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Introduction:
Helping Notes

Lecture 1

Computer:
Computer word is derived from compute which means to calculate, so earlier the idea behind
inventing computer was to invent a machine that could calculate huge numbers easily and
speedily with 100% accuracy at that time.
We can define computer as

“An electronic device or machine that takes some input , process it and gives some
output to user.”

Now a days Computer is not just used for calculation but in fact now it is multifunction device
being used in all fields of life.

Computer Science Vs Information Technology:

Computer science is the study of theories and ideas regarding field of computer.
While
Information Technology is application of computer science in different fields of life.

Data Vs Information:

1. It is collection of raw facts and figures. | 1. It is processed form of data.

2. It is normally huge in volume. | 2. It is small in volume.
3. It is not used to take decisions | 3. It provides basis to take decisions
4. If it is lost, almost impossible to recover. | 4. It can be easily recovered if lost.

Computer Components:
In broad way computer can be divided in two categories.
Hardware
Computer equipment that can be seen or touch such as a CPU, disk drives, CRT, or
printer etc.
Software
A computer program, which provides the instructions which enable the computer
hardware to perform any task.

Characteristics of Computer:
Computer is very useful invention of mankind due to its characteristics, Following are
some main characteristics.
1. Speed:
Computer work at tremendous speed, much faster than human. It can perform billion of
trillion instructions in just 1 second. Its speed is measured in Ghz.
2. Accuracy:
Computer is much more accurate than human, as it doesn’t make any mistakes in
performing even huge calculations. Its results are error free.
3. Processing:
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Computer can process what ever the kind of instruction fed into it. It can process not
only the arithmetic instruction but also logical instructions.
4. Consistency:
Computer is very consistent I its work, as it perform given instruction in similar way, with
same result , no matter how many times it is given to perform that.
5. Storage:
Computer has the ability to store huge amount of data in it, Its storage ability has been
enhanced greatly over period of time. Basic unit of storage is byte(B)
1 B = 7 bits
1 KB = 1024 B
1 MB = 1024 KB
1 GB = 1024 MB

6. Versatile:
Computer can perform various types of task. It can be used to perform calculations, to
play games, to draw graphics etc.
7. No Feelings:
Computer can not feel anything like human, It doesn’t get bore or get frustrate. It is not
effected by sorrows or happiness.
8. No Intelligence:
Computer is not an intelligent at all; it can work only according to the fed instructions. It
uses the human intelligence to do any task.

Lecture 2

Software Types

Application Software:
A type of software that is used to perform specific task of a user.
It normally doesn’t require any special type of hardware.
Example:
MS Office, database etc.
System Software:
A type of software that is designed to operate the computer hardware and
to provide and maintain a platform for running application software.
Example:
Drivers, operating systems etc.
Types of Application Software:

Packaged Application Software:

An application software that is available for different types of user and is not built or
developed for a particular customer or organization. It is according to overall public
requirements.
Example: Word processor, Spreadsheets etc.
Custom Built Application Software:
An application software that is specially developed to full fill specific customer’s
requirements.
Example:
Company’s own database or website.
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Shareware Application Software:

An application software that is available free of cost for limited time period, If a user
wants to use after that period , it has to be purchased.
Example:
Antivirus, file converters etc.
Freeware Application Software
An application software that is available free of cost for unlimited time period.
Example:
Educational software, demo disks

DATA PROCESING LIFECYCLE (DPL):

“Series of activities or tasks used to transform data into information”

Input:
In this step data is entered or given to the computer for processing.
Process:
This step performs the required operation to transform data into information.
Output:
In this step the result of given data is presented to the user as output.
Storage:
This step is optional, If user wants to store result or output, it is stored for future
use.

Lecture 3

MACHINE CYCLE:

 It is also called as instruction cycle, fetch-and-execute cycle, fetch-decode-execute

cycle, or FDX.
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 It is the basic operation cycle of a computer. It is the process by which a computer

retrieves a program instruction from its memory, determines what actions the instruction
requires, and carries out those actions.
 This cycle is repeated continuously by the CPU, from boot up to when the computer is
shut down.
 The time required or used to fetch and decoded instruction is called Instruction time or
i-time
 The time required or used to execute instruction and store is called Execution time or
e-time

Each computer's CPU can have different cycles based on different instruction sets, but will be
similar to the following cycle:

1. Fetch:
The instruction is fetched or get from the memory by the control unit.
2. Decode:
The control unit interprets the instruction. It may break the whole instruction into
small pieces to understand the meaning, after that it tells ALU to do its task if any.
3. Execute:
The CU passes the decoded information as a sequence of control signals to the
relevant function units of the CPU to perform the actions required by the
instruction such as reading values from registers, passing them to the ALU to
perform mathematical or logic functions on them.
4. Store:
The result generated by the operation is stored in the main memory, or sent to an
output device.
MEMORY VS STORAGE

Memory is an area of computer where data purely related to processor resides

permanently or temporary.
While
Storage is the location within system unit where user data is stored permanently for
future use.

TYPES OF MEMORY:
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Volatile Memory
A type of memory in which data is lost when the power is turned off, it is relatively
temporary memory.
Example:
RAM

Non-Volatile Memory
A type of memory in which data is not lost when the power is turned off, it is
relatively permanent memory.
Example:
ROM

RAM
1. It stands for random access memory
2. It is temporary memory.
3. It is volatile memory
4. Data can be read and write
5. It contains data being executed by CPU.
ROM
| 1. It stands for read only memory.
| 2. It is permanent memory.
| 3. It is non-volatile memory.
| 4. Data can only be read, can’t be
| deleted or write new instruction.
| 5. It holds data need to boot computer.

TYPES OF RAM

DRAM SRAM
1. It stands for dynamic random access | 1. It stands for static random access
memory | memory
2. It uses capacitors. | 2. It uses transistors.
3. it need to be refreshed again and again | 3. it doesn’t need to be refreshed.
4. It is slow and cheap. | 4. It is fast and expensive.
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Lecture 4

TYPES OF ROM

PROM:
 PROM stands for programmable read only memory.
 It is initially blank.
 User can write instruction on it but only once.
 If during writing, there is an error chip becomes unusable.

EPROM:
 EPROM stands for erasable programmable read only memory.
 It is initially blank.
 User can write and erase instruction on it.
 If during writing, there is an error user can erase data from chip by ultraviolet rays.

EEPROM:
 EEPROM stands for electronically erasable programmable read only memory.
 It is initially blank.
 User can write and erase instruction on it.
 If during writing, there is an error user can erase data from chip electrically.

Cache Memory:
 Cache memory is used by the central processing unit of a computer to reduce the
average time to access memory.
 The cache is a smaller, faster memory which stores copies of the data from the most
frequently used main memory locations.
 As long as most memory accesses are cached memory locations, the
average speed of processor would be high.

 When the processor needs to read from or write to a location in main memory, it first
checks whether a copy of that data is in the cache. If so, the processor immediately
reads from or writes to the cache, which is much faster than reading from or writing to
main memory.
 Most modern desktop and server CPUs have independent caches like
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Instruction cache used to speed up executable instruction fetch.

Data cache used to speed up data fetch and store.

CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT:

 The central processing unit (CPU) is the primary element of a computer system that
carries out the instructions of a computer program
 The central processing unit carries out each instruction of the program in sequence,
to perform the basic arithmetical, logical, and input/output operations of the system.
 CPU is mainly divided in two parts CU and ALU.
Control Unit (CU):

 The control unit is the circuitry that controls the flow of information through the
processor, and coordinates the activities of the other units within it.
 In a way, it is the "brain within the brain", as it controls what happens inside
the processor, which in turn controls the rest of the PC.

Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU):

 It is that part of the CPU which performs the different logic operations and
arithmetic calculations like addition, subtraction, multiplication and division.
 It is the high speed digital circuit that solves calculations and does
comparisons.

 It can also perform bitwise logic operations like AND, OR, XOR, etc.

Lecture 5

Network:
Collection of two or more computer linked to each other through some media is called a
network. Purpose of network is to share resources such as data, hardware
devices(printer, scanner etc. )

Network Types:

Local Area Network (LAN):

It is a computer network that connects computers and devices in a limited geographical

area such as home, school, computer laboratory or office building.

Metropolitan Area Network (MAN):

 It is a network of larger geographical area than a LAN, ranging from several blocks
of buildings to entire cities.
 It might be owned and operated by a single organization, but it usually will be used
by many individuals and organizations
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 It will often provide means for internetworking of local networks.

Wide Area Network (WAN):

 It is a computer network that covers a broad area (i.e., any network whose
communications links cross metropolitan, regional, or national boundaries)
 It connects computers of all over the world. e.g interent.

INTERNET VS WORLD WIDE WEB:

Internet is a type of network and best example of WAN.

While
WWW is one of the services being provided on internet.

Web Browser
Web browser is an application program that provides a way to browse and view web
pages on internet. OR
Web browser is a client program that uses the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) to
make requests of Web servers through the Internet on behalf of the browser user.

Mosaic was the first Web browser with a graphical user interface , in 1993

Web Page

A document or information resource that is usually written in HTML or XHTML format for
WWW and can be accessed through a we browser.
Webpage can be static( displays the same information for all users, from all contexts),
or dynamic (fresh information with respect to users and time).

Website:

Collection of inter-related and interlinked web pages that are addressed by common
URL.

Search Engine:

A web site which is designed to search any information content on the world wide
web, it shows the result as list of required websites.
Example:
www.Google.com
www.yahoo.com

URL:

 URL stands for Uniform Resource Locator, previously Universal Resource Locator
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 It is the complete and unique address of a resource or web page accessible on the
Internet.
 The URL contains the name of the protocol required to access the resource, a domain
name that identifies a specific computer on the Internet, and a pathname (hierarchical
description of a file location) on the computer.
Example:
http://www.yahoo.com
http://www.pu.edu.pk

What is Home Page of a web site???

For a Web user, the home page is the first Web page that is displayed after starting a
Web browser like Microsoft's Internet Explorer. The browser is usually preset so that the home
page is the first page of the browser manufacturer.

For a Web site developer, a home page is the first page presented when a user
selects a site on the World Wide Web. The usual address for a Web site is the home page
address, although you can enter the address (Uniform Resource Locator) of any page and
have that page sent to you.

Future of the Web: Semantic Web:

The Semantic Web is an idea of World Wide Web inventor Tim Berners-Lee that the
Web as a whole can be made more intelligent and perhaps even intuitive about how to
serve a user's needs. Berners-Lee observes that although search engines index much
of the Web's content, they have little ability to select the pages that a user really wants
or needs. He foresees a number of ways in which developers and authors, singly or in
collaborations, can use self-descriptions and other techniques so that context
understanding programs can selectively find what users want.
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Instruction Set
“Set of all instructions that CPU can execute or perform.”

Arithmetic Instructions:
These instructions execute or perform arithmetic operations like
addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. These are
executed by ALU.
Logical Instructions:
These instructions execute or perform logical operations like
comparing two or more values. These are executed by CU.
Comparison operators can be less than (<), greater than (>) and
equal (=).
Data Transfer Instructions:
These instructions transfer data from one part of computer to other
during program execution.
Control Transfer Instructions:
These instruction change the execution sequence of a program and
transfer control to certain part of program instead of next routine
instruction.

PIPELINING:

“A technique in which processor fetches the next instruction before completely

executing the previously fetched instruction.”

Computer processor fetches the first instruction from memory, decodes it and executes the
operation it calls for, and then goes to fetch the next instruction from memory, and so on. While
fetching (getting) the instruction, decoding and execution part of the processor is idle. It must
wait until they get the next instruction.
But due to pipelining
Computer architecture allows the next instructions to be fetched while the processor is
performing decoding or execution, holding them in a buffer (temporary location) close to the
processor until each instruction can be executed.
Advantage of Pipelining is an increase in the number of instructions that can be
executed during a given time period.

REGISTER:
“A high speed small memory location inside CPU that stores data temporarily.”

Register increase the overall performance and efficiency of CPU. Size of register determines
the amount of data that it can hold or contain for short period of time. Usually register size
ranges from 2bytes to 8 bytes.
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PORTS:
“Port is an interface between the computer and peripheral devices or other
computers. Physically, a port is a specialized outlet on a piece of equipment to
which a plug or cable connects.”

TYPES OF PORTS:

Serial Port:

 It transfers one bit of data at a time.

 It is used to attach slower devices like Mouse, keyboard etc.
 It is called as com port.

Parallel Port:

 It transfers many bits at a time.

 It is used to attach faster devices like Monitor, printer etc.
 It is called as LPT port.

USB Port:

 It stands for universal serial bus.

 It can attach slower as well as faster devices like mouse, printer etc.
 It provides the ease to connect 127 different devices.
 Multiple devices can be attached using daisy chain or USB hub.
 It has maximum bandwidth of 12 Mbits/sec

SCSI Port:

 It stands for small computer system interface.

 It is special high speed parallel port.
 It is used to attach SCSI peripheral devices like disk drives tape drives etc.
 It is an intelligent, peripheral, peer to peer interface.
 It hides the complexity of physical format.
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BUSES:
“Electrical paths or transportation lines on the motherboard through which data is
transferred among different components of computer..”

Bus Width:
“The amount of data that a bus can carry at a time”
A bus with bus width of 64b means it can carry 64 bits data at a time.

TYPES OF BUSES:

Data Bus:

 It connects CPU, memory and I/O devices.

 It is bi-directional.
 It can read or write on memory.
 It is used carry data that CPU needs.
 It normally has bus width of 32bits or 64 bits.

Address Bus:

 It connects CPU, and memory.

 It is bi-directional.
 It is used to carry addresses in binary format i.e ‘0’ and ‘1’.
 It normally has bus width of 8bits, 16bits or 32 bits.
 Its bus width determine the memory location that CPU can access.

Control Bus:
 It connects CU to all other components.
 It is uni-directional.
 It is used to carry control signals.
 It controls the use of all buses.

Expansion Bus:

 It is also called external bus.

 It connects devices on expansion slot to processor.
 It carries the data between expansion slot’s devices to the CPU.
 It is bi-directional.
 Various types of expansion buses are used like ISA bus, AGP bus etc.

STORAGE DEVICS:
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“Devices on which data is stored permanently for future use”

TYPES OF STORAGE DEVICS:

Primary Storage Device:

Hard disk is regarded as a primary storage device. Hard disk may contain
several round, thin, rigid disks called platters. In the center of each platter is a
hole by which the platter is mounted to a spindle. The platters rotate around this
spindle at high speed.

Organization of Data on Hard Disk:

 Data is organized on the platters of hard disk in the form of tracks and
sectors, which are established during manufacturing or formatting.
 Tracks exist on each side of each platter, are concentric circles.
 Sectors are defined by radial lines that go from the center point of the platter
to the outer edge.
 When you set up a hard disk, you can create logical partitions. A logical
partition is simply a conceptual division on the hard disk.
 You can use different file systems in different partitions.
 Users partition hard disks so that they can store different operating systems
or segregate data on the same hard drive.
 Formatting is the process that prepares a partition on the hard disk to accept
data by creating an empty file system that is organized into clusters.
 Cluster is a logical grouping of continuous sectors and is the smallest logical
unit of storage that you can allocate to hold a files data.

Secondary Storage Device:

CDs, floppy disks, tape drives or flash drives are regarded as secondary
storage devices.

Floppy disk:
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A diskette is a random access, removable data storage medium that can be used
with personal computers. The term usually refers to the magnetic medium
housed in a rigid plastic cartridge measuring 3.5 inches square and about 2
millimeters thick. Also called a "3.5-inch diskette," it can store up to 1.44
megabytes (MB) of data.

Compact Disk read only Memory:

A compact disc sometimes spelled disk (CD) is a small, portable, round medium
for electronically recording, storing, and playing back audio, video, text, and other
information in digital form. It is used to distribute new application software and
games. Its storage capacity is about 700MB.

INPUT/OUTPUT DEVICES:

Input:
“Data or command given to computer by the user.”

Input Device:
“The device through which user gives input is called input device”. e.g mouse,
keyboard, microphone etc

Mouse:

 The mouse apparently got its name by being about the same size and color
as a toy mouse.
 It is an integral part of the graphical user interface (GUI) of any personal
computer.
 It is a small device that a user moves across a desk surface in order to control
pointer movement on a display screen.
 It can select text and issues command to perform one or more actions.
 It has a small ball on bottom to control movement.

Keyboard:

 Keyboard is the primary text input device.

 It is almost identical to a keyboard on a typewriter.
 It usually has QWERTY layout.
 Normally keyboard has 101-103 keys.
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 It has extra keys like Control, Alt, shift and Del used in conjunction with other
keys to perform any task.
 It has four main parts named as
o Numeric Keypad
o Alpha Numeric Keypad
o Function Keys
o Special Purpose and Navigational keys

Function Keys (F keys):

Most computer keyboards have a row of function keys at the top of the keyboard.
These keys are marked F1 through F10 or F12. F1 key often will bring up a help
menu. The function keys are frequently used in combination with other keys such
as the CTRL key, the ALT key, and the Shift key.

Return or Enter Key:

This key is usually marked Return or Enter. This key is used to enter commands
or to move the cursor to the beginning of the next line.

Escape Key:

The Escape key, which is marked ESC, is basically used to exit or escape from
programs and tasks.

Control Key (CTRL):

The CTRL key is used in conjunction with another key. Holding it down while
pressing another key will initiate a certain action. CTRL+S will save the current
file or document, and CTRL+P will print the current file or document.

Alternate Key (ALT):

Like the Control Key, the ALT key is used in combination with other keys. Holding
down the ALT key while pressing the key corresponding to the underlined letter
will open the menu just as though you had clicked your mouse.

Caps Lock:

The Caps Lock key is a toggle key. When Caps Lock is on, every letter that is
typed will be a capital letter.

Num Lock & Numeric Keypad:

This keypad has a group of number keys with additional markings like arrows,
PgDn, End, etc. The numeric pad is controlled by a toggle key marked Num
Lock. When the Num Lock key is on, this pad can be used to enter numbers.
When the Num Lock key is off, the functions listed below the number will be
activated. These functions usually include arrow keys that can be used to move
the cursor around the screen. Likewise the keys marked PgUp and Pg Down will
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move the cursor a page up or down on the screen. The Home and End keys will
move the cursor to the beginning or end of a line or document, respectively.

Output:
“Data or information given by the computer to the user.”

Output Device:
The device through which the computer display or gives output is called Output
device. e.g Monitor and printer etc.

Monitor or Virtual Display Unit (VDU):

 It is a display device to show the results and working of computer.

 Its output is called softcopy output.
 Its main two types are CRT and LCD.

LCD Monitor:

Short for liquid crystal display, LCD displays use two sheets of polarizing material
with a liquid crystal solution between them. An electric current passed through
the liquid causes the crystals to align so that light cannot pass through them.
Each crystal, therefore, is like a shutter, either allowing light to pass through or
blocking the light. Color LCD displays use two basic techniques for producing
color: Passive matrix is the less expensive of the two technologies. The other
technology, called active matrix, produces color images that are as sharp as
traditional CRT displays, but the technology is expensive.

CRT Monitor:

Sort for cathode-ray tubes, A CRT works by moving an electron beam back and
forth across the back of the screen from three electron guns. These guns
generate red, green, blue (RGB) colors. Each time the beam makes a pass
across the screen, it lights up phosphor dots on the inside of the glass tube,
thereby illuminating the active portions of the screen. By drawing many such
lines from the top to the bottom of the screen, it creates an entire screen of
images. The back of screen is coated with phosphorous material. There is a
sheet called shadow mask have various small holes in it at the back of screen,
which is used to focus the right pixel on the screen.
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Resolution:

“The number of pixels a monitor screen can display”

Its value is represented as 1024X768, 680X480 etc.

Rerfresh Rate:

“ Number of times per second a monitor can redraws images on screen”

Dot Pitch:

“Space between the pixels that make up the images on your screen.”
It is measured in millimeters. The less space between pixels, the better would be
the image quality.
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Printer:
 It is a device used to take output on paper.
 Its output is called hardcopy output.
 Printer is divided in two categories

Impact Printer:

 It is an old technology.
 It produces a lot of noise.
 It prints by striking on paper.
 Its printing speed and quality is low.
 Examples are dot matrix, line printer etc.

Dot Matrix Printer:

 It is an impact printer.
 It prints text or images by striking small pins of a print head on an inked
ribbon and then this inked ribbon pushes on to the paper.
 Print head may contain 9-24 pins arranged in a matrix.
 It prints with DPI of 100-150.
 Its speed is from 200-300 character per minute (cpm)
 Its printing quality is low specially in case of graphics.

Line Printer:

 It is an impact printer.
 It strikes paper with hammer to print text.
 It prints entire line at a time.
 Its speed is from 1000-2000 line per minute (lpm)
 It has the capability of printing in different fonts and sizes.

Non Impact Printer:

 It is a new technology.
 It does not produce a lot of noise.
 It print mechanism doesn’t strike on paper.
 Its printing speed and quality is high.
 Examples are inkjet and laser printer etc.

Inkjet Printer:
 It is a non impact printer.
 It prints characters and graphics by spraying tiny drops of liquid ink on to the
paper.
 It can produce black and white print as well as color print.
 Its speed is high but lower than laser printer.
 It print entire page at a time.
 Its speed is from 1-8 pages per minute (ppm)
 Its price is low than laser printer.
Laser Printer:
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 It is a non impact printer.

 It prints images by using laser beam.
 Laser stands for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of radiation.
 Laser throws magnetic material powder on to the paper in the form of
microscopic dots.
 Its printing speed and quality is higher than all other printers.
 Its printing Dot Per Inch range is 300-2000.
 Its printing speed is from 5-300 pages per minute (ppm).