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Name: ​Jacqueline Mejia​​ Date: ​Oct.29,2018​​ Period: ​5

Mid-Term Review
Anatomy -
the branch of science concerned with the bodily structure of humans, animals, and other living organisms,
especially as revealed by dissection and the separation of parts.
Physiology- ​the branch of biology that deals with the normal functions of living organisms and their parts,
the way in which a living organism or bodily part functions.
Cells Function
Cell Structure: ​Is defined by cell membrane, nucleus, and cytoplasm
Cell membrane: ​Controls the movement of substances in and out of cells
ER: ​Functions as a manufacturing and packaging system
Ribosomes: ​Cell structure that makes protein
Golgi Apparatus: ​Function is the modifying sorting and packaging of proteins for secretion
Mitochondria: ​Produce the energy currency of the cell
Lysosomes: ​Digest excess or worn out organelles, food particles, and engulfed viruses or bacteria
Peroxisomes: ​Breakdown of very long chain fatty acids through beta oxidation
Microfilaments/Microtubules: ​Provide support for the cell
Centrosome: ​Organize microtubules and provide structure for the cell
Cilia/Flagella: ​Keep the airways clear of mucus and dirt, allowing us to breath easily and without irritation
Nucleolus: ​Makes ribosomal subunits from proteins and ribosomal RNA and sends it to the rest of the cell
Chromatin: ​To efficiently package DNA into a small volume to fit in the nucleus of a cell

Chemical Composition of the cell membrane

1. ________​Lipid​____________ 2. ____​phospholipids​____ 3. _________​Selective Permeable​________
Function of the carbohydrates in the cell membrane:
- ​Transport substances across the cell membrane and also function as enzymes or receptors
Movements through Cell Membrane
A. Passive Mechanism -
1. Diffusion - ​the intermingling of substances by the natural movement of their particles.
Ex. of diffusion
a. ​You can smell perfume because it diffuses into the air and makes its way into your nose.
b. ​A teabag placed in a cup of hot water will diffuse into the water.
2. facilitated diffusion - ​is the process of spontaneous passive transport of molecules or ions across a
biological membrane via specific transmembrane integral proteins.
Ex. of facilitated diffusion: ​molecules that must use facilitated diffusion to move in and out of the cell
membrane are glucose, sodium ions, and potassium ions.
3. Osmosis - ​a process by which molecules of a solvent tend to pass through a semipermeable membrane
from a less concentrated solution into a more concentrated one, thus equalizing the concentrations on each side
of the membrane.
Hypotonic solution - ​any solution that has a lower osmotic pressure than another solution.
- makes the cell ________​swell or burst​_________
cytolysis - ​the dissolution or disruption of cells, especially by an external agent.
Hypertonic solution - ​A solution that contains more dissolved particles (such as salt and other
electrolytes) than is found in normal cells and blood.
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- makes the cell _______​shrink​___________

crenation - ​A process resulting from osmosis in which red blood cells, in a hypertonic solution, undergo
shrinkage and acquire a notched or scalloped surface.
Isotonic solution - ​to two solutions having the same osmotic pressure across a semipermeable
membrane. This state allows for the free movement of water across the membrane without changing the
concentration of solutes on either side.
- Makes the cell ___​stay the same size​______

4. Filtration - ​the action or process of filtering something

Edema - ​a condition characterized by an excess of watery fluid collecting in the cavities or tissues of
the body.
B. Active mechanism -
1. Active transport – ​the movement of ions or molecules across a cell membrane into a region of higher
concentration, assisted by enzymes and requiring energy.
2. Endocytosis - ​the taking in of matter by a living cell by invagination of its membrane to form a
vacuole.
a. Pinocytosis - ​the ingestion of liquid into a cell by the budding of small vesicles from the cell
membrane
b. Phagocytosis - ​the ingestion of bacteria or other material by phagocytes and amoeboid protozoans
3. Exocytosis ​a process by which the contents of a cell vacuole are released to the exterior through fusion
of the vacuole membrane with the cell membrane.

Phases Cell Cycle

1. Interphase - ​the resting phase between successive mitotic divisions of a cell, or between the first and second
divisions of meiosis.
2. Mitosis - ​a type of cell division that results in two daughter cells each having the same number and kind of
chromosomes as the parent nucleus, typical of ordinary tissue growth.
3. Cytokinesis - ​the cytoplasmic division of a cell at the end of mitosis or meiosis, bringing about the
separation into two daughter cells.
4. Differentiation - ​the action or process of differentiating.
Compare Mitosis and Mitosis Mitosis Meiosis
a. type of cell produce ​1 2
b. no. of cell produce ​2 4
c. no. of chromosomes ​46 23
d. comparison to the parent cell ​parent 2 daughter
Stages of Mitosis Description
1. ​prophase​ - ​the first stage of cell division, before metaphase, during which the chromosomes
become visible as paired chromatids and the nuclear envelope disappears. The first prophase of meiosis
includes the reduction division.
2. ​metaphase​ - ​the second stage of cell division, between prophase and anaphase, during which the
chromosomes become attached to the spindle fibers.
3. ​anaphase​ - ​the stage of meiotic or mitotic cell division in which the chromosomes move away
from one another to opposite poles of the spindle.
4. ​telophase​ - ​the final phase of cell division, between anaphase and interphase, in which the
chromatids or chromosomes move to opposite ends of the cell and two nuclei are formed.
Stem cells - ​an undifferentiated cell of a multicellular organism that is capable of giving rise to indefinitely
more cells of the same type, and from which certain other kinds of cell arise by differentiation.
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Progenitor cells - ​a biological cell that, like a stem cell, has a tendency to differentiate into a specific type of
cell, but is already more specific than a stem cell and is pushed to differentiate into its "target" cell.
Cancer - ​the disease caused by an uncontrolled division of abnormal cells in a part of the body
Neoplasm (tumor) – ​a new and abnormal growth of tissue in some part of the body, especially as a
characteristic of cancer.
Kinds of neoplasm/tumor
1. benign – ​(of a disease) not harmful in effect: in particular, (of a tumor) not malignant
2. malignant - ​(of a tumor) tending to invade normal tissue or to recur after removal; cancerous.
Apoptosis - ​the death of cells that occurs as a normal and controlled part of an organism's growth or
development.

Metastasis – ​the development of secondary malignant growths at a distance from a primary site of cancer.

Mutagens - ​n agent, such as radiation or a chemical substance, that causes genetic mutation
Examples of Mutagens: ​radioactive substances, x-rays, ultraviolet radiation, and certain chemicals
Carcinogen - ​a substance capable of causing cancer in living tissue.

Tissues -
Four Types of Tissues
a._____​epithelial​______ b. ______​connective​_______ c. ____​muscular​______ d. ___​nervous​__

Epithelial Tissues
Functions of Epithelial Tissue
All materials entering or leaving the body must ultimately cross at least one layer of epithelial tissue. In
general, four functions may be attributed to epithelial tissues: (1) protection of the underlying tissues, (2)
absorption, (3) secretion, and (4) reception of sensory stimuli.

Characteristics of Epithelial Tissues

1. Cover the surface of the body, epidermis = outermost layer of skin, separating "insides" from "outsides"; 2.
Because exocrine and endocrine develop from epithelial tissue membrane, they are considered epithelial
tissue; 3. Possess a free (apical) surface and an attached (basal) surface; 4. Supported by connective tissue via
a basement membrane; 5. Are avascular, and depend on underlying connective tissue for nutrients.

Types of Epithelial Tissues based on the number of layers

a. ______________​simple​________ b. _____________​stratified​_______

Types of Epithelial Tissues based on the shape of the cells

a. _______​Squamous​____ b. ____​cuboidal​_______ c. ______​Columnar ​_____
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Why does an epithelial tissue undergo constant cell division? ​Within multicellular organisms, tissues are
organized communities of cells that work together to carry out a specific function. The exact role of a tissue
in an organism depends on what types of cells it contains.

Why are simple squamous epithelia good for diffusion? ​This type of epithelium is often permeable and
occurs where small molecules need to pass quickly through membranes via filtration or diffusion. Simple
squamous epithelia are found in capillaries, alveoli, glomeruli, and other tissues where rapid diffusion is
required.

Connective Tissues
Function of connective tissues: ​Blood, a fluid connective tissue, provides a transport system within our body
for oxygen and other important substances. Cartilage provides strong support and connection for our skeletal
framework. And the function of bones is to support and protect soft tissues and organs in our body.

Characteristics of Connective Tissues: ​Connective tissue has three main components: cells, fibers, and
ground substance. Together the ground substance and fibers make up the extracellular matrix.

Types of Connective Tissue

a. ​dense regular​ b. ​dense irregular​ c. ​elastic

Ligament- ​a short band of tough, flexible, fibrous connective tissue that connects two bones or cartilages or
holds together a joint.
Tendon - ​a flexible but inelastic cord of strong fibrous collagen tissue attaching a muscle to a bone.

Connective tissue that binds the skin to the muscles and underlying organs is the __​rigid connective
tissue​_____
_______
Stores fat and insulates the body - ​adipose tissue
Connective tissue that makes up tendons and ligaments - ___​Dense connective tissue​____
Connective tissue that makes blood cells - _____​Loose connective tissue​_______
Why does a fractured bone heal faster than a torn ligament? ​A fractured bone heals faster than a torn
ligament because bones are much more well vascularized than cartilage so blood cells are able to carry in
nutrients and facilitate healing. Broken ends of the bone protrude through soft tissues and the skin.

Muscle Tissues
Functions of Muscle Tissues: ​The function of muscle tissue is to help with posture and body support
locomotion and heat production

Types of Muscle Tissues

a. ​cardiac​ b. ​smooth​ c. ​skeletal
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Types of Muscle tissue that is involuntary:

a. ​smooth​ b. ​skeletal
Type of Muscle that is voluntary : _____​Smooth Muscle​____

Nerve Tissue
Function of neurons: ​Neurons have the function of processing and transmitting information

Function of neuroglia: ​Neuroglia forms myelin, protect, support, and maintain equilibrium in your nervous
system