Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
TO RADIO
F. J. CAMM
By the some Author
BEGINNER'S GUIDE TO TELEVISION
THE PRACTICAL WIRELESS ENCYCLOPEDIA
EVERYMAN'S WIRELESS DOOR A BEGINNER'S
THE RADIO TRAINING MANUAL
THE SUPERILET MANUAL
NEWNES SHORT WAVE MANUAL
GUIDE TO RADIO
WIRELESS CODS, CHOKES AND TRANSFORMERS
AMPLIFIERS: DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION AN ELEMENTARY COURSE IN 27 LESSONS
RADIO ENGINEER'S VEST POCKET BOOK
WIRELESS TRANSMISSION
PRACTICAL WIRELESS SERVICE MANUAL
SIASTEIUNG MORSE
PRACTICAL WIRELESS CIRCUITS BY
PRACTICAL TELEVISION CIRCUITS
TELEVISION PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE F. J. CAMM
REFRESHER COURSE IN MATHEMATICS
THE SLIDE RULE MANUAL Editor: "Practical Wireless" and " Practical Television"
MATHEMATICAL TABLES AND FORMULAS
LONDON
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Coaaartiond sign said in drawing a wireless circuit, which merely consists of.
number 4- these signs joined together. Pidteitti diagrams showing the actual
componnus regimented are giten in the book in their Comet alphabetical order.
THE SHORTHAND or Riaa0-tontinuta
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Prir-Op LESSON r
Understanding the Circuit
4:0 ::a) (IT) (LT) THE usual method of explaining the fundamental principles
of wireless transmission and reception is to start at the trans-
LoaaWOrr colt 111d: _Cr° " M.It, Motor Cantrator CaYmomettr mitting end by describing how wireless waves are generated
(General) LS. Reaf Whaling (Genera) and radiated from the transmitter. The explanation usually
ceeeeeee6
asetery items (Dina& meow), employs the analogy of a stone being dropped into the centre
of a pond (the transmitter) causing waves to form which
gradually spread to the shore (the receiver).
In this book I propose to start at the receiving end and to
;
don 71,w. Ristrituf SamonCrid l'ar-AM Mode- bleptale (swab explain how a receiver works by encouraging the reader to
No* Ottraw) Wroth Nam* flints...HO Triode build simple apparatus, in the belief that the practical
I Mains Valves (hdinktly *Mad. demonstration is more likely to teach than lengthy 'descrip-
tions and theoretical definitions. I shall, of course, deal
with theory and practice at the same time. In this book the
beginner will build as he learns.
DM* Moth,
For this purpose, therefore, I begin with constructional
Pk*
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Pox.* Pewee; Roottlia- Rectifier -mode
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14mo0a (Aness.a)
0 e
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(GM) 04,9
pokr'g,-
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Focallmj
Cal
Fig. t.-Cimeit diagram of a simple taro -talon for medium wavebands only. A
piaorial diagram of the receiver built from lIds circuit is glom on page 17 Where
ElataraM
°about
Magratron Mat
CLakentek Lail ,Rest
sR Etaonek C.P.70M crossing lino are connected by a dal, they are to be joined by solder, or somata
to a terminal.
Magma. Otatt Rnbation) won Marktio Poona.;
It
A further sdation of contra:jowl signs.
12 A BEGINNER'S GUIDE 10 RADIO UNDERSTANDING THE CIRCUIT 13
details of the very simplest one -valve set. The circuit em- coils, baseboard and panel (the two latter are of wood), and that he
ployed is shown in Fig. t, and in Figs. to 9 are illustrated
1 can assemble the complete receiver in about an hour and obtain
the elements of that circuit with pictorial illustrations of the signah.
For the sake of simplicity the one-valver here dealt with is
only intended to receive the medium wavebands.
( Each part of the circuit has been separately illustrated and
001,0"
Fig. 8. --The switch. Fig. g.-The Isigh-frapung choke.
I\
18 A BEGINNER'S GUIDE TO RADIO UNDERSTANDING THE CIRCUIT 19
coils, but I shall deal with these as we develop instruction fixed just in front of the pole piece of the magnet. This
from one-valvers to receivers employing several valves. disc vibrates when signals arc applied to the magnet,
The Resistance and Valve.-Part 8 is a resistance. A producing audible sounds.
resistance is used to oppose the flow of current, and its value You will by now have completed the wiring up of the
is decided by the amount of current it is intended to hold back.
simple one-valver described in this first lesson and probably
Its value is measured in ohms, the ohm being the unit of have conducted some tests. There were two vital parts of the
resistance. The purpose of the resistance will emerge later. receiver briefly mentioned, namely, the low-tension and high-
As with condensers several resistances of different values are tension batteries. In larger receivers these are sometimes
used in modern receivers, and the type selected is decided by separate units
the amount of current it has to pass or resist. Only one is consisting of a
used in this receiver. high-tension bat-
Part q is the valve. It has a filament cathode like an electric
light bulb. It also has a grid and a plate. The accumulator or
tery of anything
from 6o to 120
volts, and a two
J
dry battery is connected to two of the pins or legs, which, in
turn, are connected to the filament, and when the filament is
hot it emits electrons. The plate is connected to the high-tension
The grid surrounds the filament and the plate sur-
volt wet accum-
ulator,whichcan
be recharged
7
battery.
rounds the grid. Some valves have additional grids, accord-
ing to the circuit in which they are employed. The valve
when it runs
down. Thislittle
receiver makes
e T_
employed in this receiver has only one grid.
When the electrons are emitted from the filament they pass useofacombined Fig. ii.-The theoretical for Imo tension (LT.)
to the grid and are attracted to the plate, also known as the L.T. and H.T. and high tension (H.T.) batteries. Nate that Me thin
anode, from whence they flow back to the high-tension battery. battery. The line always reprands Me position terminal, and the thick
theoretical sign fine the ',votive terminal. Or, Me kit is a pictorial Mao
The grid is a spirally wound length of special wire to of an all -dry combined LT. and H.T. battery, but in
which the incoming wireless signals are fed. is shown in Fig. most eases the accumulator is of the met type: that is to
I shall have more to say about the action of the therntionic It is impor- seg it contains dilate sulphuric acid and can be recharged.
valve as this book develops. tant to remember
Part io is the on/off switch. It will be seen that it is con- that the thin line always represents the positive terminal of
nected in the low-tension positive lead. In its open position the battery and the thick line the negative. This applies to
it disconnects the battery supply. In its closed position it both H.T. and LT. batteries. It is necessary to bear this in
acts just as though there is a continuous wire from the battery mind because most circuit diagrams do not include the posi-
to the set. tive and negative signs. It is a detail one is expected to
remember.
The Choke and 'Phones.-Part i it is the high frequency Examination of the circuit will show that the L.T. negative
choke which is a coil of wire presenting a barrier to high - and H.T. negative are joined together and to earth to com-
frequency current. Its principal use is to divert the high - plete the circuits, and this is standard practice.
frequency oscillations of the detector valve for reaction pur- I ought, here, to say in connection with a circuit diagram,
poses. It must have a low self -capacity and to achieve this the that where two wires are shown connected by a black dot,
best are wound in sections. the dot represents a soldered joint or terminal connection,
Part 12, of course, represents the telephones, or earpieces, and where two wires cross one another by means of a loop
by means of which the received signals arc heard. It con- they are not connected.
sists of an electro-magnet with a disc or diaphragm of soft iron Now for a test run. Having connected the aerial, the
UNDERSTANDING TUE CIRCUIT 21
20 A BEGINNER'S GUIDE TO RADIO
earth, the battery and the earphones, turn the aerial tuning
condenser, that is, the left-hand knob on the panel, and listen
for signals. When one is heard, turn the reaction condenser
by means of its knob to build up the strength of its signal. It
may be that the reaction condenser fails to do this, or that
it acts in reverse that is to say, when the plates are all out.
In this case it is only necessary to reverse the connections from
the reaction coil to this condenser. Make sure, of course,
that the switch is
in the "on " posi-
tion. If you still
do not obtain sig-
nals, check the
wiring very care-
fully by the
wiring diagram
(Fig. is). Ord- Fig. I 3.- Theoretical circuit of a two-ualve Raiser, which it moefifzed from
inary cotton - the one-nalue ritneit ghat in Fig. 1. The one -mitt circuit it Amin by means
covered wire of of dotted lines. The new mires tad aderstional components are shot°, by
The only additional COMP0110214 are shown by solid lines. The
about 22 gauge solid lines.
only additional parts area low-freguenry trantforrur, a take and a take holder
may be used for (parts 13 and 16).
wiring. If sig-
nals happen to be to one side of the other coil. A smooth control of reaction
weak, try the should be aimed at. Avoid tuning in with the set oscillating,
effect of connect- as this will cause interference with your neighbour? reception.
ing the aerial If the set oscillates, reduce reaction immediately.
.4 lead direct on to Tracing Faults.-Anume that the receiver gives no signals
the tuning con- at all. Disconnect the wire which is connected to the anode
- denser, that is,
or plate socket of the valve -holder (in the theoretical diagram,
cutting out the Fig. 1, this is represented by the black line at the top inside
oraz irF fixed the circle), and connect one lead of a pair of headphones to
series aerial con- the terminal and take the other lead to H.T. positive. Switch
denser. Thismay on the set and ascertain whether signals come through. If
be necessary if a you hear nothing at all tap the valve. If no signal is heard
short inside the valve is defective, or the L.T. circuit is not complete.
aerial is used in You can check the L.T. circuit fairly simply by carefully
preference to an looking at the valve, preferably shielded by the hand so that
outdoor one. it is more or less in the dark. It should be possible to see
Also try varying the filament glowing a faint cherry red, and, if not, then the
Fig. diagrum for the simple one-tudur. A
the pcsition ofthe connections to the battery should be checked, the condition
reaction coil-
z
anvil ehogram sheeting how to roux,' it into a tun - of the accumulator checked, and the leads between the set
rarer u shown in Fig. 13. sliding it slightly
A BEGINNER'S GUIDE TO RADIO
and the accumulator traced out. Temporarily the accu-
mulator could be checked by connecting the valve direct
across the battery, using a short piece of wire from one of
the legs to the other battery terminal. It does not matter
in this case which way round the battery is joined. If the
valve does not light up, then the valve is faulty or the accumu- LESSON 2
lator is too low and needs recharging.
In the case of the battery -type of valve using a 1-5 volt Converting the One-valver into a Two-valver
cell, the filament does not glow bright enough to be able
to check it as described above. In this case, the valve may The Function of Transformers.-In Fig. 13, the circuit,
be replaced temporarily by a small flash -lamp bulb rated shown in Fig. t, has been altered to include a second valve.
at v5 volts, and two short lengths of wire may be inserted The old circuit is shown by dotted lines and the new com-
in the filament sockets of the valve holder, and the bulb ponent (the low -frequency transformer) and the additional wiring
connected across them. It should light up when the set is are shown by
switched on. If it does not, then the battery is run down solid lines.
or the connections to it are faulty. You can proceed in this The theoretical
manner to check each part of the circuit. sign for a low -
frequency
LIST OF COMPONENTS FOR TILE SIMPLE ONE -VALUER transformer is
One -coos µF variable condenser. shown in Fig.
One moos g variable condenser. 14, which also
Two -mot AtF fixed condenser (T.C.C.). includes a pers-
One H.F. choke. pective sketch,
One 2 megohm grid leak. showing what
One coil (see text). the transformer
One X.D. v5 v. valve (Hivac). looks like.
low Fig. 4.-Theortfical sign for a low -frequency frarttfionsfr
Now, and (kit) pictorial tam of an Mod LF. transform'
One valve -holder.
One on/off switch. -frequency
transformer is a device for coupling valves together so that
Four terminals. the volume of the signals is increased. A low -frequency
One pair High Resistance headphones. transformer consists of a core of soft -iron stampings, around
One type L.55o4 battery (Vidor). which arc wound two separate coils of wire-either side
Two knobs. by side or one upon the other. The ratio of these wind-
Connecting wire (22 gauge, cotton covered), wood for ings determines the amplification given by the transformer,
baseboard and panel. and thus a three -to -one transformer means that the primary
has (roughly) one third the turns of the secondary. The pri-
mary winding is connected in the anode circuit ofthe valve, that
is, one end of the primary is joined to the anode and the
other end to the H.T. supply. The oscillations in this wind-
ing are transferred by induction to the secondary winding,
which is connected to the grid circuit of the following valve,
and therefore, this valve receives similar impulses to this with the
53
A BEGINNER'S GINDE TO RADIO CONVERTING THE ONE-VALVER INTO A TWO-VALVER 25
24
exception that they are strengthened by the step-up due to G.B. corresponding to plate (or anode), high tension, grid
the ratio of the windings. The advantage of this type of and grid -bias. These, of course, correspond to LP., 0.P.,
coupling lies in this step-up strength or stage gain, but there I.S. and O.S.
are a number of disadvantages. A later lesson deals with
induction. The Anode Resistance.-In some designs it is necessary
In other words a transformer is a combination of two to avoid the direct current flowing through the primary and
inductances (coils) so arranged that alternating current in it is, therefore parallel fed. This means that the terminal
one will induce current in the other winding. There are marked H.T. should be joined to earth, the terminal marked
three principal types of transformer employed in wireless P should be fed through a fixed condenser of about -ot to
receivers; high -frequency transformers, low -frequency trans- ft.F capacity to the plate of the valve, and the high tension
formers and mains transformers. High -frequency trans- applied to the plate through an anode resistance. The anode,
formers consist simply of coils of wire, of which either the is of course, another name for the plate of the valve although
primary or the secondary may be tuned. The coupling is the term has other meanings.
so tight that the effect of tuning one circuit is the same as The anode resistance should have a value about four times
tuning both. The relation between the windings, or, in the impedance of the valve. Later on when we deal with
other words, the ratio, is governed by the type of valve with valves separately, we shall learn what the impedance of a
which it is used. The low -frequency transformer consists valve means, but briefly it means the resistance to flow of
of a similar arrangement, with the inclusion of a core of iron current offered by a circuit.
to increase the inductanc% L.F. transformers generally have The ratio of the transformer must be chosen according to
a step-up ratio of from i tot to i to 8; the most usual ratio the position it occupies in the circuit. IL as in this case,
ist to 3. only one stage of low -frequency amplification is employed,
a high ratio transformer can be used, say 7 to 1, although
About Mains Transforiners.-These consist of a similar this to some extent will depend upon the valve. If a pentode
arrangement, except that the primary is wound for inclusion valve is used a ratio of about 5 to I would be suitable.
in the A.G. mains circuit, and in place of one secondary,
several secondaries are employed, to give voltage supplies for Electrodes.-The valves used in this set are triodes, that
heating the heaters of mains valves and also for H.T. supply. is to say they have three electrodes, an electrode being either
of the two poles or terminals of a valve, battery, dynamo, etc.
Transformation Ratio.-The usual ratio of primary to A pentode, as its name implies, thus has five electrodes. In
secondary is known as the transformation ratio; thus a trans- the case of a triode the electrodes are respectively, the plate,
former with too primary turns and soioo secondary turns the grid and the filament. The filament is surrounded by the
would have a transformation ratio of too to 1,000 or I to so. grid and this is in turn surrounded by the anode or plate.
Primary turns Primary E.M.F. Some valves, of course, employ more than one grid as stated
Transformation on page i8.
Secondary E.M.F.
Ratio
Secondary turns
When connecting a low -frequency transformer it is im- Action of the Valve.-A battery valve functions when, as
portant to note which is the in-priny (I.P.), the out -primary already described, a low tension (low voltage) current is passed
(o.P.), the in -secondary (LS.) and out -secondary (O.S.) otherwise through the filament. This has the effect of heating it, and
it may be necessary after testing to change over the when it has reached the correct temperature it throws off
connections. minute electrical negative charges known as electrons. The
Some transformers are marked I.P., 0.P., I.S. and O.S. electrons are attracted to the grid and from there to the plate
although most to -day are marked P. (or A.), H.T., G. and and from thence they flow back to the high tension battery. To
A BEGINNER'S GUIDE TO RADIO CONVERTING THE ONE-VALVER INTO A TWO-VALVER 27
26
attract the negative electrons to the anode from the filament condenser with a high resistance joined to the cathode.
the anode is kept positively charged, for it is a well-known fact The inclusion of this condenser and resistance has the same
that a positive charge attracts a negative charge. To charge effect, namely the production of a uni-directional current in
the plate or anode positively it is connected to the positive side the anode circuit.
of the high-tension battery, the negative side of the battery
being connected to low tension negative as explained earlier. The Grid Leak. --We have not yet dealt with the grid
In this way the voltage applied to the filament remains leak, which in a detector circuit must discharge the electrons
unchanged, but the voltage of the anode in relation to the accumulated on the grid during alternate half -cycles. In the
filament is greatly increased and with it the electron flow. resistance -capacity -coupled stage, which we shall deal with
The grid is a spirally wound length of special wire and to this in the next lesson, it has to complete the grid circuit of the
the incoming wireless signals are applied. These signals valve and discharge it continuously and rapidly so that the
are alternatively negative and positive and this changing of voltage at the grid at any instant accurately follows the
polarity tends to control the electron flow from the filament signal voltage fluctuations. For the average leaky grid
to the anode; for when the grid is positive it acts like a small detector a condenser of -000s pi capacity and a grid leak
anode and because it is nearer to the filament its attraction of about 2 megohms resistance are usually recommended
for the electron is much greater. But this also means an while for the low -frequency resistance -capacity -coupled
increase in anode current. stage the condenser may be as great as o5 1AF and the grid
The grid, however, is just as often negative and has the leak of about 25o,000 ohms resistance. The function of the
effect of repelling electrons leaving the filament, for like coupling condenser is principally to control the alternating
repels like and unlikes attract. A negative grid will therefore signal applied to the grid of the valve, and the grid leak
mean a decrease in anode current. It will be seen then, acts as a discharge resistance.
that if the grid is biased negatively with a grid -bias battery The reactance, or opposition, offered by the condenser to
it will tend to prevent any positive signal voltages from the passage of an alternating current is high at low
making the grid positive and the flow of grid current is thus frequencies and lower at high frequencies.
prevented, although the controlling action of the grid is In Fig. r the grid leak is shown taken direct from the grid
maintained. It is important, therefore, to use the correct to the L.T. positive terminal, but in some circuits it may be
value of grid bias, otherwise the grid will not be able to deal found connected directly across the grid condenser (part
properly with the signal voltages applied to it. No. 6). Both arrangements are theoretically the same, except
A valve acts as an amplifier owing to the fact that the that in the latter form of connection it is usual to connect
anode current produced by the application of a potential or the L.T. positive battery to the earth or lower end of the
voltage, or pressure to the cathode (the filament) and anode is tuning condenser. The values of the grid condenser and the
much greater than that which is passed to the grid. The grid leak affect the sensitivity and the quality of the signal
signal oscillations on the grid vary the anode current as which is obtained.
explained above and as this is of greater magnitude than the
signal amplification takes place.
In the one-valver the valve, of course, acts as a rectOer as
well as an amplifier, as already explained. A negative
potential is applied to the grid so that when the signal os-
cillations are passed to the valve a uni-directional current is
produced in the anode circuit.
This is not the only method of rectification, of course, for
it may be carried out by including in the grid circuit a fixed
ADDING A FURTHER WWFREQUENGY STAGE 29
characteristic
curve of a valve
we shall under-
stand what this
LESSON 3 means; for the
present it can
Adding a further Low -Frequency Stage be explained that
all low -frequency
IN Lesson 2 I showed how to convert the One-valver into a valves normally
Two-valver. I am now taking the basic circuit a stage require a negative
further, by adding another low -frequency stage (resistance - bias. In battery
capacity coupled, or R.C.C.) so that the receiver will operate sets, such as the
a loudspeaker. present, the bias
The additional parts required are a valve, a valve -holder, is generally Fig. 16.-Tree of the ,ea' components which fans port
a resistance, a fixed condenser and a vohane control. They applied by con- of the R.C.C. coupling.
are illustrated in theoretical and actual form in Figs. 15-17. necting a small
Experienced experimenters will notice that I have not battery between the grid return lead and the low tension lead.
introduced grid bias, because the valves employed will In some forms of mains -operated receivers, however, the bias is
operate quite satisfactorily, at the high tension voltage speci- applied automatically by the insertion of resistances in the
fied, without it. Later I shall explain how to apply grid bias cathode lead.
and the changes Volume
which are neces- Control.-Now
sary. regarding the
I must, how- volume control.
ever, explain A powerful local
here the purpose station will, of
of grid bias. In course, give a
low -frequency much stronger
amplification, signal than a
which we are distant one and,
employing here, therefore, it
it is essential that would overload
the grid of the the output stage
valve shall be at of a receiver
a potential of such operating with-
a value that the out grid bias.
applied signals To give the oper-
will vary by an ator a means of
equal amount on preventing this
the anode curve. overloading a
Fig. 15.-A Volume rewired
When we come volume control
and the one valve. to deal with the is used. The
28
ADDING A FURTHER LOW -FREQUENCY STAGE 31
30 A BEGINNER'S GUIDE TO RADIO
volume control is a variable resistance incorporated in the winding, so the pull on the armature is varied, with the result
resistance -capacity -coupled stage. that the vibrations are transferred to the cone, and so the
The speaker will only handle a certain volume of sound, sounds are made audible. It will be obvious that the arma-
and if too strong a signal is fed into the valve connected to it, ture will always tend to return to its normal position and this
overloading will take place, and there are two remedies for natural restoring force gives rise to its first fault, namely,
this. The first is to increase the handling capabilities of the resonance.
valve by applying more high tension, and the second is to cut Resoaanee.-Again, the current fluctuations due to a very
down the signal strength. low note, such, for instance, as the beat of a drum, are very
A number of receivers have the reaction control labelled great and should result in a large movement of the armature. As
" Volume Control " but this is not strictly correct. A the armature is rather rigidly held, it must be arranged close to
volume control should be able to cut down the strength of the pole piece in order that the weak impulses may actuate it.
any signal, but the reaction control can only build up the The balanced armature loudspeaker was introduced to avoid
strength of received signals, and cannot cut down below the the principal fault of the first te of speaker, namely reson-
original strength received by the detector. There are ance. The armature is less rigidly arranged in between two
several different forms of volume control. magnetsthis. There is therefore an equal pull in each direction
In conjunction with the ordinary type of low -frequency tends to make the armature move about a central
transformer there are two possible arrangements. One is position, avoiding the natural restoring force which was 11
to employ a variable resistance shunted across the primary of noticed in the simpler type of movement The gap between
the transformer, and its value should be chosen so that when the magnets may be fairly large and so greater signal strength ;i
" all in " it does not have too great an effect upon the quality can be handled without risk of " chatter." 1 1
of reproduction. Of course, when the transformer is a high- 'I he inductor was the nearest approach obtained ai
class component, the presence of an external resistance across to the ideal in moving -iron speakers. In both of the previous
either primary or secondary will materially affect the response movements it is obvious that as the iron armature is fixed at Le
'I
curve, and the reproduction will be affected. In some cases, one end, there must necessarily be a certain amount of
particularly when cheap transformers are used, the repro- resistance to overcome in order to vibrate the armature and
duction may be improved owing to the flattening of the curve. the tendency of the armature to return to its position of rest
The value of the resistance should be about to,0000 ohms- will always be present, no matter what electrical impulses
not more. The second method is to shunt the secondary with are at work. This prevents the slow oscillation necessary to
a component of the type shown in Fig. 15 (part 57). By the produce, say, a low organ note, and, in addition, the cone is
term shunt it is meant that the connections are in parallel. not operated by a direct push -and -pull movement. The
actual direction of the movement of the cone, to produce
The Loudspeaker.-The loudspeaker which replaces the the true tones, should be what might be termed a " piston "
earphones works on precisely the same principle. It is, movement; that is, it should move in one plane only. Now,
indeed, an enlarged earphone. The type of loudspeaker as one end of the armature in the speaker movements so far
selected will depend, of course, on the circuit. The early described is fixed, it is obvious that the operating reed is
types of loudspeaker consisted of a strip of iron, fixed at one taken through a small arc during its to-and-fro movement.
end, the free end being above and close to the pole of a small This gives rise to a form of distortion.
magnet. To the strip of iron, or armature as it is properly To overcome all these defects in a moving -iron loudspeaker
called, is secured a thin rod on to which a cone diaphragm is the moving -coil speaker was produced.
fixed. The windings of the magnet are connected in the out- Moving -coil Speakers.-The moving -coil speaker is, of
put circuit of the last stage of the set. As the current changes,
due to either speech or music passing through this magnet course, the best type of speaker yet designed and provided
ADDING A FURTHER LOW -FREQUENCY STAGE 33
A BEGINNER'S GUIDE TO RADIO
S2 certain output matching transformers which have various
one of the best makes is obtained, either permanent magnet ratios, and if the listener desires to get the best from the set,
or mains energised, is capable of giving reproduction identical one of these transformers or matching units must be in-
with the original. At the point of the cone diaphragm a cluded in the output circuit, and by adjusting it to various
light ring of paper is fixed, round which is wound a coil of values it is possible suitably to match up the speaker. One
wire known as the " sp,-0,1 coil winding." In the mains final word. As the speaker can only reproduce what is fed
central rod
energised speaker a metal cylinder, having a winding
into it, the choice of circuit should receive as much, or even
(the pot ' and " pole -piece "), contains of
a large more, care than the choice of speaker.
which has to be connected to some source direct current. The normal valve needs a high impedance " in its anode
The actual voltage depends on the design of the speaker and circuit and due to the principles of design the ordinary type
varies from 4 volts to 15o volts. In the other models the of moving -coil loudspeaker is made to a low resistance.
winding is replaced by a powerful permanent magnet. The A high resistance calls for a large amount of wire, and this
speech winding is supported in a small gap surrounding the would be difficult to arrange on the moving -coil former of
pole piece and this gap should be as small as possible. the speaker, so a few turns of more robust wire are used, and
Usually it is approximately in. Wheredie field is " excited," this results in the winding being only of a low im ,
which means when the current is applied to it, a magnetic usually between 3 and 15 ohms. Theeg. anoe for
field is set up across the gap. The speech coil is connected the valve circuit is obtained from the ' on an output
to the output valve of the receiver and when the signal transformer which is very similar in design and construction
impulses flow through this speech winding it vibrates, travel- to the mains transformer or low -frequency transformer,
ling in and out of the gap. The edge of the cone is supported except that the ratio is very different. Instead of a Or 3
in some way, either by a ring of leather or rubber and, there- to the ratio may be as high as 6o to 1, depending .upon
fore, cone makes a true " piston " movement, resulting whether the valve is a pentode or similar valve requiring a
in a faithful reproduction of the received sounds. high impedance, and the speaker a very low impedance. A
To get the very best from a moving -coil speaker, a fairly further advantage of using the output transformer is that long
strong signal is desirable, and as it can give such a good leads may be used if the speaker is required to be pla.
performance, the receiver should be designed to provide a at a point some way from the receiver itself. If the speaker
signal to justify the use of such a speaker. Particular care were joined direct in the anode circuit, the anode current
should be taken to look after the lower notes in the musical of the valve would have to flow through it, and if the leads
scale, as these can be dealt with so effectively by the moving - were taken sonic distance away, the long length of wire would
coil speaker. cause a voltage drop and the H.T. applied to the value itself
would therefore be reduced to an unsatisfactory low level.
Matching the Impedance.-No matter which type of By placing the transformer direct in the receiver, the secondary
speaker it is intended to use there is one point which applies winding, which is of low resistance, may be extended for
to the correct employment of any speaker and that is, the considerable lengths without causing any ill-effects, and this
impedance of the speaker must be matched to the output is the arrangement usually used for extension speaker
give straight-
valve. This means that a certain valve will only points.
line reproduction with a certain impedance in its anode
circuit, and although valve manufacturers give this impedance
valves, unfor-
figure in the leaflets accompanying their always
tunately loudspeaker manufacturers do not give the
impedance. of their products. Usually, only the D.C.
resistance is given and this does not enable one correctly to
match up the speaker. There are on the market, however 8
THE PURPOSE OF GRJD BIAS 35
(known as an ordinate) represents anode current in milli-
amperes, and the bottom line (abscissa) the grid volts. Not
all characteristic curves express this relationship. Some
LESSON 4 show anode current in relation to anode volts. The standard
terms used in connection with characteristic curves are Vg
The Purpose of Grid Bias for grid volts, Va for anode volts, and la for anode current.
The grid volts line is sometimes divided into two parts, a zero
THE three -valve circuit shown in Lesson 3 nted in its line being placed near the right-hand edge and the volts to
simplest form a receiver incorporating a detector valve with the left of this being marked negative, those to the right
two amplifying valves. The valves were wsbiased. Now, positive. Now this set of curves will give us all the details
valves which are used for audio frequency (low -frequency) of what are known of the characteristics of the valve. We
amplification need to operate at a special part of the char-
acteristic curve of the valve. The circuit given in Fig. 20
so n
MK L.EtransPorne.
-0000.,F
'4' ; \ (POOPF) .00,44_. ilrCt'
eifil
T-
t-
-c), 0 fr°44")t s . Q9j (1.1.%_,
1 1 1 L4-46
to :pi //
.y.--..Ikoab"w.
)®,
344.
' s
;
44
;
I
A4 i ,
io .0001pr, i
4.
,
?.
I
a.
"0-y-60704ns i
. I
Fig. 25.-The three -sake circuit shoal: try Fig. 20 lath deroupling resistances
and condensers and IOU control added.
11
ADDING TONE CONTROL 97
In addition to these arrangements chokes and other com-
ponents are sometimes employed in special circuits.
This combination of a condenser and a resistor acts by !ii
LESSON 7 virtue of its offering a high impedance to some frequencies,
or a low impedance to others. In other words, it prevents
Adding Tone Control the passage of
certain frequencies
THE receiver is now at a stage where it is good enough for and provides a
ordinary purposes; it will make a satisfactory domestic simpler passage or
receiver. Those, however, with an ear for quality may care path to others,
to add the refinement of tone control. It is not absolutely which accordingly
necessary, of course, in a receiver of this type, although with pass through it
mains receivers and others capable of high output it becomes instead of through
desirable. In this receiver a variable resistor, similar to that the loudspeaker or
used for part 17 (volume control) is used, but it has a lower valve across which a
value and it is used together with a fixed condenser. These they are connec- " v".
two parts are Nos. 26 and 27 in Fig. 25 and they are shown in tett. By ma king Fig.26 - e tariable resistor and condenser necessary
perspective in Fig. 26. Some of the modern output valves the condenser orfor adding tone control.
give over -emphasis to the higher notes or frequencies so that the resistor va-
the tone sounds too shrill. As a result we need tone control riable the frequency to which it is tuned is varied, and thus
to provide a high note cut-off to balance the reproduction. it may be made to provide variable control to bypass or
But as certain types of .broadcast music need more cut-off, accept frequencies as required. All tone controls act in this
for example, than speech, the control is made variable so manner-even when they consist of chokes or other special
that it may be adjusted according to the item being received. components as previously mentioned. As, however, a choke
Many modern receivers are provided with a tone control is easily influenced by other components, it is difficult to have
across the first L.F. stage. This usually takes the form of a stable working without elaborate screening, and the condenser
condenser and resistance arrangement, joined between the and resistor combinations are therefore to be preferred.
anode of the L.F. valve and earth. Suitable values will Where more comprehensive control of the tone is required,
depend upon the valve and the RC. components and, again, such, for instance, as in a powerful amplifier designed for
up to -05 pp and up to z oo,000 ohms are generally suitable.
gramophone record reproduction, the tone controlling corn-
In the main, this form of tone control affects only the high ponents may introduce considerable low of volume and are,
notes (brilliance); but in commercial receivers provision is therefore, incorporated with additional valves. The added
made for control of the lower frequencies, or bass notes, the gain given by a valve will thus enable us to use more elaborate
high notes and, in addition, a fixed tone corrector is employed. tone adjusting circuits, as we can ignore the losses which they
The bass control consists of a fixed resistor and a con- will introduce, and thus we find that sometimes a completely
denser in series between the anode of the last stage but one separate valve stage is used for each of the" bass " and " treble"
and earth, and shunted across these two components is a tone controls, the values of the associated components being so
chosen that they provide boost (or added gain) at each end of
variable resistor. The brilliance of the reproduction is the musical scale, or cuts (or reduced gain) at other points.
effected by a fixed condenser and resistor across the grid That is as far as we can take the present circuit and, if
circuit of the output valve and it is, of course, variable. correctly built and adjusted, it should give, as a simple
The fixed tone corrector is a fixed condenser and resistor
coupled between the grid and anode of the output valve. receiver, very good results.
46
oirs's LAW 49
we refer to alternating current as being at so many cycles per
second-usually 5o c.p.s. This means that there are 5o
alternations per second and in a circuit employing such cur-
rent impedance must be taken into consideration. The sign
LESSON 8 employed for impedance is Z.
For the moment, however, we will confine our attention
Ohm's Law to the simple Ohm's Law for D.C. Now the unit of resistance
is the ohm, the unit of current is the ampere, and the unit of
THE reader, up to this stage, has been engaged on the prac- pressure is the volt. The ohm is the resistance offered by a
tical application of the principles of radio. It is necessary, column of mercury at the temperature of melting ice, 14.452
now that he has apparatus with which to check theory, to grammes in mass and of uniform cross-section and with a
deal with first principles. The very basis of all radio design length of 106.3 ems. When an electrical pressure of one volt
is Ohm's Law. is required to force a current of one ampere through a circuit,
Ohm's Law is named after Dr. G. S. Ohm ('787-1854) the circuit is said to have a resistance of one ohm.
who discovered the relationship existing in all circuits between For very small resistance measurements the microhm
resistance, voltage and current. Symbols are used to desig- (one -millionth of an ohm) is used.
nate these three terms. Throughout the world I is used to The ampere (originated by Andre Marie Ampere, 1775-
designate current, E for voltage and R for resistance. He 1836) is the current which will flow through a resistance of
discovered that the relationship could be reduced to a very z ohm under a pressure of 1 volt. With mall currents, such
simple formula from which, knowing two of the values, such as that taken from a H.T. battery in wireless circuits, the
as current and resistance, it is possible to estimate the voltage. milliampere is the unit Used. This is equal to one -thousandth
E of an ampere. Even smaller currents are measured in
The formula is I = - (t) microamperes (one -millionth of an ampere).
R The volt is the unit of electromotive force (EMF) or pressure,
This really means that current is always equal to voltage or potential. It is that pressure which produces a current of
one ampere when applied to a conductor the resistance of
divided by resistance. From this formula we can evolve two which is 1 ohm. Other units are the millivolt (one -thousandth
others by simple algebraic evaluation. Obviously:
of a volt) and the kilovolt (KV) which equals one -thousand
E=IxR (2) volts).
or expressed in words, voltage equals current multiplied by For measuring the amount of current flowing in a circuit
resistance. Similarly: an instrument known as an ammeter is used, for measuring
E voltage a voltmeter and for resistance an ohmmeter. Later on
(3) I shall show how to take current and voltage readings through-
out the circuit to make sure that the set is functioning as
or expressed in words, resistance equals voltage over current. designed. It is most important to ensure that the correct
In making calculations employing this formula, it is neces- anode and filament voltages are applied to the valve and that
sary that the three terms shall be in the units of their respective the correct current is passing.
measurements, namely, I in amperes, E in volts, and R in ohms. In the meantime, the reader should familiarise himself
The formula as given only applies, however, to direct current. with the application of Ohm's Law by studying the following
It does not apply to circuits employing alternating current. examples.
The latter is a current whose direction surges first in one If there is a resistance of 125 ohms between two points in a
direction and then in another at a regular frequency. Thus circuit, the voltage being 250, what current is passing?
48
50 A BEGINNER'S GUIDE TO RADIO (BEIM'S LAW 51
Applying formula (1): 1 I I I
25o resistance will be such that -= -+ -+ - ... etc.,
I (current) --- - or 2 ROWS R R, R, R.
125 according to the number of resistances. In complicated circuits
There is a resistance of 125 ohms when a current of 2 resistances are sometiMes connected in series-pamUel and calcula-
amperes is passing. What is the voltage? tions in such a case are very complicated and are governed by
Applying formula (2): Kirchhoff's Laws, which are outside the scope of this book, but
E (voltage) = 2 X 125 = 250 volts. are fully explained in my " Practical Wireless Encyclopedia."
When a current of 2 amperes is passing under a pressure of Thus, if resistances of 5 ohms, 3 ohms and 2 ohms are con-
25o volts, what is the resistance? nected in series, the total resistance will be to ohms.
Here 1 = 2 and E = 25o and, substituting these figures in If they were joined up in parallel, the resulting total
formula (3): resistance R would be:
250
R m-- - or i25ohms.
2
-R =-- - - -
I 1
5
I
3
I
2
A io-volt bat- E
This expressed in words is " The reciprocal of the total
tery has an resistance is equal to the SUM of the reciprocals of the in-
internal resist- \ dividual resistances." Working out the example, therefore,
ance of 2 ohms, the answer would be :
and it is con- 6 + to + 15 31
nected to a re-
sistance of 3 Fig. 27.-Volingt it, is measured across a source
and current, I, in series. So 30
ohms. Find the 31
current flowing.
Here R will equal 3+ 2 = 5 ohms, and applying formula
..-It-=-3o
(I)1 30
10 from which R = - of an ohm.
-= 2 amperes. 31 I
one after the other, the total resistance will be equal to the in parallel whilst
sum of the individual resistances. If they are joined in the ammeter is
parallel, that is connected in
to say if all the series. Fig. 28
left - hand con- shows how to
nections are measure the vol-
joined together tage of a battery
and all the and how the
right-hand current flowing
connections from a battery Voltege readings Current reeenngs
Fig. methods are used for increasing the are similarly through a re- Fig. 2g.-Pictorial illustrations of methods of maturing
range of a meter. joined, the total sistor is measured voltage and current.
A BROWNER'S GUIDE TO RADIO
owls LAW 53
52
with an ammeter. It sometimes becomes necessary to in- predetermined v-alue. In the case of a voltmeter, the resistance
crease the range of an ammeter when taking measurements is connected in series and in the case of an ammeter in parallel.
which are outside the scope of the scale when the needle is in It should be pointed out that basically a voltmeter is the same
the fully -deflected position. In such a case the excess current as an ammeter, and thus it does in effect indicate that a
passing through the meter is by-passed by connecting a current is flowing through the circuit, although by reference
resistance across the meter. To increase the range of a to the dial one reads off the voltage.
voltmeter a resistance is included in series with it to limit the If R. is the resistance of the meter: R. the value of the
shunt (parallel -connected) resistance and n the number of
current. This is shown in Fig. 29. times it is wished to multiply the scale reading, then:
Of course, the meter itself has a resistance and this needs R.
to be taken into account in calculations resulting from the R. = ---
meter readings. All voltmeters should have a resistance of (n-z )
at least i,000 ohms per volt, whilst high class meters have a As already stated the voltage range of a meter can be
resistance of the order of 20,000 ohms per volt. This is to inc....ased by connecting a resistance in series with it. If these
ensure that the meter does not itself take so much current series resistances are R. and R. and n as before, then
that it produces false readings. Rs = Rm x (n-i )
It is obvious that a circuit may be checked in two ways,
either by measuring the current which it is passing, or by Colour Codes.-All resistances and condensers are marked
measuring the voltage on the anode of the valve. The according to the colour code which enables their values to be
wattage rating of a resistance is of importance,. since it must read off and it is necessary to memorise this code. Here
safely carry without overheating the current it is designed for. it is:
If resistance and current values are known, Resistances and Condensers
Wattage = P R when I is expressed in amps The colour codes for fixed condenser and fixed resistors are
Milliamps2 identical, the standard for resistors being ohms and for fixed
or W = xR condensers suF (Picafarads
1,000,000
If wattage rating and value of resistance are known, the or micro-microfarads).
safe current for tlie resistor can be calculated from Colour Fig. No. of noughts f wit* oa
Watts Black o None A 0
Milliamps = 1,00o x Brown I o
Ohms Red 2 00
For automatic bias circuits, the value of the bias resistor Orange 3 000 MAA bane
can be determined by Yellow 4 0000
E Green 5 00000 .
milliarnps of the valve, or the total H.T. current of the circuit In older resistances it will Fig. spa. -771s colour code diagram.
according to the system in use. be found that the body of the
Increasing Meter Range.-In increasing the range of a resistor is coloured all over, and a ring is placed round one
meter the resistance employed must, of course, be of a end, or tip, whilst a dot appears in the centre of the body
54 A BEGINNER'S OUIDE TO RADIO
In this type of component the colours are read in the order:
Body, Tip, Dot.
Example. Resistance with red body, black tip and
orange spot will have value of 2o,000 ohms. If there is
no dot on the body it indicates that it is of the same colour LESSON 9
as the body.
In more modern components, however, especially the very About Meters
small miniature resistances, the colours appear as rings round
the resistance. The actual colour of the body of the resistance THE greatest care must be taken in choosing measuring in-
in this case does not matter. The resistance is held with struments, for some of the cheaper grades require more watts
the coloured ring on the left and then the value is read off, to deflect the needle over the dial than the whole current
starting from the left as shown in Fig. 29a. It may be found, consumption of the set. The most expensive meters take the
however, that in addition to three rings or bands of colour least current to operate them; it is for this reason, therefore,
there is a fourth, which may be either at some distance from that a good voltmeter must have a very high resistance-it
the other rings, or at the same spacing as the normal three may be as much as I,000 ohms per volt and the current
already mentioned. The additional colour will be either. taken would be only I milliampere, the best type being the
Gold or Silver. It is used to indicate the tolerance or accuracy moving -coil pattern. This operates on the principle of a
of the resistance. If there are just the three bands already coil moving in the field of a permanent magnet. It is only
mentioned, it indicates that the component is marked to a suitable for use on direct -current circuits and being of the
value within 20 per cent. of its actual ratirig. In other polarized type the leads must be connected up in the correct
words, the tolerance is 20 per cent. This is the standard manner to deflect the needle of the instrument across the
value. If the component is within so per cent. of the marked dial in the right direction. If the leads are changed and
value, the ring will be Silver, whilst if it is within 5 per connected the wrong way round then the needle swings over
cent., then a Gold band will appear. On condensers there in the opposite direction; although a meter will often stand
may appear as many as 6 dots, one of these indicating the current in the reverse direction, it may possibly damage the
type of condenser or working voltage, and the other the needle by causing it to hit the stop pin very hard, thus putting
multiplier. There are several different forms of marking, so a strain on some of the mechanism. Accurate meters are
that examples cannot be given, but basically the first and generally fitted with an adjustment which will return the
second numerals are indicated, as in the case of resistances, needle to zero, thus enabling it to be brought exactly to zero
using the same colours, and these are multiplied by a factor on the scale before the instrument is used.
indicated by the remaining colours. Voltmeters can be obtained in various voltage ranges and
Fuses also there are those on the market which cover several read-
6o mA. Black amp Dark blue. ings, enabling voltages to be taken of, say, o to so volts L.T.
too rnA. Grey amp Light blue. and o to 200 volts H.T. The lower readings are suitable for
iso mA. Red 2 amp Purple. testing filament voltages and low-tension battery voltages
25o mA. Brown 3 amp White. when the set is working.
500 mA. Yellow 5 amp' Black and white. Millistnnteters. The anode current consumed by the valves
750 mA. Green in a set is so small that it is very seldom that an ammeter is
used. To measure these minute currents a milliammeter is
used, which is so arranged that its pointer indicates
thousandths of an ampere, known as milliamperes.
When a milliammeter is joined in the anode circuit of the
55
56 A BEGINNER'S GUIDE TO RADIO ABOUT METERS 57
power valye, it is possible and very interesting to test for " opened " and an ammeter is inserted the needle will
correct values of H.T. and grid bias, also to observe the move- indicate the amount of current flowing. For example, if
ment of the needle when the latter is incorrect. The grid the meter is designed for a maximum reading of imA and
bias should be adjusted to that stated by the makers of the if inserted in a circuit so designed that one milliamp current
valve and the set switched on, it being tuned to a station flows, it is obvious that the needle will be fully deflected.
giving a medium amount of volume. If the biasing is correct This is known as full scale deflection or F.S.D. But if the
the needle will remain steady and the reading on the dial voltage is higher or the resistance lower then a current
should be noted. Switch off the set and reduce the bias a greater than I mA will flow, and unless precautions are
little. Switch on again and it will be observed that not only taken the needle will press hard against the stop pin and the
will the needle no longer be steady, but the current from the meter mechanism will be damaged. In cases where we
H.T. battery will have increased, thus indicating that dis- wish to take current readings beyond the full scale reading
tortion is occurring and, as before stated, H.T. current is of the meter, we must arrange to by-pass the current which
being used wastefully. is in excess of that which will give F.S.D. of the meter.
If the same operation is gone through, but this time in- When measuring a voltage the voltmeter is connected
creasing the bias on the valve, it will be seen that the needle across the source or terminals to which the voltage is applied,
of the meter tends to kick upwards on strong signals; at the and in this case, if the voltage being measured will result in a
same time the anode current in excess of the full scale reading of the meter, resist-
H.rr current from the bat- ances will have to be connected in series with the meter, and
tery will decrease, the two are joined in parallel with the source. The values
coupled, of course, of the resistances are such as to limit the current again to
with distortion. When mA or less with the type of instrument just referred to. A
the needle of the mil-
liammeter kicks both
up and down the dial
and no alteration ofthe
grid bias will correct
it, it can be assumed
Fig. 3o.-The narking If a sake stage may that the valve is over-
be checked in two different wax as shown here. loaded, that is to say,
that the input of the
set is rather greater than the valve can handle. If the
power valve is overloaded a more suitable valve must be
used in the last stage or the input to the receiver reduced.
All that is necessary is to reduce the signal input slightly to
that point where it does not result in overloading the last
valve.
aid
not
Figs. Go, Gt and 6s. -(left) The normal dectron flow inside the noise.
(Centre) The signal claims on the grid and grid condasser. (Right) The
aectomdation on the grid side qf the condenser.
that when the across to the plate, and so increases plate current. Thus
Awed. sciSres, Who To HT current in the every fluctuation affects the plate current, and it is the latter
posirive
aerial circuit which is passed on via the other two valves to the speaker as
flows one way it is more powerful than the aerial current.
it reduces the What happens is that every time the grid becomes positive,
plate current it attracts a few of the electrons as they rush from filament
and when the to plate. These remain on the grid and so assist in the
aerial current repelling action that it has when it is negative, and in this
flows in the way the grid has more effect on the plate current when it is
other direction negative than when it is positive. This means that instead
the opposite of the average effect on the plate current being zero or nil,
Lag Neve as it would be if the attraction and repulsion were equal, the
..L°41:)"`ow" happens. average effect is now a reduction of plate current below
As there is a
Fig.64-Cirnsit of a ddr.lor stage. deficiency of normal. The amount of reduction depends upon the in-
electrons on the tensity of the rapid changes of the grid from negative to posi-
left-hand plate tive, and this in turn depends on the strength of the current in
of the grid con- the aerial circuit which, of course, varies with the fluctuations
denser, elect- of the speech, music or other sounds being transmitted.
rons on the grid
immediately The Grid Leak-The grid leak is connected with the
rush along to grid of the valve Resction condenser
the right-hand to prevent too
plate of the many electrons
condenser, at- remaining on it.
tracted by the As its name
positive state implies, it pro-
of the other vides a path of
plate (positive escape for them
attracts neg- -a means for
ative). This them to leak
rush of elect- away.
rons away from We do not, of
the grid leaves course, pass the
it positive and current in the
now attracts aerial through
the electrons the loudspeaker. To ifosrtery Tel -abetter,
coming from It is the plate Fig. 66.-77ss reaction drat.
the filament current which is
instead of re- used. Now let us consider how a detector is connected into
pelling them. the circuit. At the base of the valve are the legs, and in the
Indeed, it actu- battery three -electrode type there will be four such legs.
ally helps them Fig. 65.-Botkr; eonnedions. Two of them are for connections to the L.T. battery for
IO2 A BEGINNER'S GUIDE TO RADIO
purposes of heating the filament, one is for connecting to
the plate, connected as we have already seen to the positive
of the source of H.T. supply, and the other is the grid con-
nection. It will be noted that the valve legs are unequally
spaced to ensure that valve is not inserted in the wrong valve LESSON 13
leg sockets. Fig. 63 is a practical wiring diagram showing how
the detector valve is connected up, whilst Fig. 66 shows how re- Methods of Coupling Valves
action is added. Fig. 6.1 is the theoretical circuit of the detector
portion of the receiver and Fig. 66 shows battery connections. HAVING explained how detection of the signal takes place
Reaction.-Reaction, which is a short term meaning and the operation of the detector valve, we can now proceed
regenerative amplification, is a method of strengthening or to consider the
boosting up weak signals. We have seen that the rapid work of the second
oscillating currents in the aerial circuit acting on the grid, valve.
cause corresponding oscillations in the plate current and that We have already
the latter is stronger than the aerial current, since it is derived seen that the cur-
from the H.T. source and is not dependent on the power of rent flowing in the
the incoming radio waves, which gradually get weaker as plate circuit of the
first or detector
their distance from the transmitter increases. Therefore, valve fluctuates in
some of the plate current is allowed to pass through a coil of accordance with
wire somewhat similar to the aerial coil and this coil can be the speech or music
wound on the same former as the aerial coil, the effect of this being transmitted
being to induce a current in the aerial coil which helps to from the broad-
strengthen the original oscillations. In modern receivers this To Let HT- casting station. It
practice is not always adopted. There is always some loss To grtd bNs follows that if a
in the strength of the aerial current due to resistance of the pair of headphones
wire in the aerial coil and the placing of the reaction coil near Fig. 67.-77otorrtical circuit qf an R.C. coupling.
is connected in this
it has the effect of neutralizing any resistance. circuit we could
Reaction Condenser.-The effect of the reaction coil can hear the signals,
be varied at will by means of a reaction condenser, which is a and by doing so
component similar to the tuning condenser and thus acts as a we should be using
volume control. When the plates or vanes are right in, the receiver as a
reaction is at a maximum and, of course, at a minimum when one -valve set.In-
they are all out. One practice is to wind the reaction coil deed, this method
between two aerial coils on the same former. One is cut out affords a simple
of circuit by means of a switch, 'while the other is in use. test of checking the
The reason for the two aerial coils, of course, is that they detector circuit if
each cover a different range of wavelengths. By the aid of faults develop. The
the tuning condenser, one of the coils will cover, say, from signals, of course,
20o to 500 metres, while the other will cover a range of would not be very
between x,000 and 2,000 metres. Modern multi -nave sets strong, and so we
of course cover other ranges. must amplify the
104 A BEGINNER'S GUIDE TO RADIO METHODS OF COUPLING VALVES 105
currents by passing them through one or more other valves In the case of
coupled to the detector circuit. According to the ratio of r°Hrt a resistance for
the transformer used, or other method of coupling, so will the / o ,Peoke. COUpi ins pur-
LT -valve Transformer
signals be amplified in that ratio: If we use a three -to -one poses the value
transformer between the detector and the second valve of the is comparatively
two -valve set, the amplification will be three. Readers will parer valve
-
rt.iiiviiiber that we dealt with the transformation ratio in an
earlier lesson (see Figs. 67 and 68). Potential
R.G. Coupling.-Let us see how the second valve is con-
Promary Difference. -I
/ran
ore have mentioned
nected up and how it increases the currents produced by the Secondary previously that
There are two methods of coupling in general use,
first. an electric cur -
one making use of a resistance and the other employing a rent flows in the
transformer. In the receiver under discussion the resistance air
plate circuit of
method is used. Now a resistance, as its name implies, is a Togged Was- the detector
device which re - Fig. 7o.-Theoretical circuit of froxyfenner-ceiOd step. valve, and what
l... To KTe sists the passage is done is to in-
of an electric clude the resistance in the wire leading to the plate. It is
current, and its known as an anode resistance, the term anode being another
To next degree of resist- word for plate. Its presence causes a difference in pressure or
ance is decided voltage between one end of it and the as a con-
From
deteetor-I
by its ohmic striction in a water pipe would cause a difference in pressure
valve
LF mlve value. Thus, between the in-
resistance having let and outlet To pmend
IOU -Valve of hlrbattevy
a value of totioo side. The lead Power valve
ohms has half to the plate Transformer
lb Lie the resistance of of the valve
one of 2,000 is, of course,
To ereNr- ohms. You will connected to
To gild bees mg remember that high-tension
Fig. 69.-Grid-bias may be applied through a grid -leak. resistances may positive. There
be connected is also another
either in series (as would be necessary if a single resistance wire coming
of a required value was unobtainable or not available), or from the plate
in parallel when it is desired to reduce the resistance. which leads first
Sometimes resistances are connected in series -parallel, in- to a fixed con-
volving calculations according to Kirchhoff's Law. Of course, denser, called
all conductors of electricity offer some resistance to current the coupling
flow-even thick copper wire. The resistance of a wire is condenser, and
proportional to its length. That is to say, the resistance thence to the ITSLTr HT -
of I yd. of a particular gauge of wire is half that of 2 yds. of grid of the next Fig. 7,-Picturial regresentaiion of the arrangement shown
the, same wire. valve. This inF g.
106 A BEGINNER'S GUIDE TO RADIO METHODS OF COUPL/NO VALVES 107
wire can be compared with a branch -pipe rising from a water means of the grid in the detector valve these variations in the
pipe just before the constricted part. The presence of the strength of currents in the aerial circuit are able to make
constriction causes water to rise in the branch pipe, whereas similar variations in the plate current.
without it no water would enter it. If the upper end of There are thus L.F. variations in the plate current of the
the branch pipe were stopped up, the pressure inside would detector valve, and it is because the work of the following
be the same as in the main pipe. valves is to amplify these that they are called L.F. amplifiers.
In the same way, the pressure or voltage in the wires of the The one we are going to study in the next lesson is called the
condenser is the same as in the main wire from the plate to power valve, because it has to handle larger fluctuations in
the resistance. We have seen that the current flowing in the current than either of the other valves and produces more
plate circuit of the detector valve fluctuates in strength and power.
speed in consonance with the variation in power and pitch Practically all of the quality of the modern receiver de-
of the music or speech which is being received. Naturally, pends upon the design of the LF. amplifying stages. To
this rise and fall in current will mean a rise and fall in pressure, obtain better quality than may be delivered by a single
and the pressure or voltage in the wire to the coupling valve, two such valves may be used connected together (in
condenser will rise and fall, too. parallel) or in a special arrangement known as " push-pull ".
In this latter arrangement the signal is applied to two valves
How the Valve Amplifies.-You will recall that when connected " back to back ". In this way the signal, which
the grid of the detector valve becomes alternately positive is an oscillating current, as already described, only affects
and negative, it attracts and repels the electrons flowing each valve when the swing is in the right direction, and
from the filament to the plate and so increases or decreases thus one valve " pushes " whilst the other " pulls ". In
their flow. Exactly the same alternating action takes place other words, each only deals with half the signal. The
in the amplifying valve, although the grid in this case does output from the two separate valves is then combined, and
not vary from positive to negative. In the case of a battery delivers a better signal due to the cancellation of certain
set the grid is connected by means of a grid -leak to the grid - forms of distortion. Briefly, if the signal is too great to be
bias battery, which keeps it negative all the time. The effect handled by a single valve, it may be split and fed to two in
is the same, but instead of altering from positive to negative, push-pull, whilst if louder signals are needed two valves may
the negative value itself varies. This variation in the nega- be connected in parallel and will give twice the output from
tive state of the grid causes the number of electrons flowing the same input. The principal requirement of the L.F. stage
from the filament to the plate to vary also, and it gives rise is that it should amplify ali frequencies equally, otherwise
to a similar variation in plate current. The valve thus distorted music and signals will arise. It is very difficult to
amplifies because small variations in the voltage of the grid design a really straight-line amplifier, but special circuits
cause large variations in the plate current have now been produced which enable really high -quality
The amplifying valve has a grid -leak just as the detector signals to be obtained, and with improved loudsprAers re-
valve has. production almost indistinguishable from the original may
What is Low Frequeney?-I explained that the speech be produced.
or music sent out was represented by a variation in the
amplitude (height) of the waves. This means a rise and fall
in The strength of the H.F. currents. This rise and fall
occurs at a comparatively slow rate, or low frequency. It is this
L.F. variation in the strength of the H.F. current which
corresponds with each vibration of the voice or of the musical
instrument being broadcast. You will recollect that by
THE TRANSFORMER AND OUTPUT STAGE 109
giving an output of say, 3 watts undistorted, in connection
with a loudspeaker which would overload at less than this.
Transformers used in wireless sets are not made on the
simple lines just described for purposes of illustration. Such
LESSON 20 would indeed be very inefficient. Wireless transformers have
soft iron cores, not in the form of a rod, but in the form of
The Transformer and Output Stage thin plates. These plates interleave as will be seen in Fig. 72
so that they provide a rectangle with a bar connecting two
IN the set under discussion we are using an LF. transformer of the sides. A well-known material for these cores is Stalloy,
to couple the last valve. Of course, a resistance could be and it is available already stamped in various sizes. It will
used just as for the second valve, but a transformer has certain be seen that this extends right round the outside of the coils
advantages. If we intended to use resistance coupling again as well as passing through the middle of them. The coils
we should insert a resistance from the plate to the H.T. are, of course, very carefully insulated from one another, and
battery (see Fig. 67). are nearly always wound on the same bobbin. First, the
I have already dealt briefly in earlier lessons with the trans- primary winding is wound on then a layer of wax paper or
former, explaining why it is used and what is meant by trans- insulating mat-
formation ratio. An explanation of how it is made will help erial such as
the reader to understand its function. The action of a trans- Empire tape and,
former differs from that of a resistance. The simplest trans- finally, the secon
former consists of two coils of insulated wire wound round an dary winding is
rod and the coils may be wound either side by side or on.
one over the other. When a fluctuating current is passed The power valve au
through one of the coils (the primary) a difference of pressure acts in exactly Secondarr iron adoy (C) Secondary
(voltage or potential) arises between one and the other. the same way as Printery
Also, the current passing through one coil induces a current the previous valve,
in the other coil. small variations
This is where the usefulness of a transformer becomes of current at the
apparent. It enables the voltage to be stepped up any grid giving large
desired amount (I am, of course, referring to alternating variations in the 0) Secondary
current; it is impossible to step up direct current). Thus, plate current.
if the second coil has twice the number of turns as the first, The amplifying
then the voltage across the second will be twice as much as property of the
the first, and if the second coil has three times as many turns valve itself added
the voltage will be three times as great as the first. A trans- to the step-up r.-The essential pen, of a simple transfianter are
former can be wound to give any desired transformation effect of the trans- Fig.
sham at a dab: c and d illustrate the actual form of a
ratio. This ratio is selected according to the characteristics former causes the transformer used in a leireless at.
of the valve it is to " feed." If the transformation ratio is too total amplification
high, distortion will occur. Generally, a low -frequency to be considerable.
transformer coupled to the output valve has a ratio varying At this stage we may connect up the loudspeaker. It is
between 3} tot and 6 to 1. True output valve selected must, connected in the plate circuit of the output or power valve,
of course, be " matched " to the loumker. It would, for that is to say, between the plate and the positive end of the
example, be wrong to use a transformer and output valve high-tension supply.
a38
110 A BEGINNER'S GUIDE TO RADIO
The Londspeaker.-To understand the loudspeaker I
will deal with the very simplest type, one consisting of a
vibrating reed, not used nowadays. It consists of a per-
manent magnet, a strip of flexible iron known as the reed,
a coil of fine insulated wire and a cone attached to the reed LESSON st
by a small metal rod. The coil is wound on a small bobbin
which fits over one end of the magnet, while the reed, which Reading a Circuit
is of a springy nature, is screwed to the other end of the
magnet. Its action is as follows: the current from the plate Is the early part of this book I illustrated a very simple
of the power valves passes through the coil; this tends to circuit with diagrams showing the theoretical circuit and the
increase the power of the magnet, for it is a well-known fact wiring diagram, numbering the parts to correspond. As
that if an electric current is passed through a coil of wire the circuit made use of very simple components, such as a
wound round a piece of iron the iron will become magnetized home-made coil and a triode detector valve, which is scarcely
-in other words an electromagnet or solenoid. In the case ever used to -day, I think it advisable, now that the reader
of the speaker, however, the iron is already magnetized. In has accustomed to more modern components, to
other words, it is a permanent magnet. The current passing
through the coil, therefore, increases the magnetism. We
have already seen that when music or speech or any other
sound is being received this current fluctuates in harmony
or gram', with the sound vibrations of the instruments being
played and this means that the magnetism produced by the
current will also fluctuate, thus causing the reed to vibrate
and communicate the sounds to the cone.
Whatever type of speaker is used (and there are several
types) this principle applies.
Unfortunately, the loudspeaker must be properly housed
in order to reproduce the music properly. Elaborate cabinets
are now available which must be chosen in conjunction with
the loudspiaker which is used, and these enable not only
much better reproduction to be obtained at the very low
notes, but also give better radiation of the high notes. In 73.-77eorakal dradi of a modern three -oats, receiver.
some modern high -quality receivers or amplifiers two or three
loudspeakers are used together, special circuits being em- illustrate a modern three -valve circuit in theoretical and
ployed so that certain parts of the musical scale are fed to practical form, with each component numbered to correspond.
the separate speakers, and thus more even reproduction is This circuit does not make use of triodes but employs two
obtained. pentodes and a tetrode valve. The pentode valve, of course,
gives much greater amplification.
Figa 73 and 74 show the circuit and the practical wiring
diagrams relating to it. The circuit includes a radio fre-
quency stage, a detector with reaction, and the output valve
is, of course, transformer coupled. All the theoretical signs
used in connection with radio are given on pages g and to.
I1I
READING A CIRCUIT ITS
A list of radio symbols, however, does not tell the beginner
sufficient. It tells him that a particular sign stands for a
particular component, but the beginner needs to know when
he sees a particular circuit what it means in terms of a parti-
cular set until he reaches Inc stage when he can dispense with
wiring diagrams. He should learn not to depend on a wiring
diagram always being available. In fact, a circuit diagram
is very much more graphic than a wiring diagram. Manu-
facturers, for example, do not issue wiring diagrams, only
theoretical citcuits.
A circuit is really a number of different components linked
together, and Fig. 75 indicates this in diagrammatic form.
If all the components were strung together in a straight line
the set itself
would be 0-0-0-0-0-0-0-0-0-13
necessarily long
and shallow, as
shown in the first
Reoctron Tuning wove encase diagram. The
components are (b)
therefore ar- (c)
ranged in a EOM- Fig. 75.-04 A wireless throb is really a chain of com-
pact form as is tomes joined together. (b) The same chain folded up to
constr., spate. space The best arrangement components,
indicated by the allowing for tuning condensers orspeaker.
other two dia-
grams. The third arrangement is best in that it leaves a
central space for the mounting of the tuning condensers or
speaker. In reading a circuit diagram it is important to
remember that an arrow through a component means that
it is variable. Variable resistances and variable condensers
are typical examples of conventional signs where the arrow is
used. It is also important to remember that electrolytic
condensers have positive and negative poles, unlike the usual
type of fixed condenser.
In this connexion note that the electrolytic condenser in
Fig. 73 (part M) is connected with its positive side to the
earth or chassis line, and therefore ifa metal chassis is used
it would be necessary to insulate this condenser or mount
it so that the case (which is normally negative) is not touching
Fig. 74.-Top and underneath rims of a receiver built to the circuit showing the chassis.
position of wires. The numbers on the circuit correspond to the numbers an
the wiring diagrams.
115
USING TESTING INSTRUMENTS 515
possible to take all of the usual measurements by means of a
first-class milliammeter used in conjunction with suitable
resistances or " shunts." The ammeter must be of the moving
coil type and it should have a full-scale deflection of about 5
LESSON 22 milliamps, so that it may be used to take measurements of
current down to about -5 milliamp. Its range can be increased
Using Testing Instruments up to 10, 20, 50 and too milliamps, as well as to 1, 2 and 5 amps,
merely by connecting " shunt " resistances between its
IT is seldom that a receiver is built which works satisfactorily terminus.
straightaway. It may not work at all, it may give distorted Now, before the correct value of these resistances can be
signals,it may lack selectivity or the station may not be determined the resistance of the meter itself must be known
received at the correct point on the tuning scale. Adjust- and then the values can be found by simple proportion.
ments have to be made and quite often it is necessary to take For example, if the resistance of the meter is too ohms, and
current and voltage measurements throughout the circuit to it is intended to take readings up to so milliamps with a meter
make quite sure that the correct voltage is being applied at whose full-scale deflection is 5 milliamps, the meter must
the plates of the valves and that the correct current is flowing only pass 5 milliamps, and therefore the parallel resistances
in the various parts of the circuit. For this purpose we must will have to carry the remaining 45 milliamps. Expressed
use test meters, such as voltmeters, ammeters, miltiammeters, in another way, the meter will take one tenth and the resist-
and so on. It is possible to purchase a meter which will ance nine tenths of the total current. It follows that the
enable one to make all of those measurements instead of resistance will have a value of one ninth of the resistance of
having a number the meter, or t / II ohms. By this method
of separate in- other shunt can be found by dividing the multiplying factor
struments. In an less t into the resistance of the meter. In the example given
Shunt resistance earlier lesson I above the multiplying factor was to (50 divided by 5). I give
explained how below a short table showing the values of resistances for other
some tests could ranges.
be made without
instruments at all. MILLIAMMETER GIVING MAXIMUM DEFLECTION OF
Of course, it is 5 MILL1AMPS
only the advanced
experimenter who
needs elaborate Maximum Deflection Multiplication Resistance
oa test gear and the Required Factor of Shunt
beginner may
find a simple in- ro milliamps 2 too ohms
strument for 20 4 33'33 ohms
measuring current 50 ,, 10 iiti ohms
To circuit and voltage suf- 100 20 5.26 ohms
under ficient for his I amp .. 200 .503 ohms
test immediate needs. 2 amps .. 400 .251 ohms
Fig. 76.---1.1retes milliainmster and shunt resistances to As a matter of 1,000 i ohm
lab ,aiding,beyond Ow range elite nuke. fact, it is quite
114
t6 A BEGINNER'S GUIDE TO RADIO USING TESTING INSTRUMENTS I17
them. One end of each is connected to one terminal of the
meter, the other ends an being taken to sockets into which a
0-5 Afilliaisoc plug from the second meter terminal can be inserted according
R3 to the range required.
Voltage Measuresuents.-The same meter can be used
for measuring voltages by connecting resistances in series, as
already explained. Here again, it is necessary to take the
resistance of the meter into consideration when determining
the size of the resistances required.
The method of calculation, however, is different and it is
necessary to employ Ohm's Law. We know that the resist-
ance of a circuit in ohms is equal to the voltage across the
circuit, divided by the current in amperes flowing in it.
Therefore, if the meter is to read 5 volts whilst passing
Fig. 77 (LcR).-The milliarenstrr 5 milliamps, the resistance should be 5 divided by 1/too, which
tan la tasd for sneessuratg resistarsre., equals 5 x 200, which is t,000 ohms. We must remember,
as shown here_
Fig.
however that the resistance of the meter, too ohms, as well as the
78.-(Right) A resistance bridge.
series resistance is in circuit and the value of the latter must,
therefore, be only goo ohms. It follows that if the meter were
Resistances to required to read up to 5o volts a series resistance of g,goo
the values can be ohms (to,000 - too) would be required.
made by winding Resistance values for any other voltage ranges can be
suitable lengths worked out in the same way. It will be obvious that when
of resistance wire the voltage to be measured is above 5o the resistance of the
on to small ebonite meter can be ignored without affecting the accuracy of the
rods. The wire measurement to any great extent.
must be chosen
so that it will Resistance Measnreinent.-The millianuneter may be
Centre zero safely carry the used to measure resistances by connecting it in series with a
galvanometer necessary current resistance (Fig. 77). When measuring the values of small
Crocodile clip and the proper resistances (less than too ohms) this method is not very
gauge can be suitable for extreme accuracy. In this case use should be
obtained from made of a resistance bridge, the circuit arrangement of which
wire gauge tables. is shown in Fig. 78. The resistances RI, R2 and R3 are of
such as those given known value, whilst R is the unknown and RI and R2 are
in my Vest Pocket adjusted until current ceases to flow through the galvanometer
Book, entitled marked G. The value of R can be found from the equation
" Wire and Wire RI/R2 = RIR3. Simplified this becomes:
Gauges " (38. gd. x R3
by post). Fig. 76 R
Fig. 7g.-A practical carat:roma of the simple Inidge shows the method R2
shown by Fig. 78. of connecting A simple resistance bridge is shown in practical form in
1 OS A BEGINN'ER'S GUIDE TO RADIO USING TESTING INSTRUMENTS 119
NWITTIMMU
g SIUMM
, IMMO
be connected 1110=Q441WRIAMMINKM
in circuit, one MMEMEMIO.UpOPEMMEM
at a time, and F7TIAWAHAUWAMMUM
UMAMMUMMIME
the reading MMENIAWAMMIAMMOMEM to
carefully noted FlOWniMP4MUMUMME
in each case.
In each in-
xs as 12.
Grid roes
5435! 0
stance, the Pigs. 86 aed 87.-(i.efi) The grave& meodo none. (Right) An enlarged
wan of the anted section.
efficieueyofthe
coil is repre- Vg for Grid Volts, Va for Anode Volts and Ia for Anode
sented by the Current. The grid volts line is usually divided into two
change in an- pans, a zero line being placed near the right-hand edge, and
Fig. 85.-The comet uto to hat the voltage of me ode current the volts to the left of this being marked " negative " and
or -annotator it while it is under load, that is, while it it when it is in those to the right " positive." This set of curves provides all
connected to the ad mod emitshed on. circuit. the details which are known as the characteristics of the valve.
121
122 A BEGINNER'S GUIDE TO RADIO THE CI ARAIDTERISIIC CURVE 123
Plotting a Characteristic Curve.-You may plot your approximately 6 milliamps. It is obvious that to obtain the
own characteristic curve in the following way. Connect up a same anode current without altering the bias, it will be
valve holder, a grid -bias battery, an H.T. battery and a LT. necessary to increase the H.T. In this case, it will be found
battery in the usual way. A millianuneter should be in- that about 24 volts are required to obtain the same anode
serted in the anode lead between plate and H.T. positive. current, and we must add 24 volts H.T. for every 3 volts
Now prepare a piece of squared paper with a grid potential G.B. added, and this ratio 24/3 is the amplification ratio, in
line and mark the right-hand line with a series of numbers this case 8.
from o to 3o. Insert the valve in its holder. With no grid -
bias and 6o volts H.T. note the current indicated by the Slope.-The slope refers to the mutual conductance, and is
milliammetcr. On the squared paper make a dot on the the change in anode current divided by change in grid volts,
zero line where the or to put it another way, the anode current change per volt
line corresponding to grid potential change. To obtain this factor the anode
the anode current in- potential of H.T. must be left unaltered, and the grid -bias
tersects. Next plug only varied. As the bias is increased we have already noted
the grid -bias plug into that the anode current decreases, and therefore we can
the 1.5 volt socket, obtain a set of figures from which it will be observed that the
and note the anode anode current in the example given above decreased 2
current, making a dot milliamps for every volt that the grid -bias was increased, and
on the chart above the therefore the slope is two milliamps per volt, or as it is ex-
1.5 volt line at the pressed on the valve chart, 24) mA/V.
point of intersection
with the new anode Inspedance.-The impedance of a valve is one of its most
current tiire. important characteristics for upon it depends the value of
Prod in this way resistance, condens-
with various H.T. and ers, etc., which is to
G.B. values, joining up be used in coupling o t.
all dots for each H.T.
value. The result of
the valve to a sub-
sequent stage. No
JA, ;
Fe(. 88 . -Sd4ep for taking oaks rmanarnentr. this will be a set of further calculation
curves similar to those is necessary to ob- e.
as the grid bias was increased, the H.T. volts being left un- used to ascertain
altered, the anode current decreased. For example, it may
have been found that with too volts H.T. and no volts on
the impedance
o
---7
value.
the grid the anode current was approximately 15 milliamps. It is only necessary ANOvi'vo rP °
When the grid bias was increased by three volts, the anode to divide the ampli-
current dropped to just under to milliamps, a drop of fication ratio by the Fig. 4-Dynacnic valve carom.
144 A BEGINNER'S GLIDE TO RADIO THE CHARACTERISTIC CURVE 125
slope and multiply the answer by 1 ,000 which, in the example does not do this, distortion is taking place. The effect of the
8 1,000 variation in bias is, as our other curves have shown us, equiva-
I have used is X = 4,00o and this gives the value in lent to a change in anode volts, and therefore the dynamic curves
2 I
will show the anode current at various grid and anode volts.
ohms. Figs. 86 and 87 should make these points clear. It
is a simple matter to Undistorted Output.-The curves shown in Fig. 86 may
build the apparatus be expressed in a much simpler way for the purpose of ex-
Zer:24;id necessary for the plaining the method of ascertaining the undistorted output
;OA measurements re- of the valve, and Fig. go is an indication of how the curves
plot a may be simplified. It shows the anode current curve at
c curve. normal grid bias, double and half grid bias, all the other
It is important, lines in Fig. 8g being omitted.
Dovae however, to rernem- The diagonal line running across the curves is known as
'" ber that the charac- the " load line," and this gives the value of the resistance
teristic curves as which must be included in the anode lead to obtain the
ANODE VOL rs supplied by the maximum undistorted output from the valve-in other
makers are what is words, the correct matching resistance. The line is drawn
Fig. go. --Dynamic naves sirnpqa known as " static by placing a ruler on the curves with its edge at the point
characteristics" where the normal grid bias line, normal anode current line,
which in other words mean that they are only applicable to a and normal anode voltage line all intersect. The ruler is
valve which receives constant voltages. I have already then swung about this point until an equal distance separates
explained that when the valve is receiving signals the grid the o grid volts line and the line corresponding to double the
and anode voltages are constantly changing. Hence it is normal grid bias. In practice the distances should not be
impossible to ascertain from the curves which I have dealt equal, one side being slightly larger than the other to obtain
with so far a much more important value, viz. " Maximum what is known as a 5 per cent. distortion scale. We can,
undistorted output," as well as the correct anode load and the however, ignore this for the moment.
percentage of second harmonic distortion. Having drawn this line we drop a vertical line at the point of
intersection ofo grid volts and draw a horizontal line at the point
Dynamic Curves.-We must, therefore, prepare a new of intersection of the load line and the line corresponding to
set of curves known as dynamic curves. These curves are double grid bias. This gives us a triangle as shown in Fig. go.
much more difficult to prepare, and it is unfortunate that some Now the formula for finding the undistorted output is:
valve manufacturers hesitate to give them. Fig. 8g shows the (E max. -E min.)
way in which dynamic curves are drawn, and it will be observed (1 max. - I x
that the values of both grid bias and H.T. are carried to a 8
value higher than that which is normally used. In fact, in Expressed in another way, it is the anode current difference
order to make use of these curves we must show the current at multiplied by the anode voltage difference, divided by 8.
the correct working point, i.e., at correct anode volts and cor- Undistorted output is one of the important valve details, as it
rect grid volts, and in addition at half and double these values. gives a true indication of the power which the valve will deliver.
During the operation of the valve (remember we are dealing For example, if we know that a particular valve will give an un-
with the valve as an L.F. amplifier) the grid potential varies, distorted output of Soo milliwatts (or .5 watts) and that another
when the valve is operating on the proper part of its character- valve gives an undistorted output of I,000 milliwatts we know
istic curve, from the applied bias to double that bias. If it that the latter valve has twice the undistorted output.
26 A BEGINNER'S OUIDE TO RADIO
Transformer Curve.-In addition to the valve curves
the makers of L.F. transformers also publish similar curves
which indicate the degree of amplification which may be
obtained with those components at various frequencies. It is
thus a simple matter to design the amplifier so as to obtain LESSON 24
even amplification by choosing two transformers so that the
deficiencies of one are compensated for by a high performance The Loudspeaker
of the other. This
Zero Normal is to say if one THE loudspeaker is the instrument in the set which transmits
transformer curve to our ears the result of what has been happening within the
shows that that par- studio itself. No matter how carefully a set has been designed
ticular component or made, if the speaker is wrongly matched or unsuitable for the
ails off above 2,000 set, the result as far as the ear is concerned is unsatisfactory.
cycles it is possible The sounds we hear are set in motion by means of the loud-
to choose a second speaker cone, and therefore the position of the speaker in a
transformer which room in relation to curtains and furniture is very important.
has a rising char- When, as is mostly the case to -day, the speaker is built into
acteristic at that the receiver, it is sometimes difficult to so site the set so that
NORMAL ANODE WITS best 'twice are obtained. Mislay a set is placed near a win-
Fig. g1.-The POU XI triangle marked out.
point,and by careful
matching o v ex a l dow to facilitate the fitting of short aerial and earth leads, and
response will be even. so the best position for the set cannot be used. The design of
Pick-up Characteristics.-The makers of gramophone the receiver itself often means that the speaker is not located
pick-ups also publish curves, which are similar in principle in the best position in the cabinet. Its position is often
to those mentioned above. That is to say, they indicate the decided by that of the tuning control and the gramophone
level of the response which the pick-up gives, and their use turntable. These are positioned for convenience of operation,
is the same, namely, to enable the amplifier to be designed and this means that the speaker has to be placed at the bottom
so that even reproduction of all frequencies is obtained. of the cabinet and close to the floor.
The type of the above -mentioned curves is such that they We are accustomed to hearing the sound of the human
have for their ordinates frequencies usually extending from voice from a point at an average height of from 5 ft. to 6 ft.
about 20 cycles to ro,000 cycles, and the co-ordinates are above the ground, and therefore the best height of the speaker
given in terms of amplification. The performance of the is between 5 ft. and 6 ft. If the speaker is fixed low and the
component is then indicated by a heavy line running across cabinet is standing on a thick pile carpet, close to heavy cur-
the graph, and the straightness of the line shows its goodness. tains, as is often the case, the air vibrations are bound to be
Very few manufacturers of complete receivers or amplifiers damped considerably, and will affect the tone of the repro-
issue characteristic curves of the complete apparatus, and duction. Those who seek after high fidelity reproduction
manufacturers of loudspeakers are also not, as a rule, willing will prefer to have the speaker separate from the set, and
to issue such a curve. The design of the set may, therefore, away from it, so that the best possible position for it can be
only be worked out with e ...spat to the choice of the trans- found. A corner can often be utilized to advantage owing
formers, pick-up, valves and, in some cases, the condensers. to the reflection caused by the diverging walls, and frequently
The above remarks should, however, be sufficient to enable more pleasing results are obtained when the speaker is placed
a really straight-line reproducer to be designed in such a fairly high so that there is a fair amount of sound reflection
manner that all component deficiencies are compensated for. from the ceiling('
127
128 A BEGINNER'S GUIDE TO RADIO THE LOUDSPEAKER 129
The Output Ffiter.-There are two reasons why an output only necessary to run one wire from one of the fixed con-
filter is fitted to a set; first that the filter properly denser terminals of the output filter to the speaker and the
will help to match the impedance of the s varldnIdt other wire from the speaker to the nearest earth point.
of the output valve and, secondly, the filter isolates the The Output Transformer.-When a transformer is
speaker from the anode current flowing in the output valve.
Only the low-frNuency signal current passes through the used the latter components should be of first-class manu-
loudspeaker, and this is important in mains sets. It not only facture. The impedance of the secondary is often less than
eliminates all chance of shock if the L.S. terminals are acci- that of the primary, but in some models the primary and
dentally touched, but in some cases it will minimize hum. secondary are exactly the same. In some cases a drop in
Fig. 92 shows a typical output filter arrangement. signal strength may be noticed when using a I -to -I trans-
former as compared with a choke output. This is often due
to a poorly designed transformer.
Fro
HZ+
Matching the Speaker to the Output Valve.-It is
first necessary to remember there is a certain current passing
through the
speaker, and that L.S.Socbets
there is a certain
L F crake voltage across its
terminals. We Bared wire
have seen in an
earlier lesson
LS.
that volts multi-
plied by current
r in amps equal
watts, and that Resistance wire
watts are a mea-
surement of Fig. g3. -A simple output measuringdevice. The
Fig. 92.-A choke -coupled resistance may be made up by wing bare resistance wire
output arrangement. The
power. We want wound over a thin former.
Make may be any standard to get as much
L.F. smoothing component. power or as many watts as possible into the sr.-Arr. Take two
L.S. extremes. If the speaker has a negligible resistance we should
obtain a large current but practically no voltage across the
terminals and therefore zero watts. But the other extreme
is, if the resistance of the speaker is very high, we should get
There are two types of output filters-the output choke and a high voltage but no current. The result as before would be
the transformer. zero watts. Somewhere between these two extremes there
Fig. 92 shows the choke method which has the advantage is a value which will give maximum watts, and correct
of low cost since the only components required are the output matching of the speaker depends upon finding that value
choke and a fixed condenser. The output choke generally (which depends upon the characteristics of the output valve
should have an inductance of about 20 henries, and the con- termed the optimum load) for that valve.
denser should be of 2 or 4 uF capacity. The advantage of The only instruments required for testing are a milli -
this scheme is that when long extension leads are used it is ammeter and a wire -wound resistance of, say, so,000 a
E
130 A BEGINNER'S GUIDE TO RADIO THE LOUDSPEAKER 131
The meter should have as low resistance as possible so that multiplied by the square of the current. For example, the
we can ignore its resistance in arriving at results. The first reading is 8, the square is 8 x 8, which equal 64; multi-
resistance is usually marked somewhere on the instrument plying this by 1,000 = 64,000f2; but this must be divided
but it should not exceed 20012. again by 1,000 to bring it to milliwatts (l,000 milliwatts
Now, disconnect the speaker, and connect up the milli - equals 1 watt), so the answer is 64 milliwatts, which is put
ammeter and the resistance to the output terminals of the down in the third column. The second line will be:
receiver as shown in Fig. 93. 7' x 2,000 49 x 2,000
The resistance should be screwed down on to a fiat piece = 98 milliwatts
of wood covered with white paper. Mark out a scale on the 1,000 1,000
paper, dividing up the length of resistance into to equal and so on for all the other readings. If you can use a slide
parts, so that each division represents a resistance of I ,000 rule you can read oft all the answers direct; otherwise you
This provides a temporary and inexpensive variable resistance must calculate them.
Now take the bared end of a lead as shown in Fig. 93 and The next step
press it on to the resistance at the first mark nearest the meter is to plot a graph 'so
terminal, representing a resistance of t,000. Take a note representative of 140
of the meter reading, and take similar readings of all the other milliwatts for any 130
markings on the resistance scale, and make a small table of value of resistance.
them as below: Mark the milli -
120
it would probably damage it, whilst the high notes applied operated valves.
to the 12 -inch speaker would probably make The emitting oath- Fig ac.-77waretiaal circuit of a maim transformer and
the diaphragm ode in the latter a full -wave 'Mi.*,
split up its vibrations and give distorted signals. The cross-
over network is a special arrangement usually case is a wire coated as already described,
of chokes and
condensers, so arranged that all ,the frequencies below by a raw alternating current supply. and it may be heated
a valve is indicated in Fig. 96. An indirectly -heated
certain value are applied to the large speakers, whilst all
above that figure go to the small speaker. These two speakers Mains Transformer.-In a mains receiver, the alter-
are usually commonly referred to as a " woofer " (the bass nating current from the mains is connected to the heater,
speaker), and a " tweeter " (the high -note speaker). surrounding this is the cathode. and
Consequently, a mains power section must be included,
and this is the chief difference
and mains receiver. The power between a battery receiver
pack for an alternating
'33
134 A BEGINNER'S GUIDE TO RADIO MAINS VALVES '35
current receiver consists of a mains transformer to convert SemoMing choke In order to as-
the voltage of the mains supply to a desired value, which HT 4. mean certain the most
may be 250, 350, 500 volts or even higher, and a low-tension suitable size of
supply-usually of 6.3 volts, to heat the cathodes. Rintroot stamping, it is
Most mains valves to -day are designed for 61 volt working, necessary to
and it is necessary therefore to recapitulate to some extent know the power,
the principle of the transformer. It is an instrument for in watts, which
stepping up or stepping down an A.C. voltage, in this case the transformer
for the purpose of feeding the heaters and anodes of the has to handle.
valves. Alternating current is extremely valuable as a mains For example, as-
basis of design of mains receivers, because the voltage can be sume that the
changed to any required figure with the greatest ease, whilst transformer has
it is, of course, impossible to step up D.C. All that is needed to supply 20 volts
in the case of A.C. is at 2 amperes;
a step-up or a step- the wattage
down transformer. As would be 20 mul-
we have seen earlier a tiplied by 2, or
transformer consists rer- 4o watts, assu-
essentially of an iron ming an effi-
Cathode J I core on which are Fig. 97.-Prodieol
and theordiod dia- Pftthwns, velee
placed the primary and
Cathode grams of a standard Mains transformer
emitting surface secondary windings. AC power peek I
it Means
The type of core most
V
Heater
frequently used for
small transformers is
ciency of soo
per cent. But
Smoothing,
eh*
I R -
a
Admittance - - - Y
Amplification Factor - A IC?Z Current and
--Potential Igf, Vg.
Anode A.C. Resistance Impedance - - Z
- - Ra, Ro Magnetic Field - - H Phonetic Alphabet
An Circuit)Inductance
Inductance la Magnetic Flux - To avoid the possibility of the letters of a call -sign be.mg misunderstood.
Anode Current - - Is Mapetic Flux Density - B
Anode Potential - V. Period fime -
it is usual to use the words given below in place of the lessen. For ex-
Capacity - - - C Permi - -
ample, G6PY would be given as G6 Peter Yorker.
Phase Laws to be spelt Phonetk Word Letters to be spelt Phonetic Word
A Abel N Nuts
Current (Instantaneous) i QuunfitY -
Current (R.M.S.) - - I Reactance - B Beetle
Dielectric Constant - Reluctance - C Charlie P Petere(lip)
Efficiency - - - Resistance - D Donald (Don) Q Queens
Electrostatic Flux Density D Resistivity Edward R Robert
E.M.F. (voltage) - - E Self-inductance- L S Sugar
F Freddie
G George T Tommy (Toc)
H Harry U Uncle
UNITS I India Victory
Coulomb - - C J Johnnie W William
Farad - K King X-ray
B.O.T. Unit-t,000 watt- Hentry L London Y Yorker
hours, ors kilowatt-hour Joule - z Zebra
M Monkey
148 A BEGINNER'S GUIDE TO RADIO
A
B
dit dab
dab dit dit dit
The Morse Phonetic Alphabet
0
N dah dit
dab dab dab
--r-
---
Wavelengths and Frequencies of the B.B.C.
C dah dit dah dit
- dit dah dah dit
-
HOME SERVICE
- --
dab dah dit dah - - -
Regionkw.
D dab dit dit
dit dit dah dit
Frequency
F dit dit dab dit S dit dit dit
rm.
dah dab dit
H dit dit dit dit
dit dit
dah
U dit dit dah
dit dit dit dah
-- Kilocycles
Seen
Second Metres
Nameof Station P°1122
Note of exclamation
0 dah dah dab dab dab
Note of interrogation dit dit dah dah dit dit
dah dah dit dit dab dah
dit dab dah dab dab dit
0 - London .. .. { 908 330
2o2
Brookmans Park
Ramsgate .
140
svo
--0 0- -
AP00110P8e
Hyphen dab dit dit dit dii dah
Fractional bar dab dit dit dah dit West of England top 285
{Fs'arnisire Point
N. . 12°2'0
Brackets dab dit dab dah dit dah Devon
Inverted commas dit dah dit dit dah dit
Underline dit dit dah dah dit dah i Clevedco.... 2100
Preliminary call dah dit dab dit dab
Break sign dah dit dit dit dah ) Brighton .. .. svo
End message dit dais dit dah dit 1,437
228 Folkestone .. 1'0
Error dit dit dii dit dit dit dit dit 1 Bexhill .. .. iro
Redrutb .. .. 2.0
Standard Frequency Ranges
V.LF. (very low frequency) .. Midland .. .. i,o88 {Droittch.. 11.5
Below 3o kia
L.F. (low frequency) .. go-sco lic/a
M.F. medium frequency) .. goo -moo kis. .. ,..
V . very high frequency) ..
3,000-30,000 kc/a
30,000 kc/a.-3oo Mc/s. Northern Ireland t,ist 26'
t=:cy
Londorid;:ry :: "":.25
U.H.F. ultra high frequency 300>-3,000 Mc/s. or Ncethern Scarborough .. 2.0
S.H.F. (super high frequency) 3,000-30,000 Mc/s.
E.H.F. (extremely high frequency) g0000-goo,000 Mc/a
149
/50 A BEGINNER'S GUIDE TO RADIO
Wavelength -Frequency Conversion Table
Wavelengths and Frequencies on the B.B.C.
0;0i:timid) Maras to Ailoodes
Plymouth ..
2.0
2.0
01
215
220
225
2
433
500
510
520
600
5882
5a9
Londonderry .. 0.25 sso .304 530 5
235 .277 540 5554
iDaventry .. 150 240 .250 gg 5454
al
.
Fdinlmrgh .. 2.0 245 .225
647 464 ) Glasgow .. .. 2.0 250 ,200 gi:
1 Newcastle upon Tyne 2.0 12 .177 5172
Belfast
2.0
265
270
'184
032
OH
it 508'5
50°
481
650
Bournemouth
..
.. sz ,09t 700 428
V°
Brighton ,071 gro
290 ,034 375
Exeter .. Between 02s 295 .017 850 352'9
Fareham .. .. and 2 kw. So0 ,000 900 333'3
1,546 194 3 to 987'7 950 315'9 '
320 937'5 1,000 300 i
1st
0084,18,7.
iv vil Hifi*
watt a watt
28 D.S.C. 28 D.S.C. 56 p0
2i in. 47 0.835 ..24
24 D.C.C. g.; °2..4. 2824 D.S.C.... 70
24 D.C.C. 58 s85
26 D.S.C. 4t 0436 26 D.S.C. 45 0.95 25 D.S.C. 49
3 in. 22 D.C.C. 21.;
22 D.C.C. 5o t90 22 D.C.C. 55 tog
Long -Wave Coil Data
Inductance Inductance Inductance
i boo Microhenrys 2,100 Microhenrys 3,000 Microhentys
Diameter No. Turns No. Turns No. Tunn
of of Wire
WireWire Per
Former Slots per1.i t Sloes Eleort Slots Slot
t in. 4 36 C1:2131. 8o 4
36 DS.C. 6g 5 36 C113111.
36 enam.385
C g 36 D.S.C.m. lig
g 36 D.S.C. 75 3 36 team. 8s 3 36 Mani. 97
If in. 4 36 D.S.C. 57 4 36 D.S.C. 65 4 36 enam.
5 34 D.S.C. 53 5 34 4112,111. 6o 5 36 D.S.C. 72
3 34 C112111 03 56 3 36 D.S.C. 65 36 enam.
3 77
36 D.S.C.
2 in. 4 34 4 34 D.S.C. 5t 4 36 D.S.C. 61
5 C.
34 D.S.C. P 5 34 D.S.C. 44 34 ream or
5 53
36 D.S.C.
Frame Aerial Data
Length of Side No. of Space Inductance Self-cawdty Natural Wavelength.
of Square Frame Turns between (Micro -henrys) (Mic(Micro-farads)) in Metres
I
8 ft. 3 96 r6o
75
6 4 se 124 66 570
4 6 I It 154 55 575
3 8 iv 133 .
49
t85
The Wirt fee the Aerial.-The wire for these aerials consists of thin flex, usually 14/36, that is, fourteen strands of
No. 36 -gauge wire, covered with art silk in various colours. For the normal broadcast band 75 ft. should be sufficient,
altho.ugh. the exact length will depend upon the shape of the aerial, the size of the condenser used for tuning, and the
spacing between the turns. As a rule, the wire should be wound on with a space of about Tito in. between each turn.
41
t4442saiGivat44,6tratlugeattuelazi: .I 0f
..7Ant.ramg Ng-a.nte. suvatsvtvez menrt map% s,s a
f
224
a
25
30
94
45
*3
so
too
..rr
37 t15
14'.
14'
174
21 22
19 544
40
424
48
05 . li' 22 i8
tr 27 39
.22
70 135
. r
PP
17 20 72 1. 9 20 364 70
14 7 t1 21 26 40 qi 28
n
DP
114'. 14
.04 155128
41
344 53
. lo224 3440 g 96
115
..
174
21
Mk
214
24
34
39
45
48 r
6
' ;24
It
1 4:
' 27 45
72
83 too
1
15o
35
14' 20 14 11 7 14
54 82
. l' :z 19 234 5,54
PP
" I
1- me
14
19
23
254
35
31
43 05
17.
. I'
r'
a
22
14
:6
25
29
30
36
42
55
t4' 42 51 74 1 so 181 31 41 tS
11" 90 14
1,4"
171
21
7
27
30
18
48e
55
29
59
67
351
90
103
I. 224
1
r
I'
33
II
21
15
20
313
27
46
33
72
2
54 36 45 68
..
PP I. 10} 22 40 49 73
PP PP 1' 23 43 g 80
1' 14 281 48 90
n ,4' 28 27 50 92
14' 174 31 C 105 14' 334 Se 46 68
4' 22 r8
14' 91 7 120 I" 24 ;;:i i' It 18 31 37
105
51!
" r4' 9 sal 15 184 28
I'
4' ,64 22441 51 76
PP
PP 14'
I:
154
iU
22i
11
13
15
20
24
27
95
29
3S
38
44
51
..14't4'
If 224
28
334
27
3,
35
49
55
64
6o
67
go
too
a
120
..f°
78
1. 22 i8 14'
4'
27 17 31 37 57
I' 224 4' 14 174 3,, 5 41
9 12 214 26 40 PP
t 25 4
z31 ,6 29 35 544 .. 1'
.. 1r
18 19 34 42 64 ir 224
28
294
34
54
63
g65 100
221 22 40 48 72 U ;3'5
' 22 1 Ii'
4'
27
g
25
134
45
95
544
go
02
17r 44 224 l''
r !I
39 704
,E 7g
134 le
45
z'
, 31 55 ... vo5
' 92 40 62 92 364 64 8o 125
.. ..
18
224
22
25
40
45
47
55
71
82
" PP 14'
14'
28
831
41
484
e
88
95
107
97 14' 24
I' 29
a
20 50 12 9g
224 4'
r 26 57
1
r
z8 '
3. 9 15 27 33 312 " 1 35 78 120
+34 20 36 45 6B I. 22
' t8 24 44 53 81 PP
PP
t 4' 28 50
7
91
94 145
n " 14' 224' 27 50 bi 92 1r 334 561 tog
a 10
125
17.5
192
!I. 4:2 i8
1r 27 314 57 70 107
4' 9 18 33 40 51
156 .57
INDEX
59
Impedance. 38 Radio transmission. 86
=.mvs.t,hiskih32 Reactance, 27
INDEX Inductance and capacity, 69
Reaction. 102
-- explained, 63 - condenser, 102
Induction, mutual, 71 Rectification. 1M
A Current, about electric, 96 Reaistance calculations, 48
Abbreviations, 145
yen.e ida2
Curve,
istrR2e, 56
Inductor dynamic speaker, 31
Inatruments, testing without. 60
- Opacity coupling. 104
- explained 18
acing test, 114
Accumulators mplained, 142
Aerial condenser values, 75
, mit , 126 measurement, 117
--. voltage and current, 56
-coupling, 15 Resistance, colour code for, 53
toning tall, 91 -, de:cooling. calculating. 43
- - condense., 142 values c ,f 152
Aeriala for V.H.F.. 94 L - senoothing. 139
Altemating current for Ohm's Ins, 135 Deem:Piing mains remise., 43 1..F. stag, adding, 29
Ampere turns explained, 70 pup.. of, 43 - - teen:darner, 23
Amplification moo. 36, 122 - retistances, mkulating, 48 Lividapeak.. 127
Anode resistance value, 25 -.salute of, 152 armature. 31 Selection, station, 90
- tuning condenser, 75 Detector valve. function of, 98 Scrim condensers, 76
Atomic theory, 63 ..incitile of, 110
Dielectric mpl.alned, 16 Loompeskers. 32 Sidcband frequencies, 87
Automatic bias. 39 - anerigth, 79 Signal rectifiers, 137
Lens-trequency hoke, 140
Dry and wet electrolytic condi:mem 80 mplained, 106 Slope. 123
Dynamic valve cones, 124 Smoothing chokes. 138
B Sencalling resistance, 139
B.B.C. Wavelengths and Frequencies, 149 Solenoid explained, 70
Bias, automnic, 39 E snatching to output valve. 129
Biasing reeiatimm. calculating, 40 M Speaker, . 32
Earth. PoMme 4. fitired of waves, 92
Electric current. about 96 Magnetie field explained, 67 Station selection, 90
-hr radio receiver, 97 -- Anti, 65 &meth., the, 84
Electricity and magnetism. 63 filains Innsf,zners, 24 Symbol, 146
C Electrolytic condenser; wet and dry. 80
Capacity of condenser calculating. 76 EN...motive 'f
rce explained, 65
atilizansprko4to output valve, 129
T
Carrier wave, 92
p1Chaneteristic curre..Ni 121
Electron explained. 63
Ian =TAR' of. 52
-, Wing, S8 Terms explained, 11
Test instruments, using, 114
Choke( 18: Microommeter, 62 Testing coils, 119
160 F Millionrneter. increasing range of, 115 - without instrument, 60
Cbiliet7sincor thing, 1 Milliammetets, SS Theoristkal signs, 9
Circuit diagram, dellm38ai 12 Fault finding without instruments. 60 explained. 11
- bow to read, Faults, tracing, 21
Mutual
TO60 control, adding, 46
Codas, colour, 53 Filter, output, 128 Transform. connections. 34
gr.a...gr=9117 Mux deity, 71 - inducticm, 7. 1 123 - curve, 126
-F.M. 94 -, mains, 24
-, testing. 119 Frequencies, aideband. 87 marldnirs, 24
- winding data. 153 Frequency modulation, 94 -, °input, 119
WOW codes, 53 149 O - , principled, 24, 108
Condenser capscity calculating, 76 Full -me rectification. 137 ratio. 24
- slectrolyfics, 77 Ohm's law explained, 48 Transmisdon, radio. 86
- explained, 69 - for A.C., 135 Tuning cal .n.1,91
- how it work., 77 One -vat r, 11
Output filter, 128 condenser, 91
- principie of. 7 - transformer, 129 Two -valve mower. 23
reaction, 102 Grid biaa, automatic. 39
- testing, 16 undistorted,. 123
- explained. 26
- toning. 91 rare, matching mmker to, 129
U
- value, 75
Condensers. colour code fa, 53 purpose 01, 27 Undiatorted output, 125
- glectielyfic,wet and dry, 80 p
Units, 146
- eariained,
- parallel, 7696 Parallel condeniwn, 76
- - series. 76 fl - feed, 25 V
Coupling resistance comity. 104 Phones, 18
-, valve, 101
-
110f -wave rectification, 137 Phonate alp/whet, 147 Valve, action of, 98
Pick-up characteristics, 126 - c000lint4101
lionirst valve curves, 122
Potent./ difference, 105
, I: 2
160 INDEX
Valve. function of, 25 N'oluneter, wing, 57
- , how it amplfies, 106 N'oltrneten, SS
- impedance, 123 Volume control. uae of, 21.
- , main; 133
, parts of. 18
-- slope, 123
- team, 119 Water analtrgy, the, 88
- voltmeter, wing, 119
-clewnser,
cos, 7317
aswIzr6992
Very bigb frequency., 93 Witvelersgths wid frequencies, B.B.C., 149
Voltage dropping resistance*. 152 orr table, 151
- measurement, 117 Wive, aped
- resistance and current. S6 Wet and dry electrolytic condensers, 80