate to
Russian. Latest estimates put the number of speakers at less than 100. The loss of the
Tuvan language will mean much more than a slight reduction in the world’s linguistic
diversity. As has been discovered in many other instances, language can evolve in
ways that reference what seem to be disparate aspects of the local environment,
making connections that would seem natural to its speakers but elude outsiders. For
example, descriptions of actions may be tied to geographical landmarks or directions;
habits encoded in myths and stories. The extinction of a language is followed by an
unavoidable cultural amnesia, for which a remedy no longer exists. Soon the Tofa
will have no more actively used vocabulary of reindeer types by age, sex, fertility, or
rideability, and no one to sing songs of milking, herding, hunting, or the spirit world.
Exercise
18 Do you agree with the above paragraph about the value of multiple languages and the need to try
to preserve them? Why or why not?
Akoko nan tia ba, na ennkum no. Parenthood effective alternative in the form of
The hen treads upon its chicks but does Care adinkra symbols. Many of these are
AKOKO NAN
not intend to kill them. Tenderness inspired by items from the natural
Protection world such as animals or plants,
Odenkyem da nsuo, mu, nso onnhome Adaptability but they convey a rich repertoire
ODENKYEM nsuo, ohome nframa. Prudence of concepts that transcend their
The crocodile lives in water but breathes air. origins. In the words of the Ghanaian
philosopher Kwame Anthony
Adwera nsuo, wo ne nkwansuo, nsu Purity Appiah (1993), [adinkra symbols]
korogyenn a wohuru nso wonhye. Sanctity
ADWERA were one of the means in a pre-literate
Water of life – you are the crystal clean Chastity
water that boils but does not burn. Cleanliness society for supporting the transmission of
a complex and nuanced body of practice
Osram mmfiti preko nntwareman. Patience
and belief. In many cases, they are
OSRAM It takes the moon some time to go around Understanding
the earth. handy summaries of proverbs and
provide an efficient way of storing
Se wo were fin a wo sankofa a yennkye. Wisdom and transmitting important social
SANKOFA It is not a taboo to return to fetch something Learning form knowledge (Figure 11.8).
you forgot earlier. the past
A further difficulty with pre-
literate cultures is the paucity of
Figure 11.8 Adinkra
evidence for tracing historical development. In many cases, this may make it easier to
symbols and their meanings. speculate in ways that are not accurate, and to allow unexamined assumptions to creep
into conclusions. Nevertheless, it is important to consider divergent views on such
matters. Another Ghanaian philosopher – Kwasi Wiredu – has been less reticent than
Lévi–Strauss in positing a timeline of development in societies. Here, he writes with
particular reference to Africa:
Wiredu, 1997
Exercises
19 Summarize what you think Wiredu is claiming about how thinking develops in society.
20 Do you think Kwame Gyekye’s comments on page 340 support this view?
21 How is Wiredu’s view different from that offered by Lévi–Strauss?
22 What is at stake here regarding knowledge in different societies? Whose view seems more likely to you?
Perhaps your response is that both Lévi-Strauss and Wiredu are wrong, and they have
fallen for the temptation to create dichotomies where none really exist in the world
(Table 11.2). If so, what would you suggest instead?
Quotation A
Do not let us propound to primitives questions which escape their mentality, posed
in terms involving a system of metaphysics of which they have not the remotest
idea. Let us avoid asking them how they solve problems that they have never even
considered. Let us not try to discover in [their] representations the distinction we
make between soul and body. On the contrary, let us endeavour to grasp them
without distorting them … and not force them into the framework which befits our
own concepts.
345
Quotation B
From our ancestors, we have inherited our own method of knowledge … In contrast
to the classical European, the [...] African does not draw a line between himself and
the object; he does not hold it at a distance, nor does he merely look at it and analyse
it … he takes it vibrant in his hands, careful not to kill or fix it. He touches it, feels it,
smells it … He does not assimilate; he is assimilated. He lives a common life with the
Other; he lives in a symbiosis.
Quotation C
In our traditional life we do argue and we do evaluate arguments both with respect
to their validity and soundness. In their disputations our elders are even wont to
enunciate fundamental logical principles such as the laws of non-contradiction (viz.
nothing is both the case and not the case) and excluded middle (viz. something is
either the case or not the case). For example, among the Akans of Ghana inconsistent
talk before any group of elders would be likely to invite the reminder that ‘Nokware
mu nni abra’, literally, there is no conflict in truth, which, evidently, is an invocation
of the principle of non-contradiction.
Quotation D
We know that Africans have thought about the universe longer than any other
people. The people of the world have been black longer than any other color. In fact
philosophy itself originated in Africa and the first philosophers in the world were
Africans. The African tradition is intertwined with the earliest thought. Yet from the
beginning of Europe’s interest in Africa the European writers referred to ancient
African works as ‘Wisdom Literature’, in an effort to negatively distinguish African
thinking from European thinking.
Exercises
23 Now reconcile these four excerpts with particular positions on the chart below. The descriptions
beside the axes refer to what the contributors think about Africa in comparison with the West.
How Africa compares superior celebrated liberated
with the West according
to four different authors.
Value
same different
Value
Fact
inferior derided oppressed
346
These are the sources for the four quotations: To see the online source
• Quotation A: Lucien Lévi-Brühl, France of these quotations, go
to www.pearsonhotlinks.
• Quotation B: Léopold Senghor, Senegal
co.uk insert the ISBN or
• Quotation C: Kwasi Wiredu, Ghana title from this book and
• Quotation D: Molefe Kete Asante, USA. click on weblinks 11.1
to 11.4.
Does knowledge of the authors make a difference to how you interpret what they have to say?
Most of the world’s primary health needs are serviced by traditional medicine based
on herbal and other products that have never seen the inside of a pharmacological
laboratory. Most of the world’s fishing and agricultural activities are based on
methods that arise from continually refined traditional practices rather than the direct CHALLENGE
application of what we would call scientific findings. YOURSELF
Make an analysis of terms
It is also for these kinds of reason that the study of indigenous procedural knowledge in different languages for
has become central to the work of development agencies intent on boosting food ‘knowledge’ – how many
production, encouraging sound environmental practices, or responding to emergency of them also encompass
‘wisdom’ or at least allude
and disaster. The words for knowledge in many indigenous languages translate back as
to it?
closer to ‘wisdom’ rather than ‘knowledge’ (for example, nyansa in the Akan languages
of Ghana) – what implication can you draw from this?
In this highly practical area, it is essential that indigenous knowledge systems are studied
and appreciated for what they are and what they have achieved. Failure to do this can lead to
disaster. The communities that live around Lake Turkana in northern Kenya are pastoralists.
Despite the stocks to be found in the lake, local people have very little interest in fishing.
‘If you fish it means you are poor because you have no livestock’, said Philip
Ayane, 22, who lives in the remote village of Nandapal. ‘Mostly, it is people who
have lost everything to drought who go fishing, when there’s no other choice.’
Cocks, 2006
347
Nevertheless, the Norwegian government went ahead and funded the production of a
fish-freezing factory on the edge of the lake – a facility that has subsequently fallen into
disrepair and disuse.
‘It was the old top-bottom approach’, said Cheanati Wasike, government fisheries
officer for Lake Turkana. ‘The lake was identified by outsiders as a resource but they
never consulted the Turkana, never asked them what they thought of fishing it.’
Cocks, 2006
To learn more about This is one simple example of many that can be cited around the world – cases which
Wade Davis’s views illustrate anything from a lack of consultation to a complete disregard for the value of
and the biosphere knowledge built and applied in the very context in which the outside intervention is
and ethnosphere, visit intended to succeed.
pearsonhotlinks.com,
enter the title or ISBN
The Canadian anthropologist Wade Davis, whom we met earlier, has used the concept of
of this book and select
weblink 11.5. the biosphere in order to promote the idea of a corresponding ethnosphere – suggesting
that we should pay equal attention to the dynamics of the biological and cultural
worlds, although this is a distinction that many indigenous societies might not make.
Local cultures thrive because they develop sustainable relationships with their local
environments, and it makes no sense to ignore the knowledge that has supported and
nourished the success of this arrangement. But the reasons for studying indigenous
knowledge systems go beyond straightforward practical matters, important though they
undoubtedly are. Many people recognize the value of an appreciation of the diversity
CHALLENGE of knowledge and the range of possible perspectives from which understanding can be
YOURSELF achieved. This recognition often brings with it a welcome sense of humility.
How far can we push this As we reach the end of this chapter, it is worth reprising Exercise 1 on page 333,
comparison between
concerning the labels we might choose for what we are calling in TOK ‘indigenous
the biosphere and the
ethnosphere? Contrast the knowledge’. Have you changed your mind about any of these?
view of Wade Davis with what
he claims Jared Diamond Many people in the world live with multiple layers of knowledge, with a superstructure
thinks in his review of of Western education resting on indigenous foundations. Often the differences
Diamond’s work. What might between them can be reconciled; and sometimes they must be separated by a sort of
be meant by geographical
mental compartmentalization in order to avoid conflict or contradiction. The march
determinism and cultural
relativism? of globalization and the expansion of development projects can only create more
situations in which such ‘knowledge dissonance’ will have to be addressed.
Captain Cook was extraordinarily lucky. Not only was Tupaia highly skilled in
astronomy, navigation, and meteorology, but he was an expert in the geography of
the Pacific, able to name directional stars and predict landfalls and weather. At any
348
The harshness of the environment confers a very high value on knowledge of Arctic
ecology, as failure to learn or apply it can have catastrophic consequences for the
individuals or communities involved. The sophistication of Inuit knowledge of this
kind has come to be appreciated by itinerant outsiders, such as scientists, whose work
takes them to the same areas.
knowledge but its promotion in ways that protect and advance it within the political
sphere.
And then on the other, at a deeper attitudinal level, expressed in the Inuktitut language:
• Pijitsirniq → using power to serve others
• Aajiiqatigiingniq → respecting differences and seeking consensus
• AvatimikKamattiarniq → stewardship of environment, holistic approach
• Qanuqtuurunnarniq → problem-solving, creative improvization
• Pilimmaksarniq → skill/knowledge acquisition through practice
• Papattiniq → guardianship of that which one does not own
• Piliriqatigiingniq → cooperative work for common purpose.
adapted from Wenzel, 2004
In the globalizing world of the 21st century, with the prominence of development
issues in public discourse, it might be that the experiences of the Inuit in Canada can
act as an example as to how other indigenous communities can protect and advance
their knowledge systems in the face of powerful forces arrayed against them. In this
way, the value that accrues from the diversity of approaches to knowing can be
preserved for future times and generations. This value might be expressed as a desire
for plurality for its own sake, or we may find as a species that alternative ways of
thinking and knowing are essential to our own survival and prosperity.
350