Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
Having collectively experienced a range of rural, semi-rural and metropolitan public and private schools we
questioned how internal and external factors impact student access to work and/or career pursuits. Throughout
this investigation we refined our inquiry to consider the opportunity gap that is evident within rural educational
contexts, and factors that impact the likelihood of a student choosing to complete higher educational study or
training.
From the willingness of quality teachers to relocate to rural areas for a significant time, to community views on
schooling and tertiary education, it is clear that there are a number of factors that impact the quality of rural
education. Near to none of our fellow near-graduate teachers are willing to relocate to rural areas for an extended
period, so we wanted to explore the reasons why this may be, and what other factors may need further
How does this issue fit with our beliefs and values?
This issue is extremely important to us as a collective, we whole-heartedly believe that every student, no matter his
or her location, SES or interests deserves a high quality education. Education should be put into place to give our
students the best opportunity to succeed in their careers and should equip students with skills for life.
How can universities work with rural schools to encourage pre-service teachers to relocate as graduates?
How can the government and universities support students and their families to relocate for tertiary education?
How can rural communities work with schools and universities to determine tertiary studies that are relevant to the
The inquiry process consisted of reflection and discussion of personal experiences, the creation of an online survey
of those who are out of high school, and review of relevant literature. The inquiry question underwent a number of
adjustments following consideration of ethical issues, such as removing the initial focus on rural Indigenous
This Critical Analysis and Synthesis investigates and discusses various aspects of the Opportunity Gap between
Teacher Availability
SACE Completion
Abstract
As a rurally educated individual, attending primary school with twenty students from grade reception to year
seven, then traveling two hundred kilometres each day to attend High School in the larger towns Area School, I
have personally experienced the unfortunate opportunity gaps within rural educational environments.
This is not to say rural education does not provide opportunities for successful learning and educational outcomes,
rather acknowledges the disadvantages to facilities and opportunities for students to participate in and explore
extracurricular activities, as a result of limited resources, particularly in secondary education (Herzog, 1985). With
reference to my own experience, it was not until working in metropolitan educational settings that I came to realise
the limited choice I had in regards to subject selection, participation in sport and exposure to multiple higher
educational pathways.
Additionally, I relate considerably to the high levels of SACE incompletion seen among rural educational settings,
when University is a main focus in a majority of SACE subjects. This brings me to consider the additional financial,
logistical and social factors restricting rural students from aiming for higher academic education when the mere
goal seems unachievable (Wallace and Boylan, 2007). Evidently, there has been an increase in trade-related
subjects being implemented across rural educational settings, with the inclusion of school-based apprenticeships'
and traineeships' becoming highly sort after as means for students to complete their SACE (Wallace and Boylan,
2007).
I believe my experiences have shaped my beliefs and values towards education, particularly in regards to striving to
create equal opportunities for students to succeed irrespective of geographical location, social economical status,
or future endeavours.
Access to Resources and Facilities
Secondary schooling is particularly challenging for many parents and carers in rural areas. Many are faced with the
complex decision to continue to educate their child in a rural educational setting or to send them to board away
from home in a larger metropolitan secondary school. This poses significant implications to rural secondary
environments, particularly when the demands of secondary education curriculum often exceed the capacity of rural
educational resources and facilities. Many rural students find their subject choices are restricted because of small
As a student who’s preferred SACE subjects were not available, my parents explored the option of sending me away
to board in Adelaide. After much consideration my parents and I decided to continue my schooling in a rural setting
and instead complete subjects online through Open Access. This was a decision based on additional factors
including cost and moving away at such a young age, which ultimately lead to the decision to say.
The decision to send students away to boarding school poses significant implications for the rural educational
settings they leave behind. It can be argued that with the increase of students leaving rural schools to complete
their SACE in metropolitan areas, the opportunity for, and ability of, rural schools to provide broader subject
opportunities, is reduced; consequently impacting students who choose to stay (Wallace and Boylan, 2007).
With a decrease of students in rural secondary schools, comes a decrease in funding and teacher availability,
limiting subject opportunities, including opportunities to participate in more varied curriculum activities (e.g.
specialised sports programs, music, higher math, science and technology), and as a result, limiting student
To break this cycle of disadvantage, a focus should be placed on improving the quality of rural schooling so that
Teacher Availability
Limited teacher availability in rural and remote areas, places pressure on staff and resources in schools. There are
schools in every state and territory in Australia that are continuously classified as ‘hard to staff.’ Unsurprisingly,
According to Wallace and Boylan (2007) schools in ‘hard to staff’ areas have been considered to have:
- Inexperienced staff
Many education departments have operated scholarship programs for pre-service teachers which require that
graduates spend a number of years in a rural location, often as a first appointment (Wallace and Boylan, 2007).
However implementation of these programs comes significant issues research by Wallace and Boylan (2007) found
that when the general demographics of the teaching workforce are examined, typically rural and remote schools:
- Are more likely to be staffed with teachers with less classroom experience
- Have secondary teachers teaching outside their areas of training and expertise
Recent research into secondary teacher shortages further indicates two out of five teachers in rural and remote
areas are having to teach in a subject area outside of their specialisation. This is alarming when considering these
teachers are often recent graduates with limited experience in both rural schools, and in their specialisation areas.
Because of their size and geographical location, many rural schools are unable to provide sufficient support needed
for children with specific learning needs, those who are gifted and talented, and/or have disabilities (Boylan and
Wallace, 2007). All students are impacted in the classroom as a direct result of limited specialised staffing, such as
classroom support officers and counsellors; as staff are under pressure to cater to the needs of students with little
or no support.
The complex interconnection of issues impacting the sustainability of rural education, requires an equally complex
program of research to ensure the attraction and retention of high-quality teachers for rural schools. The
educational effects within rural communities within a deficit discourse are highlighted. A concept of rural social
space is modelled, bringing together social, economic and environmental dimensions of rural sustainability. This
framework combines quantitative definitional processes with more situated definitions of rural space based on
demographic and other social data, across both geographic and cultural formations. The implications of the model
are examined in terms of its importance for teacher education (Reid, 2010).
Place based education revolves around education that connects with the local traditions, seeks active local
community input into the teaching programs and content, and ensures the learning of children is contextually
Quality teaching frameworks emphasise the central role that contextually relevant, culturally sensitive, highly
valued content knowledge can provide to help children understand who they are, where they come from, and the
Boylan (2004) reviewed the literature from Australian national and state inquiries into rural teacher education and
identified the need to provide specific subjects that examine the conditions of living and teaching in rural areas as a
- Teaching and learning focus. This element includes exploration, examination, developing
understandings of, and engaging in rural classroom place-based pedagogy practices.
- Administration focus. Pre-service students need to become familiar with a range of school related
administrative responsibilities and be able to effectively carry out these roles.
- Community focus. For the beginning teacher, a rural appointment often means it will be the first time
they are required to live and work in a community, something that can be a difficult aspect of their
adjustment to rural teaching. As part of their pre- service preparation, students need to develop
understandings of and be provided with opportunities to examine, analyse and discuss rural
community dynamics.
- Personal focus. The pre-service teacher education students need to appreciate and reflect upon their
personal lifestyle, recreational and socialising forces and analyse their suitability for a rural
appointment.
- Field experience focus. This element focuses on the provision of a diverse set of practical experiences
typically developed through field-based experiences in rural, regional, remote and/or isolated places.
- Professional learning focus. The final element creates the link between the pre- service and the in-
service education of rural teachers. The focus of this element is developing in the students a
commitment to lifelong learning, and developing understanding about and strategies for how
professional learning can be accessed from a rural location.
SACE Completion
In rural communities there is a higher likelihood of SACE incompletion and a higher percentage of students go into
trades rather than tertiary study; therefore students may often leave school earlier to complete an apprenticeship.
As of 2010 81% of students in metropolitan settings receive their year 12 certificate (SACE or other) compared to
64% of students in ‘Very remote’ areas. Some of the initiatives that have been introduced to help students achieve
their SACE/ year 12 certificate has been to give students the opportunities to do school based apprenticeships.
Due to the school and community values, different schools and communities emphasise different career paths and
opportunities, it has been found that there is a higher likelihood of rural education students working in vocational
fields rather than enrolling in tertiary education. It can be further noted that rural students higher education
aspirations and access found that a larger proportion of students with low to medium access to university intended
to enrol in general science, math, English, health science and agricultural science courses, while urban students
were more inclined to take course in law, engineering, computing and business.
There are many factors that influence students from completing higher tertiary education (Alston, 2003). It can be
made evident the imbalances between the participation of rural and metropolitan students in tertiary studies.
Young people in rural and remote areas are particularly vulnerable to economic and logistical factors restricting
access to tertiary education. (Boylan and Wallace, 2017). The cost of university and additional expenses associated
with living away from home are key inhibitors of rural students pursuing tertiary education. This, paired with
moving away from home and a significant change in lifestyle, can be daunting for young people.
A study conducted by Boylan and Wallace, 2017, examines the choices of Australian students between years ten
and twelve, with findings indicating that compared with metropolitan students, rural students are:
- More likely to believe that their families cannot support them going to university
James’ (1999) further examines the attitudes, goals and plans of Australian secondary school students, finding that:
- Higher education participation for people in rural areas is affected by both distance from university campuses
and socioeconomic circumstances and the influences of rural social and cultural contexts.
- Rural students are more likely to perceive inhibitors to higher education such as the cost of living away from
home or losing touch with friends, and to experience fewer encouraging factors such as parental
encouragement or the belief that a university education will offer them an interesting and rewarding career.
In 2009, the school leaving age in South Australia was raised from 16 to 17 years of age. Since this change, studies
have shown a 10.4% retention rate increase in year 10-12 students in government schools. The raised school
leaving age has meant that students who would otherwise have left school at age 15, are now required to remain
at school to complete year 10, or turn 17, whichever comes first, and then choose an approved pathway.
Department schools have supported students by providing career advice, expanding curriculum to include subjects
linked to vocational training and introducing other innovative programs. But more could be done to support
students who claim school is not for them, particularly in rural areas.
An audit on the impact of the raised schooling age in NSW government schools found that following the change,
year 11 students were found to be more disengaged than in previous years. As well as this, the cohort were more
likely to be suspended, and were absent for an average of 25 days per school year. Students also report that these
students are disengaged and frequently disrupt classroom activities, putting further pressure on already strained
resources (Audit Office of NSW, 2012). In the context of rural schools, these pressures are alarming.
A recent survey of students in Department schools affected by the raised school leaving age found that programs
and pathways varied greatly from school to school with small isolated schools having fewer opportunities (Audit
Office of NSW, 2012). Department schools must be supported to provide high quality career advice through a rural
lens. Cities based solutions to rural education are not relevant to the reality of living, working and being educated in
a rural area. The rural lens is a strategy that seeks to sustain the social, cultural and economic attributes of rural
communities as well as strengthen the capacity of the community, and building options through the provision of
contextually relevant services; of this, education and the staffing of rural schools is cornerstone. Therefore these
practices embody the application of new ways of thinking which has been identified through a reconceptualization
The school leaving age was raised from 15 to 17 years in all states because research showed that students who stay
at school longer have better prospects. Studies in Australia and abroad, find that those who leave school earlier are
more likely to be unemployed, earn a lower wage, have poorer health and more likely to engage in criminal activity
The raised school leaving age should have positive impacts on students, schools and the broader community.
However more must be done to maximise the potential benefits of this change. The department, schools and
communities must work together to provide relevant, meaningful and useful pathways appropriate to the needs of
students who want to leave school, but are restricted by the age changes. By providing engaging pathways,
students are more likely to continue with education and vocational training, maybe even resulting in higher
retention rates, and higher SACE completion (Audit Office of NSW, 2012).
Flinders University is ‘committed to improving health care in rural and remote communities,’ (“Rural Placements”,
2018) making it compulsory for all undergraduate nursing and midwifery students to undertake at least one
placement in a rural or remote area. Students are eligible for scholarships, subsidised costs and reimbursement of
some costs associated with the relocation. Unfortunately this initiative does not apply to teaching degrees and
placements.
Halsey (2005) examined the number of rural placements in pre-service education across half of Australia’s teacher
education programmes, finding that only 22% of placements were in rural locations. There is a significant lack of
programs available that support and encourage pre-service teachers to participate in rural placements, or to
relocate rurally as graduates. Factors inhibiting pre-service teachers from undertaking rural practicums include;
appropriate support and supervision by institutions; costs for pre-service teachers (accommodation, travel and
living expenses)’ family responsibilities; and part-time work commitments (Halsey, 2005; House of Representatives
Standing Committee, 2007). Yet research by Hatton (1991) indicates that graduate teachers with experience of
rural schools throughout their pre-service career, were better able to adjust to and enjoy work in a rural area as
graduates.
Not only are rural placements a unique opportunity to experience challenges that aid in developing personal
independence and professional skills, but they also assist rural communities that struggle to attract quality
professionals in a number of areas. In order to attract teachers to rural areas, it is important to start at the
beginning of their early teaching careers. By making it compulsory to undertake a rural placement and, most
importantly, by adequately supporting students to do this, pre-service teachers are exposed to the challenges and
possibilities of relocating to rural schools as a graduate. A program in New South Wales known as the Beyond the
Line program similarly applies these ideas. It is a five-day stint giving pre-service teachers a taste of living and
teaching in a rural community. The program aims to give “a snapshot of rural teacher’s life, first-hand experience of
country areas that hold the greatest number of employment opportunities,” (NSW Department of Education and
Training, 2011).
Students from rural communities need more support in the ‘transition period’ between completing high school and
attending university. These students are more likely to be faced with the financial pressures of living away from
home, than their metropolitan counterparts. This, as well as feelings of isolation from family and friends, are key
reasons that rural students choose not to pursue tertiary education, or drop out of university degrees.
There are a few programs that have been implemented by universities to support rural students in their transition
to tertiary education. A pilot program ‘Transition to Uni’ implemented by the University of Sydney, aims to support
40 students from Dubbo with applications and finding services that can support them financially and with
networking. However the program focused more on identifying aspects that disadvantage rural students, rather
The Smith Family is a national independent children’s charity that recognises the disadvantages many students,
including rural students, are faced with. The Smith Family relies on sponsors to support children, including those
eligible for the Learning for Life Tertiary Scholarship. Although it is great that this charity exists, the facts that
independent bodies see a need to intervene in issues around tertiary education, because of clear lack of quality in
Suggestions on ways universities can support rural students to pursue tertiary education are similar to the ways
they can support pre-service teachers to ‘go rural’; scholarships, subsidised costs, provision of free or subsidised
accommodation, and reimbursement of some costs associated with relocation. Furthermore, universities could
create partnerships with rural communities, arranging in house open days and reaching out to students personally
to encourage them to enrol. Additionally, the problem of providing high quality career advice to students between
15-17 years old in rural areas can be solved by the intervention of university support.
Recommendations
It is clear that there is a need for quality initiatives to provide rural students with equal opportunities for accessing
- Exposing students to the value of tertiary education during their junior and middle years
- Improving prospects for tertiary related employment in rural areas to improve student perception of the
- Scholarships for pre-service teachers to complete a degree with practicums in rural schools and the promise
- Audit Office of NSW. (2012). The impact of the raised school leaving age. Sydney NSW.
- Australian Education Union (AEU) (2001). A national teacher shortage: A solution from the Australian
Education Union. Australian education Union: Canberra, ACT.
- Bauch, P. A. (2001). School-community partnerships in rural schools: Leadership, renewal, and a sense
of place. Peabody Journal of Education, 76(2), 204-221.
- Boylan, C.R. (2004). ‘The state of rural education in pre-service teacher education courses.’ Paper
presented at 20th National Society for the Provision of Education in Rural Australia and Western
Australian District High Schools Administrators joint conference, Fremantle, June
- Boylan, C.R. and Wallace, A.R. (2202). Beyond the line: Promoting country schools. Paper presented at
the 18th Annual SPERA conference, Hahndorf, south Australia, July
- Beutel, D, Adie, L & Hudson, S 2011, 'Promoting rural and remote teacher education in Australia
through the over the Hill project', International Journal of Learning, vol. 18, no. 2, pp. 377-388.
- Herzog, M. J. R., & Pittman, R. B. (1995). Home, family, and community: Ingredients in the rural
education equation.
- James, R., Wyn, J., Baldwin, G., Hepworth, G., McInnis, C., & Stephanou, A. (1999). Rural and Isolated
School Students and Their Higher Education Choices: A Re-Examination of Student Location,
Socioeconomic Background, and Educational Advantage and Disadvantage. Commissioned Report. Full
text at Web site: http://www. detya. Gov. au/nbeet/publications/# hec.
- Lyons, T., Cooksey, R., Panizzon, D., Parnell, A., & Pegg, J. (2006). Science, ICT and mathematics
education in rural and regional Australia: The SiMERR national survey.
- New South Wales Department of Education and Training. (2011). Beyond the Line. Retrieved from
https://www.det.nsw.edu.au/about-us/careers-centre/school-careers/teaching/our-programsand-
initiatives/explore-your-future/beyond-the-line
- Reid, J. A., Green, B., Cooper, M., Hastings, W., Lock, G., & White, S. (2010). Regenerating rural social
space? Teacher education for rural—Regional sustainability. Australian journal of education, 54(3),
262-276.
- Wallace, A., & Boylan, C. (2007, August). Reawakening education policy and practice in rural Australia.
In 23rd National Rural Education Conference Proceedings. Collaboration for success in rural and remote
education and training (pp. 15-29).