Afro-Asian Literature
ASIA
I. India
Indian Caste System
1. Brahmans or Brahmins - the intellectuals
and the priestly class who perform religious
rituals
2. Kshatriya (nobles or warriors)- who
traditionally had power
3. Vaishyas (commoners or merchants) -
ordinary people who produce, farm, trade
and earn a living
4. Shudras (workers) - who traditionally
served the higher classes, including laborers,
artists, musicians, and clerks
A. Literary Periods
1. Vedic Period (1500 B.C.-500B.C.)
This period is named for the Vedas, a set of
hymns are considered the earliest literary
record of Indo-Aryan civilization and the most
sacred books of India. They are the original
scriptures of Hindu teachings, containing
spiritual knowledge encompassing all aspects of
life. It is believed that these have been revealed
to humans directly by the gods.
 Rigveda means hymns of supreme sacred
knowledge” is often comparable to the
psalms in the Old Testament.
2. Epic and Buddhist Age (500 B.C. - A.D.)
The period composition of the two epics,
Mahabharata and Ramayana. The Dhammapada
was also probably composed during this period.
 Mahabharata (Great Epic of the
Bharata Dynasty) - chronicled by the
sage Vyasa, it has the honor of being the
longest epic in world literature, 100,000
2-line stanzas. It tells the struggle for
supremacy between two groups of
cousins, the Kauravas and Pandavas. It is
an exposition of dharma (codes of
conduct) including the proper conduct of
a king, a warrior, etc.
 Bhagavad Gita (The Blessed Lord’s
song) - is a Hindu scripture that is part of
the epic Mahabharata (chapters 23–40 of
the 6th book). It is written in a form of a
dialogue between the warrior prince
Arjuna and his friend and charioteer
Khrishna (an earthly incarnation of the
god Vishnu).
 Ramayana- composed by the poet
Valmiki, it reflects the Hindu values and
forms of social organization , the theory of
karma, the ideals of lifehood, feelings
about caste, honor and promises.
3. Classical Period (A.D. – 1000A.D.)
Main literary language is Sanskrit which means
‘perfect speech’ and is considered sacred
language spoken by gods and goddesses. As
such, it is seen as the only appropriate language
for the noblest literary works.
 Pachatantra- collection of beast fables
originally written in Sanskrit. In Europe, it
known as The Fables of Bidpai after the
narrator and sage named Bidpai
(Vidyapati in Indian). It is intended as a
textbook for artha (earthly wisdom).
 Sakuntala- a Sanskrit drama by Kalidasa,
tells the love between Sakuntala and King
Dushyanta. Rasa (emotions) dominates
every Sanskrit drama.
 The Little Clay Cart (Mrccchakatika)-
written by Shudraka, a king.
4. Medieval and Modern Age (A.D. 1000-
present) In the 18th century, India was directly
under the British crown until the its
independence in 1947. British influence was
strong and modern-day Indians are primarily
educated in English.
 Gitanjali: Song Offerings- Tagore uses
imagery from nature to express the
themes of love and internal conflict
between spiritual longings and earthly
desires.
 The Taj Mahal- a poem by Sahir
Ludhianvi
 On Learning To be an Indian- an essay
by Santha Rama Bau illustrates the telling
effects of colonization on the lives of the
people particularly the younger
generation. The writer humorously
narrates the conflicts that arise between
her grandmother’s traditional Indian
values and the author’s own British
upbringing.
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B. Religions
1. Hinduism
Literally “the belief of the people of India,” is the
predominant faith in India and of no other nation.
Hinduism is a pantheistic religion: It equates God
with the universe. Yet Hindu religion is also
polytheistic: populated with myriad gods and
goddesses who personify aspects of the one true
God, allowing individuals an infinite number of
ways to worship based on family tradition,
community and regional practices, and other
considerations.
Here are just some of the many Hindu gods and
goddesses:
 Brahma, the Creator- Brahma is the first
member of the Hindu Trinity and is “the
Creator” because he periodically creates
everything in the universe.
 Vishnu, the Preserver- Vishnu is the second
member of the Hindu Trinity. He maintains the
order and harmony of the universe, which is
periodically created by Brahma and
periodically destroyed by Shiva to prepare for
the next creation. Vishnu is the pervader — the
divine essence that pervades the universe.
 Shiva, the Destroyer- the third member of the
Hindu Trinity, tasked with destroying the
universe in order to prepare for its renewal at
the end of each cycle of time. Shiva’s
destructive power is regenerative: It’s the
necessary step that makes renewal possible.
 Ganapati, the Remover of Obstacles- also
known as Ganesha, is Shiva’s first son. Lord
Ganapati, who has an elephant head, occupies
a very special place in the hearts of Hindus
because they consider him the Remover of
Obstacles.
 Avatars of Vishnu- The literal meaning of the
word avatar is “descent,” and it’s usually
understood to mean divine descent. Avatars
are savior forms of a god that descend to earth
to intervene whenever help is needed to
restore dharma (moral order) and peace. Two
of Vishnu’s ten avatars are Rama and Krishna.
o Rama- one of the most beloved Hindu
gods and is the hero of the Hindu epic
called the Ramayana. He is portrayed
as an ideal son, brother, husband, and
king and as a strict adherent to
dharma.
o Krishna- the teacher of the sacred
scripture called the Bhagavad Gita and
as the friend and mentor of prince
Arjuna in the epic the Mahabharata.
 Saraswati, the Goddess of Learning- is the
consort of Brahma the Creator and is
worshipped as the goddess of learning,
wisdom, speech, and music. Hindus offer
prayer to Saraswati before beginning any
intellectual pursuit, and Hindu students are
encouraged to offer prayers to her during the
school/college term and especially before and
during examinations.
 Lakshmi, the goddess of good fortune,
wealth, and well-being- As the consort of
Vishnu, she plays a role in every incarnation.
(She is Sita, wife of Rama; Rukmini, wife of
Krishna; and Dharani, wife of Parashu Rama,
another avatar of Vishnu.)
 Durga Devi- a powerful, even frightening
goddess who fights fiercely in order to restore
dharma (moral order). Yet, while Durga is
terrifying to her adversaries, she is full of
compassion and love for her devotees.
 Indra, the King of Heaven and lord of the
gods- Indra wields a thunderbolt and is a
protector and provider of rain.
 Surya, the sun- Surya (or Soorya) is a golden
warrior arriving on a chariot pulled by seven
white horses.
 Agni, the fire god- the sacrificer (the priest
who performs the ceremony); the sacrifice
(the ritual fire and the offerings made into it);
and the witness to all rites.
Core Hindu Concepts:
 Purusarthas- the three ends of man
o Dharma- virtue, duty, moral, law
o Artha- wealth
o Kama- love or pleasure
 Moksha- the renunciation of duty, wealth and
love in order to seek spiritual perfection. It
occurs when the soul unites with Brahman by
realizing its true nature. Several paths can
lead to this realization and unity: the path of
duty, the path of knowledge, and the path of
devotion (unconditional surrender to God).
 Samsara- cycle of reincarnation refers to the
process of passing from one body to another
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 throughout all species of life. Hindus believe
that consciousness is present in all life forms,
even fish and plants. Most Hindus consider
samsara essentially painful, a cycle of 4
recurring problems: birth, disease, old-age
and death.
 Maya- illusion, everything that seems to
divide the soul from reality
 Asramas- four phases of the ideally
conducted life
o Student stage- applies to the rite of
initiation into the study of Vedas
o Householder stage- marries and
fulfills the duties as head of the family
o Forest dweller- departs from home
and renounces the social world
o Ascetic- stops performing any rituals
or social duties of life in the world and
devotes time for reflection and
meditation
 Brahman- the one true God who is formless,
limitless, all-inclusive, and eternal. Brahman
is not an abstract concept; it is a real entity
that encompasses everything (seen and
unseen) in the universe.
 Atman- refers to the real self beyond ego or
false self. It is often referred to as 'spirit' or
'soul' and indicates our true self or essence
which underlies our existence. It is distinct
from the temporary body made of matter
(prakriti).
 Purusha- the Universal spirit, the soul and
original source of the universe. As a
personified human being, Purusha’s body is
the source of all creation.
2. Buddhism
Based on the teachings of Siddharta Gautama,
called Buddha or the ‘Enlightened One’
Core Buddhist Concepts:
 Karma- refers to action driven by intention
(cetanā) which leads to future consequences.
An effect of this is the continual cycle of life,
death, and suffering.
 Nirvana- the highest state that someone can
attain, a state of enlightenment, meaning a
person's individual desires and suffering go
away.
 Four Noble Truths- the key to attain
Nirvana
o Life is suffering
o The cause of suffering is desire
o The removal of desire is the removal of
suffering
o The Noble Eightfold path leads to the
end of Suffering
 The Noble Eightfold Path
Three Qualities Eightfold Path
Wisdom (panna) Right View
Right Thought
Morality (sila) Right Speech
Right Action
Right Livelihood
Meditation Right Effort
(samadhi) Right Mindfulness
Right Contemplation
 The Dhammapada (Way of Truth)-
anthology of basic Buddhist teachings in
simple aphoristic style. These verses are
compared to the letters of St. Paul or that of
Christ’s sermon on the Mount.
C. Major Writers and Their Works
1. Kalidasa- classical Indian author, the greatest
Indian writer of all time. His poems suggest
that he was a Brahman (priest).
2. Rabindranath Tagore- Bengali poet and
mystic who won the Nobel Prize for Literature
in 1913. His sympathy for poverty is reflected
in his works. Works: Gitanjali: Song Offering
3. Prem Chand- pseudonym of Dhanpat Rai
Srivasta. He pioneered in adapting Indian
themes to Western literary styles.
Works: Sevasadana (House of Service),
Manasarovar (The Holy Lake), Godan (Gift of
Cow)
4. Kamala Markandaya- Her works concern the
struggles of contemporary Indians with
conflicting eastern and western values. A
Brahman, she studied at Madras University
and married an Englishman.
Works: Nectar in a Sieve
5. R.K. Narayan- His works typically portray the
peculiarities of human relationship s and the
ironies of Indian daily life, in which modern
urban existence clashes with ancient tradition.
Works: Swami and Friends, The English
Teacher, Waiting for the Mahatma, A Tiger of
Malgudi
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 6. Anita Desai- An English-language Indian
novelist and author of children’s books
Works: Cry, the Peacock, Clear Light of Day,
Fire on the Mountain
7. Vir Singh- a Sikh writer and theologian, he
extolled Sikh courage, philosophy and ideals.
Works: Kalgi Dhar Chamatkar, Sundri
8. Arundhati Roy- winner of Man Booker Prize
for Fiction in 1997
Works: The God of Small Things
II. China
A. Philosophy and Religion
Unlike Western religions, Chinese religions are based
on the perception of life as a continual change in which
opposing forces, such as heaven and earth or light and
dark, balance one another. THESE opposites are
symbolized by the Yin and Yang.
1. Confucianism
Confucianism (rujiao) is a way of life taught by
Confucius (Kong Fuzi) in China in the 6th-5th
century BCE. It is not a religion but it makes
individuals aware of their place in the world and
the behavior appropriate to it.
Core Concepts
 Jen (ren) - human heartedness; goodness;
benevolence, man-to-man-ness; what
makes man distinctively human (that
which gives human beings their
humanity). It is the goal of self- cultivation.
 Li (lee) - principle of gain, benefit, order,
propriety; concrete guide to human action.
 The Five Relationships- This
working out of Li is especially
important in what Confucianism
holds as the Five Key Relationships;
they are the relationship of ruler to
subject, father to son, husband to
wife, elder to younger and friend to
friend.
 Yi (yee) - righteousness, the moral
disposition to do good (also a necessary
condition for jen or for the superior man).
 Hsiao (showe)- filial piety, reverence
 Li- propriety and correct behavior. Li is
thought to be the means by which life
should be regulated.
 Zhi- moral wisdom; the source of this
virtue is knowledge of right and wrong. It
is added to Confucianism by Mencius
(muhn shoos) who believed that people
are basically born good.
The Analects (Lun Yu)- The Analects of
Confucius is an anthology of brief passages that
present the words of Confucius and his
disciples, describe Confucius as a man, and
recount some of the events of his life.
The Book of Changes (I Ching)- a collection of
practical wisdom, pertaining to every
conceivable situation. It originates in ancient
China and is the oldest Chinese classical text. "I
Ching" means "Classic of Changes" or "Book of
Changes."
2. Taoism
Also known as Daoism, is an indigenous Chinese
religion written by Laozi (Lao Tzu). Taoism is
about the Tao. This is usually translated as the
Way. The Tao is not God and is not worshipped.
Taoism includes many deities that are
worshipped in Taoist temples, they are part of
the universe and depend, like everything, on the
Tao.
Core Concepts:
 Tao- the natural course that the world
follows. To follow the tao or ‘to go with the
flow’ is both wisdom and happiness. The
Taoist political ideas are very passive: the
good king does nothing, and by this
everything is done naturally.
 The One- the essence of Tao, the essential
energy of life, the possession of which
enables things and beings to be truly
themselves and in accord with the Tao.
Taoist texts sometimes refer to the Tao as the
mother and the One as the son.
 Tzu Jan - usually translated naturalness or
spontaneity, but this is rather misleading.
One writer suggests using the phrase 'that
which is naturally so', meaning the condition
that something will be in if it is permitted to
exist and develop naturally and without
interference or conflict.
 Wu Wei- The method of following the Tao is
called Wu Wei. This can be translated as
uncontrived action or natural non-
intervention. Wu Wei means living by or
going along with the true nature of the world
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 - or at least without obstructing the Tao -
letting things take their natural course. This
doesn't stop a person living a proactive life
but their activities should fit into the natural
pattern of the universe, and therefore need to
be completely detached and disinterested
and not ego-driven.
 Yin Yang- the principle of natural and
complementary forces, patterns and things
that depend on one another and do not make
sense on their own. The yin yang concept is
not the same as Western dualism, because
the two opposites are not at war, but in
harmony.
 Ch'I (qi)- the cosmic vital energy that
enables beings to survive and links them to
the universe as a whole.
B. Conventions of the Chinese Theater
1. Chinese drama ay be traced to the song and
dances of the chi (wizards) and wu
(witches) whom the people consulted for evil
spirits.
2. There are four principal roles:
 Sheng- leading actor, usually male, a
scholar, a statesman, a warrior, a
patriot and the like
 Tau- plays all women roles after
women were banned from the Chinese
stage as they were looked down upon
as courtesan
 Ching- brave warriors, bandits, crafty
and evil ministers and at times, god-
like or supernatural beings
 Chau- clown or jester. He is easily
recognized for the white patch around
his eyes and nose, his use of colloquial
language and adeptness in mimicry
and acrobatics.
3. Chinese drama conveys ethical lesson in the
guise of art to impress a moral truth or a
Confucian tenet.
4. There are two types of speeches: dialogue
(usually in prose) and monologues
5. Chinese plays last six to seven hours if
performed completely
6. The Chinese play is a total theater. There is
singing, acrobats, recitation of verses, and
playing of traditional instruments.
7. The poetic dialogue, hsieh tzu (wedge) is
placed at the beginning or in between acts.
8. Make-up identifies the characters and
personalities. Costumes help reveal types and
different colors signify ranks and status.
III. Japan
Both in quantity and quality, Japanese literature
ranks as one of the major literatures of the world,
comparable in age, richness, and volume to
English literature, though its course of
development has been quite dissimilar.
Historical Development
1. Heian Period: 794-1185
Classical Japanese literature generally refers
to literature produced during the Heian
period, what some would consider a golden
era of art and literature.
Important works: Genji Monogatari, The
Pillow Book
2. Kamakura-Muromachi Period: 1185-
1600
In the latter half of the twelfth century
warriors of the Taira clan (Heike) seized
political power at the imperial court,
virtually forming a new aristocracy. Medieval
Japanese Literature is marked by the strong
influence of Zen Buddhism, where characters
are priests, travelers, or ascetic poets. Also
during this period, Japan experienced many
civil wars which led to the development of a
warrior class, and subsequent war tales,
histories, and related stories. Work from this
period is notable for its insights into life and
death, simple lifestyles, and redemption
through killing.
Important Works: Renga (successive linked
verses by several people forming a long
poem)
3. Edo Period: 1600-1868
It was the renowned seventeenth century
poet Matsuo Basho who perfected a new
condensed poetic form of 17 syllables (5-7-5)
known as Haiku, an embodiment of elegant
simplicity and tranquility. Many genres of
literature made their debut during the Edo
Period, helped by a rising literacy rate among
the growing population of townspeople, as
well as the development of lending libraries.
Although there was a minor Western
influence trickling into the country from the
Dutch settlement at Nagasaki.
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 4. Meiji Period: 1868-1945
The Meiji period marks the re-opening of
Japan to the West, and a period of rapid
industrialization. The introduction of
European literature brought free verse into
the poetic repertoire; it became widely used
for longer works embodying new intellectual
themes.
During the 1920s and early 1930s the
proletarian literary movement, depicting the
harsh lives of workers, peasants, women, and
other downtrodden members of society, and
their struggles for change.
War-time Japan saw the début of several
authors best known for the beauty of their
language and their tales of love and
sensuality, notably Jun'ichiro Tanizaki and
Japan's first winner of the Nobel Prize for
Literature, Yasunari Kawabata, a master of
psychological fiction.
5. Postwar Period: 1945- Present
World War II, and Japan's defeat, deeply
influenced Japanese literature. Many authors
wrote stories of disaffection, loss of purpose,
and the coping with defeat.
Prominent writers of the 1970s and 1980s
were identified with intellectual and moral
issues in their attempts to raise social and
political consciousness.
Religion
1. Shintoism
The word Shinto comes from the Chinese word
"Shen-tao" which means "the way of the gods."
Shintoism is an ancient tradition that reveres in
dwelling divine spirits called kami, found in
natural places and objects. Shintoism is both
polytheistic (believing in many gods) and
animistic (believing that gods inhabit objects,
animals, nature, etc.)
The most important kami is Amaterasu, the sun
goddess. She is believed to be the ancestor to the
emperors of Japan. Her shrine is at Ise and is the
most important shrine in Japan.
Shinto places of worship are called shrines and
are usually found in beautiful natural settings.
The shrine contains an Inner Hall which is only
entered by Shinto priests since it is believed kami
are present. Shinto shrines are marked by a
special archway called a torii. This archway is
believed to separate the sacred world of the
shrine from the world outside. Worship also
happens in homes and at work through simple
offerings of rice and tea and prayers. The rice and
tea is placed on a special shelf called a "godshelf”.
Prayers are often addressed to the family
ancestors.
2. Zen Buddhism
Zen Buddhism is a mixture of Indian Mahayana
Buddhism and Taoism. It began in China, spread
to Korea and Japan, and became very popular in
the West from the mid-20th century. The essence
of Zen Buddhism is achieving enlightenment by
seeing one's original mind (or original nature)
directly; without the intervention of the intellect.
Zen disciples believe that one can attain personal
tranquility and insights into the true meaning of
life through rigorous physical and mental
discipline.
Socio-Political Concepts
1. Giri- connotes duty, justice, honor, decency,
respectability and courtesy.
2. On- a sense of obligation or indebtedness which
propels Japanese to act
3. Seppuku- ritual disembowelment. In Feudal
Japan, ‘lost of face’ is saved by seppuku.
Poetry
One of the oldest and most popular means of
expression and communication in Japanese culture.
There are different poems according to set forms or
structures:
1. Choka- consists of alternate lines of five and
seven syllables.
2. Tanka- Consists of five lines of 5-7-5-7-7 syllable
including at least one caesura.
3. Renga- an interlocking tanka. It is successive
linked verses by several people forming a long
poem.
4. Hokku- opening of a renga which developed into
a distinct literary form known as haiku.
5. Haiku- Consists of 3 lines of 5-7-5 syllables.
Almost all haikus include a kigo or seasonal words
such as snow or cherry blossoms that indicates
the time of the year being described.
Drama
1. Nō- emerged during the 14th century as the
earliest form of Japanese drama. The plays are
performed on an almost bare stage by a small
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 but elaborately costumed cast of actors wearing
masks. The actors are accompanied by a chorus
and the plays are written either in verse or in
highly poetic prose.
2. Kabuki- a lively, melodramatic acting staged
using elaborate and colorful costumes and sets.
It is performed with the accompaniment of an
orchestra and generally focus on the lives of the
common people than the aristocrats.
3. Jorori (now called Bunraku)- staged using
puppets
4. Kyogen- a farce traditionally performed
between the Nō tragedies.
Major Writers and Works
1. Matsuo Basho- regarded as the greatest
Haiku poet. He was born into a samurai family
then became a Zen Buddhist. Basho means
‘banana plant.’
2. Yasunari Kawabata- won the Nobel prize in
Literature in 1968. The sense of loneliness and
preoccupation with death permeates much of
his writing.
Works: Snow Country, Thousand Cranes,
House of the Sleeping Beauties
3. Junichiro Tanizaki- a major novelist whose
writing is characterized by eroticism and
ironic wit.
Works: Some Prefer Nettles, The Makioka
Sisters, Diary of a Mad Old Man
4. Yukio Mishima- is the pen name of Kamitake
Hiraoka, regarded as the most important
Japanese novelist of the 20th century. He was
contemptuous of the materialistic
Westernized society of Japan in the postwar
era.
Works: Confessions of a Mask, The Sea of
Fertility Trilogy
5. Dazai Ozamu- He had psychological conflicts
arising from his inability to draw a red line
between his Japaneseness clashing with
embracing with his embracing the Catholic
faith.
Works: The Setting Sun
6. Ryunosuke Akutagawa- He is regarded as
the "Father of the Japanese short story."
Works: In a Grove, The Nose, Hell Screen
7. Oe Kenzaburo- Japanese novelist whose
works express the disillusionment and
rebellion of his post-World War II generation.
He was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature
in 1994.
Works: Lavish are the Dead, The Catch, A
Personal Matter
AFRICA
Brief History
Africa experienced several hardships in its long
history which left an impact on the themes of its
literature. One hardship which led to many others is
that of colonization. Colonization is when people leave
their country and settle in another land, often one
which is already inhabited. The problem with
colonization is when the incoming people exploit the
indigenous people and the resources of the inhabited
land.
Colonization led to slavery. Millions of African people
were enslaved and brought to Western countries
around the world from the sixteenth to nineteenth
centuries. This spreading of African people, largely
against their will, is called the African Diaspora.
Sub-Saharan Africa developed a written literature
during the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.
This development came as a result of missionaries
coming to the area. The missionaries came to Africa to
build churches and language schools in order to
translate religious texts. This led to Africans writing in
both European and indigenous languages.
Literary Forms
1. Orature- tradition of African oral literature
which includes praise poems, love poems, tales,
ritual dramas and moral instructions in the form
of proverbs and fables.
2. Griots- the keepers of oral literature in West
Africa, may be a professional storyteller, singer or
entertainer and skilled in creating and
transmitting the many forms of African oral
literature.
3. Lyric Poems- do not tell a story but instead, like
songs, create a vivid expressive testament to a
speaker’s thoughts or emotional state.
4. Hymns of Praise songs- offered to the sun god
Aten.
5. African Proverbs- represents a poetic form that
uses few words but achieve great depth of
meaning
6. Dilemma or Enigma Tale- African moral tale
intended for listeners to discuss and debate. It’s
an open-ended story that concludes with a
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 question that asks the audience to choose from
among several alternatives.
7. Ashanti Tale- Exemplifies common occupations
of the Ashanti such as farming, fishing and
weaving. It combines realistic elements with
fantasy elements like talking objects and animals.
8. Trickster Tale- The best known African trickster
figure is Anansi the spider.
9. Epic of vanished heroes- partly-human, partly-
superhuman who embody the highest value of a
society; carry with them a culture’s history,
values and traditions
Negritude
Literary movement of the 1930s, ’40s, and ’50s that
began among French-speaking African and Caribbean
writers living in Paris as a protest against French
colonial rule and the policy of assimilation. Its leading
figure was Léopold Sédar Senghor who began to
examine Western values critically and to reassess
African culture.
“Négritude”, or the self-affirmation of black peoples, or
the affirmation of the values of civilization of
something defined as “the black world” as an answer
to the question “what are we in this white world?” is
indeed “quite a problem.”
The term “Négritude” was coined by Césaire in his
Cahier d’un retour au pays natal (Notebook of a Return
to the Native Land, 1939) and it means, in his words,
“The simple recognition of the fact that one is black,
the acceptance of this fact and of our destiny as blacks,
of our history and culture.”
The basic ideas behind Negritude include:
 Africans must look to their own cultural heritage to
determine the values and traditions that are most
useful in the modern world.
 Committed writers should use African subject
matter and poetic traditions should excite a desire
for political freedom.
 Negritude itself encompasses the whole African
cultural, economic, and political values.
 The value and dignity of African traditions and
people must be asserted.
Major Writers
1. Leopold Sedar Senghor- A poet and statesman
who was cofounder of the Negritude movement in
African art and literature.
Works: Songs of Shadow, Black Offerings
2. Okot P’Bitek- born in Uganda during the British
domination and was embodied in a contrast of
cultures. He attended English-speaking schools but
never lost touch with traditional African values.
Works: Songs of Lawino, Sonf of Ocol, African
religions and Western Scholarship
3. Wole Soyinka- Nigerian playwright, poet, novelist
and critic who was the first black African to be
awarded Nobel prize for Literature in 1986. He
wrote of modern West African in a satirical style
and with a tragic sense of the obstacles of human
progress.
Works: Telephone Conversation
4. Chinua Achebe- Igbo novelist acclaimed for his
unsentimental depictions of the social and
psychological disorientation accompanying the
imposition of Western customs and values upon
traditional African society.
Works: Things Fall Apart, No Longer At Ease
5. Nadine Gordimer- A writer whose major theme
was exile and alienation. She received the Nobel
Prize for Literature in 1991. She examines how
public events affect individual lives, how the
dreams of one’s youth are corrupted and how
innocence is lost.
Works: The Soft Voice of the Serpent, Burger’s
Daughter, July’s People
6. Bessie Head- described the contradictions and
shortcomings of pre- and postcolonial African
society in morally didactic novels and stories. She
suffered rejection and alienation from an early age
being born of an illegal union between her white
mother and black father.
Works: When the Rain Clouds Gather, Looking for a
Rain God
7. Barbara Kimenye- Wrote twelve books on
children’s short stories known as the Moses series
which are now standard reading fare for African
school children
8. Ousmane Sembene Writer and filmmaker from
Senegal. His works reveal an intense commitment
to political and social change.
Works: Black Girl
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