Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
Φ
Abstract -- Even though, the transformer is the most connected single–phase power converters, and in [11]–[13]
efficient of electrical machines, with efficiencies typically in the methods for the detection and removal of the DC current
high 90s, it is possible to reduce transformer costs and losses component are investigated.
by using composite magnetic cores. This paper presents a new
The present paper takes into consideration the
composite magnetic core that can be used effectively for
manufacturing single–phase and three–phase wound core aforementioned recent trends of eliminating the transformer
distribution transformers. The new composite wound core from the power grid and proposes a novel technique in
concept is based on experimental evidence concerning the flux order to reduce the cost and losses of conventional wound
density non–uniformity of conventional single–phase and core distribution transformers [14]–[16]. The afore–
three–phase magnetic wound cores and the losses and mentioned technique is called multiple grade lamination
magnetization properties of conventional and high
wound core and it is based on experimental evidence
permeability Si–Fe grain–oriented steels. A systematic
experimental losses and flux distribution analysis of single– concerning the non–uniformity of the flux density
phase and three–phase magnetic wound cores is undertaken as distribution of the wound core [17]–[19]. By using
well as finite element (FE) analysis considering the bulk composite wound cores constructed with a combination of
anisotropic characteristics of laminated wound cores. different grades of grain–oriented magnetic steel the total
owning cost ( TOC ) of the transformer can be reduced
Index Terms–– Finite element methods, magnetic effectively. The multiple grade lamination wound core
anisotropy, magnetic cores, magnetic field measurement,
magnetic losses, power transformers, soft magnetic materials. technique introduces only two design variables, it can be
applied after the design optimization of the transformer, or
I. INTRODUCTION it can be integrated directly in the design optimization
scheme, resulting in this way in the generalization of the
I N order to transmit and distribute electrical energy over
large distances economically, it is necessary to
minimize Joule losses in the transmission lines by using
transformer optimization procedure. If applied after the
transformer design optimization a significant reduction of
the sum of magnetic steel cost and present value (PV) of
a high voltage. The required increase and decrease of the
future no load loss is achieved. This is very important
voltage is carried out by the electrical transformer which in
considering that the PV of future no load loss constitutes
its simplest form consists of two coils of conductive wire
more than 60% of the PV of total future losses and of the
wound around a magnetic core of soft iron. In practice two
various materials required to manufacture a wound core
types of magnetic cores are used, the stack core and the
transformer the magnetic steel comprises the largest
wound core. The wound core in particular is comprised
investment [14]. In the case where the multiple grade
from long continuous strips of sheet steel wound around the
lamination technique is integrated in the design
coils. The main advantages include reduction of joints and
optimization scheme the resultant optimum transformer
the use of the grain direction of the steel for the flux path.
designs tend to possess a reduced TOC in comparison with
Even though, the transformer remains the most efficient
the optimum designs of conventional wound core
and robust electric machine, a large number of researchers
transformers [16].
propose transformerless solutions for the electric grid. More
In order to evaluate the optimum design variables of a
specifically, transformerless offshore wind farm appli–
multiple grade lamination wound core, the accurate
cations are studied in [1]–[3] whereas, in [4]–[6] solutions
computation of the peak flux density distribution and no
are proposed for photovoltaic plants based on power
load loss is needed. The specific problem was tackled by
electronic transformers which include dc–links and
developing finite element (FE) models of reduced
multilevel converters. Multilevel applications for grid–
computational cost.
connected converters are examined in [7] and converters for
renewable energy applications are developed in [8]. Also,
II. WOUND CORES AND RELATED PATENTS
researchers study the disadvantages of transformerless
solutions in the power grid. In [9], [10] techniques are There have been several patents on wound core
proposed for magnetic core saturation compensation of grid topologies and manufacturing. One of the most practical
topologies, shown in Fig. 1, was disclosed in 1960 by
This work is part of the 03ED45 research project, implemented within
Treanor [20]. This wound core design is of simple structure
the framework of the “Reinforcement Program of Human Research and it is constructed by cutting and spirally winding a flat
Manpower” (PENED) and cofinanced by National and Community Funds strip of grain–oriented steel into hundreds concentric turn
(25% from the Greek Ministry for Development—General Secretariat of
laminations [20]. Cutting of the electrical steel is carried out
Research and Technology and 75% from EU—European Social Fund).
T. D. Kefalas is with the School of Electrical and Computer so that joints are formed in which overlap is gradual, flux
Engineering, National Technical University of Athens, 15780 Athens, transfer is eased, and flux normal to the sheet is minimized.
Greece (e–mail: thkefala@central.ntua.gr). This joint type is known as step–lap joint and its efficiency
A. G. Kladas is with the School of Electrical and Computer
Engineering, National Technical University of Athens, 15780 Athens, is determined by the overlap and gap lengths [19].
Greece (e–mail: kladasel@central.ntua.gr).
Fig. 3. Conventional wound core transformer (a) 1–phase core type, (b) 1–
phase shell type, (c) 3–phase five–legged.
Fig. 1. Treanor’s wound core, extracted from patent U.S. 2 960 756, 1960.
Fig. 2. Composite wound core, extracted from patent U.S. 4 205 288, 1980.
{ }
core losses with a core constructed of the high cost, high
permeability grain–oriented steel even when the high M HM = 4d ms csf πx22 x6 + x2 x6 (2πx1 + 3 x4 + 2 x5 ) (3)
permeability material represents only a fraction of the total
weight of the wound core with the rest part of the core being
low cost conventional grain–oriented steel [25]. This is M SM = 4d ms csf ⎨ 6 3
(
⎧⎪πx x 2 − x22 − 2 x1x2 ) ⎫⎪
⎬ (4)
attributed to the flux density non–uniformity of the wound ⎪⎩+ x6 ( x3 − x2 )(3x4 + 2 x5 )⎪⎭
core and the fact that the core loss is a function of the flux
density. The concept of the proposed composite wound core spec spec
is shown in Fig. 15. PNLL < 1.15 PNLL , PLL < 1.15 PLL , U k < 1.1U kspec (5)
The generalized design procedure of wound core
distribution transformers is obtained by considering the VII. DEVELOPMENT OF FE WOUND CORE MODEL
composite wound core design variables x1 , x2 , Fig. 15. A 2D FE model considering the laminated wound core
They represent respectively, the position and amount of the was developed for the flux density distribution and no–load
high magnetization grain–oriented steel, and are subject to loss evaluation. In 2D FEM analysis the Poisson’s equation
the constraints of (1). The design of a transformer is solved which is a function of the magnetic vector
constructed of the conventional (high magnetization) steel is potential and the reluctivity
a special case of the generalized design process and it is
obtained by setting x 2 = 0 ( x1 = 0), and x1 = x3 ( x 2 = x3 ). ∇ ⋅ v∇Az = − J z (6)
Fig. 19. Peak flux density distribution along line AB for B = 1.5 T and x1
= 5 mm, x2 = 10 mm.
Fig. 17. Peak flux density nodal plot of a multiple grade lamination wound with the FE calculated peak flux density distribution. Fig.
core ( B = 1.5 T, x1 = 5 mm, x2 = 10 mm). 17 shows the peak flux density nodal plot of a two grade
lamination wound core for x1 = 5 mm, x2 = 10 mm. The
nonlinear characteristics of the core materials is achieved by
computed peak flux density distribution across the limb of
cubic splines interpolation of the v(B ) characteristic and a
the core for the aforementioned configuration and for two
Newton–Raphson iterative scheme is used for the solution different magnetization levels is shown in Figs. 18, 19.
of the particular nonlinear problem. The elliptic anisotropy
model, for the 2D FE analysis, is based on the assumption VIII. CONCLUSION
that the flux density B has an elliptic trajectory for the
Conventional transformers will continue to be the
modulus of magnetic field intensity constant. Therefore, if
dominant component for transmitting and distributing
v p is the reluctivity tangential to the lamination rolling
electrical energy for a long time despite the advent of
direction, vq is the reluctivity normal to the lamination transformerless solutions. This is due to the robustness,
rolling direction, and r is the ratio of the ellipse semi–axes reliability, and efficiency of the conventional transformer.
then Nevertheless, present energy and material costs are driving
utilities and manufacturers to improve transformer
characteristics. A simple and effective way to achieve this is
vq = rv p , r > 1. (7)
the composite magnetic core technique with which the
manufacturer can achieve an optimum arrangement between
The areas comprising the 2D FE model of a conventional manufacturing and operating cost. Even though patents
wound core are depicted in Fig. 16. One half of the related to composite magnetic cores can be traced back to at
geometry is modeled due to symmetry and a Dirichlet least 1929, the specific technique remains a challenging and
boundary condition ( Az = 0 ) is imposed on the outer innovative design approach and it has not been used
boundaries of the 2D model. Wound core transformer no– extensively due to inherent difficulties in determining the
load loss is evaluated by a post–processing algorithm that optimum configuration of the composite magnetic core
combines the experimentally determined specific iron losses design variables.
The present paper introduces the concept of a novel [21] I. Hernández, J. C. Olivares–Galván, P. S. Georgilakis, and J. M.
Cañedo, “A novel octagonal wound core for distribution
composite wound core and the definition of its respective transformers validated by electromagnetic field analysis and
design variables in a manner suitable for integration to a comparison with conventional wound core,” IEEE Trans. Magn.,
transformer design optimization procedure. vol. 46, no. 5, pp. 1251–1258, May 2010.
[22] Y.–H. Chang, C.–H. Hsu, and C.–P. Tseng, “Magnetic properties
improvement of amorphous cores using newly developed step–lap
IX. REFERENCES joints,” IEEE Trans. Magn., vol. 46, no 6, pp. 1791–1794, Jun.
[1] R. Blasco–Gimenez, N. Aparicio, S. Ano–Villalba, and S. Bernal– 2010.
Perez, “LCC–HVDC connection of off–shore wind farms with [23] S. Shin, R. Schäfer, and B. C. De Cooman, “Grain boundary
reduced filter banks,” IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 60, no. 6, pp. penetration by Lancet domains in Fe–3%Si grain–oriented steel,”
2372–2380, Jun. 2013. IEEE Trans. Magn., vol. 46, no 9, pp. 3574–3581, Sep. 2010.
[2] R. Blasco–Gimenez, S. Ano–Villalba, N. Aparicio, and S. Bernal– [24] S. E. Johannesen, “Electrical induction apparatus,” U.S. Patent 1
Perez, “Harmonic filter reduction of off–shore wind farms connected 698 634, Jan. 8, 1929.
with a diode based HVDC link,” Proc. ISIE, 2012. [25] K. C. Lin, B. B. Ellis, and C. E. Burkhardt, “Transformer with
[3] M. S. Carmeli, F. Castelli–Dezza, G. Marchegiani, M. Mauri, and D. parallel magnetic circuits of unequal mean lengths and loss
Rosati, “Design and analysis of a medium voltage DC wind farm characteristics,” U.S. Patent 4 205 288, May 27, 1980.
with a transformer–less wind turbine generator,” Proc. ICEM, 2010. [26] A. J. Moses and S. Hamadeh, “Effects of mixing materials on losses
[4] R. Gonzalez, E. Gubia, J. Lopez, and L. Marroyo, “Transformerless and cost of operation of three phase transformer cores,” J. Appl.
single–phase multilevel–based photovoltaic inverter,” IEEE Trans. Phys., vol. 64, no 10, pp. 5379–5381, Nov. 1988.
Ind. Electron., vol. 55, no 7, pp. 2694–2702, Jul. 2008. [27] D. Snell and A. Coombs, “The influence of core materials and mix
[5] M. C. Cavalcanti, K. C. de Oliveira, A. M. de Farias, F. A. S. Neves, on the performance of a 100 kVA three phase transformer core,” J.
G. M. S. Azevedo, and F. C. Camboim, “Modulation techniques to Magn. & Magn. Mater., vol. 254–255, pp. 349–351, 2003.
eliminate leakage currents in transformerless three–phase [28] E. Lesniewska and R. Rajchert, “3D field–circuit analysis of
photovoltaic systems,” IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 57, no 4, pp measurement properties of current transformers with axially and
1360–1368, Apr. 2010. radially connected cores made of different magnetic materials,”
[6] D. Barater, G. Buticchi, E. Lorenzani, and C. Concari, “Active Progress In Electromagnetics Research M, vol. 28, pp. 1–13, 2013.
common–mode filter for ground leakage current reduction in grid– [29] C.–H. Hsu, S.–J. Cheng, C.–Y. Lee, C.–M. Fu, and C.–W. Chang,
connected PV converters operating with arbitrary power factor,” “Fe–based composited cores for single–phase transformers
IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 61, no. 8, pp. 3940–3950, Aug. fabricated with high–induction amorphous material,” J. Appl. Phys.,
2014. vol. 115, no 17, pp. 17A342–17A342-3, May 2014.
[7] O. Lopez, R. Teodorescu, and J. Doval–Gandoy, “Multilevel [30] T. D. Kefalas and A. G. Kladas, “Mixed Si–Fe wound cores five
transformerless topologies for single–phase grid–connected legged transformer: Losses and flux distribution analysis,” IEEE
converters,” Proc. IECON, 2006, pp. 5191–5196. Trans. Magn., vol. 48, no. 4, pp. 1609–1612, Apr. 2012.
[8] K.–C. Tseng and C.–C. Huang, “High step–up high–efficiency [31] T. D. Kefalas and A. G. Kladas, “Harmonic impact on distribution
interleaved converter with voltage multiplier module for renewable transformer no–load loss,” IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 57, no.
energy system,” IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 61, no. 3, pp. 1, pp. 193–200, Jan. 2010.
1311–1319, Mar. 2014. [32] T. D. Kefalas and A. G. Kladas, “Analysis of transformers working
[9] G. Franceschini, E. Lorenzani, A. Bellini, and A. Fratta, under heavily saturated conditions in grid–connected renewable–
“Compensation of magnetic core saturation for grid connected energy systems,” IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 59, no. 5, pp.
single–phase power converters,” Proc. ICEM, 2010. 2342–2350, May 2012.
[10] G. Franceschini, E. Lorenzani, and G. Buticchi, “Saturation [33] M. A. M. Cheema, J. E. Fletcher, and D. Dorrell, “A practical
compensation strategy for grid connected converters based on line approach for the global optimization of electromagnetic design of 3–
frequency transformers,” IEEE Trans. Energy Convers., vol. 27, no. phase core–type distribution transformer allowing for capitalization
2, pp. 229–237, Jun. 2012. of losses,” IEEE Trans. Magn., vol. 49, no. 5, pp. 2117–2120, 2013.
[11] D. Barater, G. Buticchi, G. Franceschini, and E. Lorenzani, “Active
filter for DC current components in three–phase distribution grids,” X. BIOGRAPHIES
Proc. APEC, 2012.
[12] G. Buticchi and E. Lorenzani, “Detection method of the DC bias in
distribution power transformers,” IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. Themistoklis D. Kefalas (M’09) was born in Greece in 1977. He received
60, no. 8, pp. 3539–3549, Aug. 2013. the Electrical Engineering Educator degree from the School of
[13] G. Buticchi, L. Consolini, and E. Lorenzani, “Active filter for the Pedagogical and Technological Education, Athens, Greece, in 1999 and
removal of the DC current component for single–phase power lines,” the Diploma and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the
IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 60, no. 10, pp. 4403–4414, Oct. National Technical University of Athens, Athens, Greece, in 2005 and
2013. 2008, respectively.
[14] T. D. Kefalas, P. S. Georgilakis, A. G. Kladas, A. T. Souflaris, and Since 2010, he has been an Adjunct Assistant Professor with the
D. G. Paparigas, “Multiple grade lamination wound core: A novel laboratory of electric machines, School of Pedagogical and Technological
technique for transformer iron loss minimization using simulated Education. Since 2008, he has been an Adjunct Lecturer and Research
annealing with restarts and an anisotropy model,” IEEE Trans. Associate with the School of Electrical and Computer Engineering,
Magn., vol. 44, no 6, pp. 1082–1085, Jun. 2008. National Technical University of Athens. His research interests include
[15] T. D. Kefalas, “Transformers made of composite magnetic cores: An electric machine and transformer design, modeling, and optimization.
innovative design approach,” Journal of Recent Patents on Dr. Kefalas is a member of the Technical Chamber of Greece.
Electrical Engineering, vol. 2, no. 1, pp. 1–12, 2009.
[16] T. D. Kefalas and A. G. Kladas, “Development of distribution
Antonios G. Kladas (S’80–A’99–M’02–SM’10) was born in Greece in
transformers assembled of composite wound cores,” IEEE Trans.
1959. He received the Diploma in electrical engineering from the Aristotle
Magn., vol. 48, no 2, pp. 775–778, Feb. 2012.
University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece, in 1982 and the D.E.A.
[17] G. Loizos, T. D. Kefalas, A. G. Kladas, A. Souflaris, and D.
and Ph.D. degrees from Pierre and Marie Curie University (Paris 6), Paris,
Paparigas, “Flux distribution in single phase Si–Fe wound
France, in 1983 and 1987, respectively.
transformer cores,” J.Magn. Magn. Mater., vol. 320, pp. 874–877,
From 1984 to 1989, he was an Associate Assistant with Pierre and
2008.
Marie Curie University. From 1991 to 1996, he was with Public Power
[18] G. Loizos, T. D. Kefalas, A. G. Kladas, A. T. Souflaris, “Flux
Corporation S.A., Athens, Greece, where he was engaged in the System
distribution analysis in three–phase Si–Fe wound transformer cores,”
Studies Department. Since 1996, he has been with the School of Electrical
IEEE Trans. Magn., vol. 46, no. 2, pp. 594–597, Feb. 2010.
and Computer Engineering, National Technical University of Athens,
[19] T. D. Kefalas, G. Loizos, and A. G. Kladas, “Transformer joints FE
Athens, Greece, where he is currently a Professor. His research interests
analysis using pseudo–source technique,” IEEE Trans. Magn., vol.
include transformer and electric machine modeling and design, as well as
47, no. 5, pp. 1058–1061, May 2011.
the analysis of generating units by renewable energy sources and industrial
[20] E. D. Treanor, “Method of making magnetic cores, U.S. Patent 2 960
drives.
756, Nov. 22, 1960.
Dr. Kladas is a member of the Technical Chamber of Greece.