Intense Laser Radiation Interaction With Matter: December 13, 2017

Intense laser radiation interaction with matter
December 13, 2017
Intense laser radiation interaction with matter December 13, 2017 1 / 155
Table of Contents I
1 The Maxwell equations
2 The electromagnetic potentials
3 Particular solutions of the Maxwell equations
The general plane wave solution
The monochromatic plane wave field
The plane wave field; a particular case
The dipole approximation
Gaussian modes of the electromagnetic field
The Fundamental Gaussian mode
Hermite-Gaussian modes
Laguerre-Gaussian modes
4 Motion of the classical particle in electromagnetic fields

NR dipole approximation
NR non-dipole approximation
Relativistic case
Numerical examples
Table of Contents II
5 Soluţiile Volkov
Deducerea solutiilor Volkov
Proprietatile solutiilor Volkov
Ortogonalitatea solutiilor Volkov
Ambele solutii sunt de energie pozitiva sau negativa
Una din solutii e de energie pozitiva, iar cealalta negativa.
Completitudinea solutiilor Volkov
Anexa 1: Rezolvarea unei ecuatiei diferentiale
Anexa 2: Demonstrarea unor identitati
6 Radiatia electromagnetica a particulei in miscare
Potentialele Lienard-Wiechert
Distributia unghiulara a energiei radiate de o sarcina punctiforma
Limita nerelativista
7 Quantized electromagnetic field
Operatorul energiei. Stãrile Fock
8 Coherent states
Table of Contents III
Phase operator
Semiclassical approximation
9 Stãri comprimate
Componentele ı̂n cvadraturã ale câmpului electric
Definiţia şi expresia unei stãri comprimate
10 Stãri mixte ale câmpului electromagnetic
Radiaţia de echilibru termic
11 Aproximaţia semiclasicã
12 Linear Compton Scattering
13 Non-Linear Compton scattering: plane-wave pulse case
Notations
The transition amplitude; general equations
Calculation of the transition amplitude: the case of electrons only
Simplified form of matrix elements Q
General properties of the transition amplitude
14 Floquet theory
Table of Contents IV
Proof of Floquet theorem
Quasienergies; Floquet maps
The atomic stabilization
Floquet theory in the oscillating frame
High frequency Floquet theory
The Maxwell equations for the electromagnetic field I
The Maxwell equations
1 ∂E ∂B
+ µ0 j = ∇ × B = −∇ × E ,
c 2 ∂t ∂t
ρ
∇·E = ∇ · B = 0. (1)
0
ρ(r , t) and j (r , t) are the charge/current densities, obeying the continuity equation
∂ρ(r , t)
+ ∇j (r , t) = 0 (2)
∂t
For the electromagnetic field in vacuum the Maxwell equations reduce to the wave
equation
1 ∂2E 1 ∂2B
= ∆E , = ∆B . (3)
c 2 ∂t 2 c 2 ∂t 2
Energy density

1 1
w (r , t) = 0 E (r , t)2 + B(r , t)2 (4)
2 µ0
The Maxwell equations for the electromagnetic field II
Plane wave monochromatic field (E0 : electric field amplitude)

1
w̄ = 0 E02 (5)
2
Field intensity:
1
I = c0 E02 (6)
2
”Atomic unit” of intensity:
1
Ia = c0 Ea2 , Ea = 5.1 × 1011 V /m, Ia = 3.51 × 101 6W /cm2 (7)
2
Ea is the electric field at the distance a0 from a Hydrogen nucleus
The electromagnetic potentials I
It is convenient to describe the electromagnetic field by the electromagnetic potentials

∂A(r , t)
E (r , t) = −∇Φ(r , t) − , B(r , t) = ∇ × A(r , t) (8)
∂t
The scalar Φ(r , t) and respectively A(r , t) vector potentials are not uniquely defined.
The simultaneous change
∂f (r , t)
Φ(r , t) → Φ(r , t) + , A(r , t) → A(r , t) − ∇f (r , t) (9)
∂t
with an arbitrary continuous and derivable function of coordinates and time f (r , t)
leaves the fields unchanged.
Manifest covariant treatment: define the four vector

Φ(x)
A≡ , A(x) x ≡ (ct, r ) (10)
c
and the four tensor
∂
Fµν = ∂µ Aν − ∂ν Aµ , ∂µ ≡ (11)
∂x µ
The electromagnetic potentials II
 
0 −Ex /c −Ey /c −Ez /c
 Ex /c 0 −Bz By 
F ≡  (12)
 Ey /c Bz 0 −Bx 
Ez /c −By Bx 0
One also defines a current density four vector
j(x) ≡ (cρ(x), j (x)) , x ≡ (r , t), (13)
obeying the continuity equation
∂µ j µ (x) = 0 (14)
With these, the Maxwell equations for fields can be written as equations for potentials as
∂α F αβ = µ0 j β (15)
or
∂α ∂ α Aβ − ∂α ∂ β Aα = µ0 j β (16)
The electromagnetic potentials III
The previous equations couple the four components of the potential A; they have a
simpler form if the potential obey the so called Lorenz condition
∂µ Aµ (x) = 0 (17)
If the Lorenz condition is obeyed then the Maxwell equations reduce to four uncoupled
equations for the components of the potential A(x)
1 ∂2
A(x) = µ0 j(x), ≡ ∂α ∂ α ≡ − ∇2 (18)
c 2 ∂t 2
For the case of the electromagnetic field in vacuum the Maxwell equations become
1 ∂2

2
A(x) = 0; − ∇ Aµ (x) = 0, µ = 0, . . . , 3 (19)
c 2 ∂t 2
A gauge transformation (9) can be written as
Aµ (x) → A0µ (x) ≡ Aµ (x) + ∂ µ f (x) (20)
with f (x) an arbitrary continuous and derivable function of coordinates and time. If the
old potential A(x) obey the Lorenz condition and f (x) is a solution of the wave equation
f (x) = 0 then also the new potential will obey the Lorenz condition.
The general plane wave solution I
Here we present a particular simple solution of the Maxwell equation: the plane wave. A
plane wave if characterized by a propagation direction, whose unity vector will be
denoted by n. We shall define a four vector of zero norm
n ≡ (1, n), n2 = 0 (21)
in most calculations the propagation direction is taken along the third axis of the
reference frame (n ≡ ez )
A plane wave, propagating along the direction n can be described by a function
depending on coordinates and time only through the combination
φ = ct − n · r ≡ n · x (22)
so, a plane wave solution of the Maxwell equation is an arbitrary four vector function of
φ
Aµ (x) = F µ (φ) (23)
The general plane wave solution II
The vector potential must obey also the Lorenz condition ∂µ Aµ = 0; in our case this
reduces to
dF µ ∂φ dF µ d
≡ nµ =0 ⇔ [n · A(φ)] = 0 (24)
dφ ∂x µ dφ dφ
The most general solution of the equation above is
A(φ) · n = C (25)
The simplest choice is C = 0; with these, a plane wave electromagnetic field

propagating in vacuum along the direction n will be written as
Aµ ≡ Aµ (φ) ≡ Aµ (n · x), A(φ) · n = 0, n ≡ (1, n) (26)
A particular gauge used often to describe a plane-wave electromagnetic field is the so

called “velocity gauge” (or “Coulomb gauge”); in this gauge the scalar potential Φ is
zero and the vector potential A is orthogonal on the propagation direction
A ≡ (0, A(φ)), A(φ) ⊥ n (27)
The general plane wave solution III
The electric and magnetic fields are

∂A(ct − n · r ) dA dΦ dA⊥
E (r , t) = − − ∇Φ(ct − n · r ) = −c +n = −c (28)
∂t dφ dφ dφ
In the previous equation for the last equality we have used the gauge condition A · n = C
and we have denoted by the index ⊥ the component of A orthogonal on n. For the
magnetic field we have
dA⊥ (ct − n · r )
B(r , t) = ∇ × A(ct − n · r ) − n × A(ct − n · r ) ≡ n × (29)
dφ
We see that, as expected, E and B are in fact functions on φ ≡ ct − n · r and depend
only on the component of A orthogonal on n; this is due to the fact that the scalar
potential Φ and the component of A parallel to n are not unique, they can be changed
by a gauge transformation. The magnetic field, calculated according to (29) is
1
B(r , t) = n × E (r , t) (30)
c
The monochromatic plane wave field I
A particular plane wave solution of the Maxwell equation is the monochromatic plane
wave; in this case the components of the vector potential are periodic functions of time
and coordinates. Such functions can be written as
Aµ (x) = A(0) (0)

µ cos(|k|φ + αµ ) (31)
where k is the wave-vector

2π ω
k =n =n (32)
λ c
By defining the four vector k = ( ωc , n ωc ) one can write |k|φ ≡ k · x; we also note that
(0) (0) (0) (0)
the Lorenz gauge condition implies that A0 = A3 and α0 = α3 Next, we present the
expressions of the electric/magnetic fields; to simplify the equations, we shall assume
that the third axis of the reference frame is taken along the field propagation direction
n. Then we have
(0) (0)
E (r , t) = ex ωA1,(0) sin(ωt − |k|z + α1 ) + ey ωA2,(0) sin(ωt − |k|z + α2 ) (33)
(0) (0) (0)
A typical choice of the arbitrary initial phases αi is e.g. α1 = 0, α2 = π/2, such that
(0)
E (r , t) = ex ωA1,(0) sin(ωt − |k|z) + ey ωA2,(0) cos(ωt − |k|z + α2 ) (34)
The monochromatic plane wave field II
If we study the vector electric field in a fixed point (e.g. the origin of the reference
(0)
frame E (r ≡ 0, t)) as a function of time only, it moves along an ellipse of semi-axes A1
(0) (0) (0) (0)
and A2 ; the circular polarization case corresponds to |A1 | = |A2 |, if one of the A1 or
(0)
A2 is zero then we have a linearly polarized field.
The plane wave field; a particular case I
The monochromatic solution presented before is not convenient to describe finite

(especially very short duration) laser pulses. A better approximation is obtained by
multiplying the monochromatic solution described above by an “envelope function”,
having non vanishing values only on a finite interval
Aµ (φ) = A(0) (0)

µ (φ)f (k · x) cos(k · x + αµ ) (35)
where
lim f (ρ) = 0; (36)

ρ→±∞
a typical expression used in numerical simulations is the Gaussian profile

2
f (ρ) = e −[1.17ρ/(2πτ )] (37)
It is useful to calculate the energy density

1
w (r , t) = 0 (E 2 + c 2 B 2 ) (38)
2
The plane wave field; a particular case II
In the case described by (35), and if the envelope is not too short (i.e. τ 1) then the
energy density can be approximated as
1 1 h i 2.35(t−z/c)2
(0) (0) −
w (r , t) = 0 (E 2 + c 2 B 2 ) = 0 ω 2 (A1 )2 + (A2 )2 e T 2τ2 (39)
2 2
written as a function of time, in the origin of the reference frame the above formula
becomes also a Gaussian,
1 1 h i 2.35t 2
(0) (0) −
w (r = 0, t) = 0 (E 2 + c 2 B 2 ) = 0 ω 2 (A1 )2 + (A2 )2 e T 2 τ 2 (40)
2 2
whose FWHM is ≈ 2tT . Currently are experimentally available lasers with FWHM as
short as a few optical periods (i.e. τ ∈ (1 − 10)).
NB: The length of a pulse is inverse proportional with its energy bandwidth; i.e. shorter
pulses are “less monochromatic”
The dipole approximation I
In the dipole approximation the dependence on coordinates of the laser field is

neglected. This approximation is valid if the process to be modeled takes place in a
space region very small in comparison to the laser wave-length. A typical example is the
excitation of an hydrogen atom interacting with a laser pulse in the visible/near infrared
domain. In this case the laser wavelength is λ ≈ 10−6 m, while the typical distances
involved are of the order of magnitude of the Bohr radius a0 ≈ 5.2 × 10−11 m.
In the dipole approximation we have
A(r , t) → A(d) (t), Φ(r , t) → Φ(d) (t) (41)
i.e.
dA(t)
E (r , t) → E (t) ≡ − , B(r , t) → 0 (42)
dt
The neglecting of the coordinate dependence of the vector potential, (or, equivalently, of
the radiation wave-vector |k| ≡ ω/c ≈ 0) is in fact equivalent to taking the limit
c → ∞; i.e. the dipole approximation is the same as the nonrelativistic approximation.
The Fundamental Gaussian mode I
We start by solving the scalar wave equation;
1 ∂2E
∆E (r, t) − =0 (43)
c 2 ∂t 2
For a monochromatic solution E ∼ e −iωt , ω = ck we get
∆E (r, t) + k 2 = 0 (44)
We look for the solutions as

Z
dkx dky √
ikx x+iky y +i k 2 −kx2 −ky2 z
E∼ A(k ,
x yk )e (45)
(2π)2
kx2 +ky2 ≤k 2
We expanded the electromagnetic field in plane-waves. Note that kz is

2
fixed by the condition kx2 + ky2 + kz2 = ωc 2 . The contribution of different
values of kx , ky in the above expansion is fixed by the coefficients
The Fundamental Gaussian mode II
A(kx , ky ). If they are chosen such as A(kx , ky ) 6= 0 only for kx , ky k

(i.e. the ”main” propagation direction is along Oz). Then we can use the
approximation
q kx2 + ky2
k 2 − kx2 − ky2 ≈ k − (46)
2k
and extend the integration domain to R 2 The beam divergence is

Z
dkx dky 2
divergence ∼ (k + ky2 )|A(kx , ky )|2 (47)
(2π)2 x
R2
The Fundamental Gaussian mode III
The beam transversal extension is

Z
trans ∼ dxdy (x 2 + y 2 )|E (x, y , z)|2 =
R2
dA 2 dA 2
Z
dkx dky
+ (48)
(2π)2 dkx dky
R2
The ”ideal beam” has minimum divergence and transversal extension.

Then we have to minimize the products Πx and Πy , with
dA 2
Z Z
dkx 2 dkx
Πx = (k )|A(kx , ky )|2 (49)
(2π) x (2π) dkx
R R
The Fundamental Gaussian mode IV
and Πy defined similarly for the y direction One can prove that Πx Πy is
minimized if A is a Gaussian
w02
(kx2 +ky2 )
A(kx , ky ) ∼ e − 4 (50)
i.e.
dkx dky ikx x+iky y +i(k− kx2 +ky2 )z− w02 (kx2 +ky2 )
Z
E∼ e 2k 4 (51)
(2π)2
R2
By direct calculation we obtain
1 ikz− 21−iζ 2 ρ2 −i arctan(ζ)

w (1+ζ )
E0 ∼ p e 0 (52)
w0 1 + ζ 2
The Fundamental Gaussian mode V
with ζ = z/zR , zR = kw02 /2, ρ2 = x 2 + y 2 i.e. a Gaussian transversal

profile. This solution is named ”fundamental Gaussian mode” because the
corresponding light intensity
2
1 − 2 2ρ 2
|E0 |2 ∼ e w (1+ζ )
0 (53)
w02 (1 + ζ 2 )
shows a Gaussian profile perpendicularly to the propagation axis z

The Gaussian beam is the mode with minimum uncertainty, i.e. the
product of its sizes in real space and wave-vector space is the theoretical
minimum as given by the Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle of Quantum
Mechanics. Consequently, the Gaussian mode has less dispersion than any
other optical field of the same size, and its diffraction sets a lower
The Fundamental Gaussian mode VI
threshold for the diffraction of real optical beams. The diameter of the
Gaussian beam is defined by
p
w (ζ) = w02 1 + ζ 2 (54)
One defines the Gouy’s phase
Ψ0 (ζ) = arctan(ζ) (55)
it describes rapid phase change of the electric field when traversing the
point of mini- mal beam diameter at ζ = 0 (beam waist).
Hermite-Gaussian modes I
Hermite-Gaussian beams are a family of laser modes which have

rectangular symmetry along the propagation axis. They are obtained
starting from
1 ∂ m 1 ∂ n
Z
dkx dky
E∼ ikx + iky +
(2π)2 u ∂kx u ∂ky
R2
w02
(1+iζ)(kx2 +ky2 )
× e ikx x+iky y +ikz− 4 , u = −iw0 (56)
by direct calculation one obtains

2
√ x √ y ikz− 2 ρ

H 1 w (1+iζ)
−iΨn,m
Emn = Hm 2 Hn 2 e 0 (57)
w (ζ) w (ζ) w (ζ)
with Ψn,m = (1 + m + n) arctan ζ and Hm Hermite polynomials.
Laguerre-Gaussian modes I
Differently from Hermite-Gaussian beams, Laguerre-Gaussian modes have
rotational symmetry along their propagation axis and carry an intrinsic
rotational orbital angular momentum
Analogous calculation, but starting from
Z m
dkx dky 1 ∂ ∂
E∼ i(kx + iky ) + +i
(2π)2 u ∂kx ∂ky
R2
n
1 ∂ ∂
i(kx − iky ) + −i
u ∂kx ∂ky
w02
ikx x+iky y +ikz− (1+iζ)(kx2 +ky2 )
×e 4 , u = −iw0 (58)
with the result

n ρ2
e −imφ 2ρ2

ρ ikz− −iΨLn,m
L w 2 (1+iζ)
Emn = Lnm e 0 (59)
w (ζ) w (ζ) w 2 (ζ)
Laguerre-Gaussian modes II
Here Ψn,m = (1 + 2m + n) arctan ζ and Lnm are Laguerre polynomials. The

constant phase surface have an helical form, i.e. the field carries angular
momentum.
NR dipole approximation I
Use velocity gauge:
A(t) = f (t) [ζx ex sin(ωt) + ζy ey cos(ωt)] , ζx2 + ζy2 = 1 (60)
with f (t) arbitrary, and lim f (t) = 0

t±∞
dA(t)
E(t) = − , B(t) = 0 (61)
dt
mr̈(t) = eE (t), mr(t0 ) = 0, mṙ(t0 ) = v0 (62)
Solution
Zt
e
mṙ(t) = −eA(t) + v0 , r(t) = − A(t 0 )dt 0 + v0 (t − t0 ) (63)
m
t0
Notation
Zt
e
− A(t 0 )dt 0 = α(t) (64)
m
t0
NR non-dipole approximation I
Consider only plane-wave fields: A = A(φ) = A(ct − z). Initial conditions:

We shall assume that at a given moment of time t0 the particle is in the origin of the
reference frame, and it has the given velocity v0 ; in the relativistic case the
corresponding four-velocity will be denoted by u0 , and the four-momentum by p0 . The
field propagates along the n direction, chosen parallel to Oz, and is described by the
potential A(φ) ≡ A(ct − z). We denote by A0 the value of the potential A in the origin
of the reference frame at the initial moment t0
A0 ≡ (0, A0 ) = A(φ0 ) (65)
with φ0 = ct0 . For the case of a pulse, the most natural choice for t0 is a moment
sufficiently far in the past, when the pulse has not reached the origin and the particle is
free (i.e. A0 = 0).
Cases of interest:
Case 1: linearly polarized pulse; the particle is at rest in the origin at a moment t0 very
far in the past, when the pulse has not yet reached the origin.
Case 2: linearly polarized monochromatic field; at the moment t0 when the field
vanishes in the origin, the particle is located in the origin, with an initial velocity v0
directed along the field propagation direction.
NR non-dipole approximation II
The Lagrange function of a nonrelativistic particle of mass m and electric charge e

moving in the electromagnetic field A(φ)
mṙ2
L(r, ṙ, t) = + e ṙ · A(φ) (66)
2
gives the equations of motion
d
(mṙ⊥ + eA(φ)) = 0, (67)
dt
d ∂A(φ) dA(φ)
(mż) = e ṙ · = −e ṙ · , (68)
dt ∂z dφ
where r⊥ is the component of r orthogonal on the propagation direction n ≡ ez . From
the first of the two equations above, and taking into account the initial conditions one
obtains
e
ṙ⊥ = v0⊥ − (A(φ) − A0 ). (69)
m
NR non-dipole approximation III
Using this result in Eq.(68) one gets

2 2
d d e m
ż = A(φ) − A0 − v0⊥ (70)
dt dφ 2m2 e
It is convenient to use φ as the independent variable. From the relation

dφ ż
=c 1− (71)
dt c
one can see that this change of variable only makes sense if ż < c; the restriction is
however not a problem, since we are not interested, anyway, to find a solution with
ż ≥ c. The above equation in the new variable φ writes as
1 ż 2 e2
2
d ż d m
− = A(φ) − A 0 − v0⊥ . (72)
dφ c 2 c2 dφ 2(mc)2 e
NR non-dipole approximation I
Taking into account the initial conditions one obtains the equation
ż 1 ż 2 e 2 A2 (φ) v03 2
1 v03
− 2
= 2
+ − , (73)
c 2c 2(mc) c 2 c2
with
2mv0⊥
A2 (φ) = (A(φ) − A0 )2 − · (A(φ) − A0 ) (74)
e
whose solution is
s
ż v03 2 e 2 A2 (φ)
=1− 1− − . (75)
c c (mc)2
One notices that the solution ż is defined only if
e 2 A2 (φ) v03 2
< 1 − (76)
2(mc)2 c
NR non-dipole approximation II
and that ż cannot become larger than c. Again, using φ as the independent variable,
one gets
dz 1 dz dr⊥ 1 dr⊥
= , = (77)
dφ c − dz
dt
dt dφ c − dz
dt
dt
or
r
2
ct−z v03 2
e 2 A (χ)
Z 1− 1− c
− (mc)2
z= dχ r , φ0 = ct0 (78)
2
v03 2
e 2 A (χ)
φ0 1− c
− (mc)2
ct−z
A(χ) − A0 − mve⊥
Z
e
r⊥ = − dχ r . (79)
mc 2 2 A2 (χ)
φ0 1 − vc03 − e (mc)2
The first of the above equations must be solved for z, then its solution used in the
second one, to get r⊥ .
Examples:
NR non-dipole approximation III
Case 1 is described by the conditions: φ0 = −∞, A0 = 0, v0 = 0, the corresponding

trajectory being:
q 2 A2 (χ)
ct−z ct−z
Z 1 − 1 − e (mc) 2 e
Z
A(χ)
z= dχ q , r⊥ = − dχ q . (80)
e 2 A2 (χ)
1 − (mc)2 mc 2 A2 (χ)
1 − e (mc)
−∞ φ0 2
The solution is defined for e 2 A2 (φ) < (mc)2 ; in fact, the non-relativistic approximation
is valid only in the limit e 2 A2 (φ) (mc)2 . In this case the previous solution becomes
ct−z ct−z
e 2 A2 (χ)
Z Z
e
z= dχ , r⊥ = − dχA(χ). (81)
2(mc)2 mc
−∞ φ0
In the case 2 we have φ0 = 0, A0 = 0, v0 = v03 n, and the corresponding solution

q 2 2 A2 (χ)
ct−z
Z 1− 1 − vc03 − e (mc) 2
z= dχ q (82)
v03 2
e 2 A2 (χ)
0 1− c − (mc)2
NR non-dipole approximation IV
ct−z
Z
e A(χ)
r⊥ = − dχ q .
mc 1− v03 2

− e 2 A2 (χ)
0 c (mc)2
(83)
In this case the conditions of validity of the non-relativistic approximation are

e 2 A2 (φ) (mc)2 and v03 c, which leads to the equations of motion
ct−z ct−z
e 2 A2 (χ)
Z Z
v03 e
z= dχ + , r⊥ = − dχA(χ). (84)
c 2(mc)2 mc
−∞ φ0
Relativistic case I
Plane wave; the same initial conditions and particular cases as previously.
In the relativistic case the equations of motions are
dp µ dx
= eF µν uν , u= , p = mu, (85)
dτ dτ
where τ is the proper time and F̂ is the electromagnetic four-tensor of the field
intensities:
dA1 (φ) dA2 (φ)
0 dφ dφ
0
1 1
− dAdφ(φ) 0 0 − dAdφ(φ)
µν µ ν ν µ
F =∂ A −∂ A ≡ . (86)
2 2
− dAdφ(φ) 0 0 − dAdφ(φ)
dA1 (φ) dA2 (φ)

0 dφ dφ
0
Relativistic case II
With the above definitions the equations of motion become
dp 0 dp 3 dA(φ)
= = −e · u⊥ , (87)
dτ dτ dφ
dp⊥ dA(φ) 0
= −e u − u3 . (88)
dτ dφ
From the first of the above formulae one obtains
d(p 0 − p 3 )
=0 (89)
dτ
i.e. p 0 − p 3 = m(u 0 − u 3 ) is a constant of motion; taking into account the initial
conditions we have p 0 − p 3 = m(u00 − u03 ). Further, noticing that
d 0 dφ
u 0 − u 3 = const = x − x3 = (90)
dτ dτ
Eq.(88) becomes
dp⊥ dA dφ
= −e . (91)
dτ dφ dτ
Relativistic case III
It is again convenient to look for the solutions of the above equations as functions of φ.
Using the initial conditions one obtains
p0⊥
p⊥ (φ) = −e A(φ) − A0 + , (92)
e
and, then, from Eqs.(87) and (92)
dp 3 (φ) e2 d p0⊥ 2
= 0 3
A(φ) − A0 + (93)
dφ 2m(u0 − u0 ) dφ e
or
e 2 A2 (φ)
p 3 (φ) = + p03 , (94)
2m(u00 − u03 )
with
2p0⊥
A2 (φ) = (A(φ) − A0 )2 − · (A(φ) − A0 ) . (95)
e
Relativistic case IV
The differential equations in φ obeyed by the coordinates are
dr 1 dr p(φ)
= 0 = (96)
dφ (u0 − u03 ) dτ m(u00 − u03 )
with the solution
ct−z
Z
e h p0⊥ i
r⊥ = − A(χ) − A0 − dχ (97)
m(u00 − u03 ) e
φ0
ct−z
e 2 A2 (χ) u03
Z
z= dχ + . (98)
2m2 (u00 − u03 )2 u00 − u03
φ0
Relativistic case
Examples: In the particular case 1 the relativistic solution reduces to
ct−z
Z ct−z
Z
e e
r⊥ = − A(χ)dχ, z = A2 (χ)dχ. (99)
mc 2(mc)2
−∞ −∞
In the low intensity limit the above equation become identical with the non-relativistic
result. Usually the total displacement in the polarization plane vanishes, so that at the
end of the pulse the particle is left at rest in a point along the Oz axis. If the envelope is
simple enough it is also possible to calculate the total displacement along the
propagation direction; for example, for a Gaussian pulse of amplitude A0 , frequency ω
and FWHM τp one gets
" " 2 ##
e 2 A20 π T τp
r
1 2πτp
∆z = 1 − exp − (100)
4m2 c 2 1.1774 2 1.1774
For all realistic cases the second term in the previous equation is negligible, and the total
displacement becomes
e 2 A20 π T τp
r
∆z = . (101)
4m2 c 2 1.1774
In the case 2 the solution is
ct−z
Z
e
− laser
r⊥ = Intense 0 radiation
3
dχA(χ)
interaction with matter December 13, 2017 (102)
40 / 155
Relativistic case
e 2 A20
v0 = −nc ≡ nV0 (105)
4(mc)2 + e 2 A20
With this initial condition, and using the notation
e 2 A20
m∗2 = m2 + (106)
2c 2
the solution becomes
ct−z ct−z
e2 A2
Z Z
e
r⊥ = − dχA(χ), z= dχ A2 (χ) − 0 . (107)
m∗ c 2(m∗ c)2 2
0 0
In this case the trajectory has the well known “figure 8” shape in the plane Oxz. Is
important to notice that, unlike in the case 1 the amplitude of the oscillation is limited
along both Ox and Oz directions when A0 tends to infinity; the limits are
√ c c
lim ∆x = 2 , lim ∆z = . (108)
A0 →∞ ω A0 →∞ 4ω
The quantity m∗ defined in Eq.(106) is the so-called “dressed mass”; it is an average
effective mass of the electron interacting with the monochromatic field.
Numerical examples I
τp = 2
0.5
A(0,t) / A0
0
-0.5
-1
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6
t/T
Figure: The vector potential A in the origin of the reference frame, for the case of
a linearly polarized Gaussian pulse of τp = 2, ω = 1 au.
Numerical examples II
2.5
A0 = 10 A0 = 40
40
30
1.5
z
z
20
relativistic 10 relativistic
non-relativistic non-relativistic
0.5
0 0
-10 -5 0 5 10 -40 -20 0 20 40
x x
Figure: Case 1: the relativistic (in black) and non-relativistic (in red) trajectories
for a lineraly polarized pulse with τp = 2 cycles, ω = 1 au and for three values of
the amplitude A0 .
Numerical examples III
350
A0 = 100
300
250
200
z
150
100
relativistic
non-relativistic
50
0
-100 0 100
x
Figure: Case 1: the relativistic (in black) and non-relativistic (in red) trajectories
for a lineraly polarized pulse with τp = 2 cycles, ω = 1 au and for three values of
the amplitude A0 .
Numerical examples IV
A0 = 10 au
z (au)
1
0
-10 -5 0 5 10
x (au)
Figure: Case 2, initial condition v0 = 0: the relativistic trajectory for

monochromatic linearly polarized field of amplitude A0 = 10 au.
Numerical examples V
40
A0 = 5000 au
A0 = 1000 au
20
A0 = 100 au
z (au)
0
A0 = 50 au
-20
-40
-200 -100 0 100 200
x (au)
Figure: Case 2, initial condition v0 = V0 n: the relativistic trajectories for

monochromatic linearly polarized field and four values of the amplitude A0 .
Important conclusions: for typical cases, plane wave
the laser field: finite pulse
Numerical examples VI
dipole approximation: the position and velocity of the electron at the end of the
pulse is the same as at the initia moment
relativistic corrections: the electron velocity at the end of the pulse is the same as
at the initial moment, i.e. no net energy gain
relativistic corrections: there is a net displacement along the pulse propagation
direction
Deducerea solutiilor Volkov I
Solutiile Volkov, obtinute pentru prima oara de catre D. M. Volkov in 1953, sunt solutii
ale ecuatiei Dirac pentru electron in camp electromagnetic extern de tip unda plana.
Un astfel de camp, avand directia de propagare n poate fi descris de un potential
dependent de coordonate si de timp doar prin intermediul combinatiei φ = ct − n · x
A (x) ≡ (A0 (ct − n · r), A(ct − n · r)) ≡ A(φ). (109)

2
Este convenabila introducerea 4-vectorului n = (1, n), cu proprietatea n · n = 1 − n = 0,
cu ajutorului caruia argumentul potentialulul A se scrie
φ = ct − n · r = n · x (110)
cu x ≡ (ct, r). Conditia de etalonare ∂µ Aµ = 0 se transcrie ca
dAµ dAµ d(n · A)

∂µ φ = nµ = =0 (111)
dφ dφ dφ
de unde n · A = const. Fara a restrange generalitatea putem alege n · A = 0.
In calculele ulterioare vom presupune totdeauna ca a fost ales un sistem de referinta in
care n = ez , fata de acest sistem de referinta vom folosi indicele ⊥ pentru a indica
Deducerea solutiilor Volkov II
componenta perpendiculara pe directia de propagare a unui vector oarecare, si indicele k

pentru componenta paralela.
a = a⊥ + a k , ak = n(n · a), a⊥ = n × (a × n) (112)
E important de mentionat ca pentru studiul solutiilor Volkov singura conditie impusa

asupra potentialului A(φ) este cea data de ecuatia (109).
Ecuatia Dirac pentru o particula de masa m si sarcina e in campul electromagnetic
extern descris de A(φ)
[γ µ (Pµ − eAµ ) − mc] ψ(x) = 0, (113)
unde γ µ se definesc ca
γ 0 = β, γ i = βαi (114)
si
I2 0 0 σ
β= , α= . (115)
0 −I2 σ 0
De asemenea, vom introduce notatia Πµ = Pµ − eAµ , si pentru “slash-ul Feynman” vom
folosib: Ab = γµ Aµ .
Deducerea solutiilor Volkov III
Vom vedea ca se va obtine un set de solutii Volkov, aflate in corespondenta unu la unu
cu solutii ale ecuatiei Dirac libere. Vom incepe prin a cauta solutii ale ecuatiei Dirac
(113), transcrisa cu noile notatii ca
h i
Πb − mc ψ(x) = 0, (116)
intr-o forma care sa aminteasca de solutiile Dirac libere; cautam o solutie

b + mc exp − i i (p · x) Φi (φ; p)Zi
h i
ψi (p; x) = Π i = 1, . . . , 4 (117)
~
unde p este deocamdata un 4-vector arbitrar, cu dimensiuni de impuls si de norma mc
(p · p = (mc)2 ),
+1, i = 1, 2
i = (118)
−1, i = 3, 4
si Zi un bispinor constant. Vom vedea ca solutiile Volkov gasite vor fi in corespondenta
biunivoca cu solutiile Dirac libere de impuls p. Pentru a gasi ecuatia verificata de
matricea necunoscuta Φi (φ; p) trebuie sa folosim expresia (117) in ecuatia (116)

b + mc exp − i i (p · x) Φi (φ; p)Zi = 0
h ih i
b − mc Π
Π (119)
~
Deducerea solutiilor Volkov IV
Pentru a prelucra produsul celor doua matrici din ecuatia anterioara, folosim sirul de
identitati
AbB bAb = Aµ Bν γ µ γ ν + Bν Aµ γ ν γ µ = Aµ Bν (γ ν γ µ + γ µ γ ν ) + [Bν , Aµ ]γ ν γ µ

b+B
= 2A · B + Cµν γ µ γ ν (120)
unde am tinut cont de eventualitatea in care componentele operatorilor A si B nu

comuta, si am notat comutatorul lor cu
[Bµ , Aν ] = Cµν (121)
Folosind identitatea de mai sus pentru A = B = Π si folosind proprietatea cunoscuta

dAν dAµ
[Πµ , Πν ] = ie~ (∂µ Aν (φ) − ∂ν Aµ (φ)) = ie~ nµ − nν , (122)
dφ dφ
obtinem
Π
bΠb = Π2 + 1 ie~b
n
d Ab 1
− ie~
d Ab
nb = (P 2 − 2eA(φ) · P + e 2 A2 (φ)) + ie~b
n
d Ab
; (123)
2 dφ 2 dφ dφ
Deducerea solutiilor Volkov V
in relatia anterioara am tinut cont de faptul ca matricile Ab si nb anticomuta; intr-adevar,
bn + nbAb = 2(A · n) = 0
Ab (124)
iar aceasta proprietate se transmite si derivatei lui A(φ)
d Ab d Ab d b
nb + nb = Ab
n + nbAb = 0. (125)
dφ dφ dφ
De asemenea, este important de observat ca, in paranteza rotunda din relatia (123)
ordinea in care apar A si P in produsul scalar A · P nu are importanta, deoarece conditia
de etalonare impune ∂µ Aµ = 0. Folosind cele de mai sus pentru a explicita operatorul
din ecuatia (119), si tinand cont, in plus, ca

i
(P 2 − m2 c 2 ) exp ± p · x = 0 (126)
~
daca p verifica p · p = (mc)2 si ca, pentru orice functie dependenta doar de φ = n · x are
loc identitatea
d 2f
P 2 f (φ) = −~2 (nµ nµ ) 2 = 0 (127)
dφ
Deducerea solutiilor Volkov VI
gasim ca ecuatia (119) se transcrie ca

" #
dΦi (φ) d A(φ)
b
−2i~i (n · p) + ie~b
n + e 2 A2 (φ) − 2i eA(φ) · p Φi (φ) = 0, (128)
dφ dφ
sau " #
dΦi i 1 2 i e d Ab
= − (i A (φ) − 2eA(φ) · p) + nb Φi . (129)
dφ ~ 2n · p 2n · p dφ
Reamintim aici ca ecuatia diferentiala de mai sus este o ecuatie pentru o matrice; desi
formal arata ca o ecuatie diferentiala obisnuita trebuie sa observam ca in membrul drept
este prezenta deasemenea o matrice. Analiza prezentata in anexa ?? ne arata totusi ca
in cazul particular in care suntem noi putem scrie solutia direct, ca si cum am avea o
ecuatie diferentiala pentru o functie
Zφ h
 

i 1 i i e
Φi = exp − i e 2 A2 (χ) − 2eA(χ) · p dχ exp nbA(φ)
b . (130)
~ 2(n · p) 2n · p
Deducerea solutiilor Volkov VII
Pentru a prelucra in continuare cea de-a doua exponentiala din ecuatia precedenta, care
contine ca exponent matricea nbA, b folosim dezvoltarea in serie, si tinem cont ca
h i2
nb · A(φ)
b = −A(φ)b
b nnbA(φ)
b =0 (131)
deoarece nbnb = n2 = 0 si nb anticomuta cu A, b cum am vazut mai devreme. Astfel, din

dezvoltarea in serie a exponentialei ce contine partea matriceala raman doar termenii de
ordinul 0 si 1 si in final gasim

e
Φi (p; x) = 1 + i nbA(φ)
b exp[Λi (φ; p)] i = 1, . . . , 4 (132)
2(n · p)
cu
Zφ h
i 1 i
Λi (φ; p) = − 2eA(χ) · p − i e 2 A2 (χ) dχ. (133)
~ 2(n · p)
Deducerea solutiilor Volkov VIII
In continuare folosim expresia gasita pentru Φi (φ) in ecuatia (117) si obtinem

b + mc exp − i i (p · x) + Λi (φ, p) 1 + i e
h i
ψi (p; x) = Π nbA(φ)
b Zi
~ 2(n · p)

i
= exp − i (p · x) + Λi (φ, p) ×
~
2eA(φ) · p − i e 2 A2 (φ)

e
× i pb − e Ab + mc + nb 1 + i nbA(φ)
b Zi
2n · p 2(n · p)
(134)
In continuare trebuie prelucrat produsul celor doua matrici ce apar in randul al doilea al
ecuatiei de mai sus, folosind proprietatile de necomutare ale lui pb, nb, Ab se obtine prin
calcul direct

i
ψi (p; x) = exp − i (x · p) + Λi (φ; p) Ωi (φ; p) (i pb + mc)Zi , i = 1, . . . , 4
~
(135)
cu
e
Ωi (φ; p) = 1 − i A(φ)b
b n (136)
2(n · p)
Deducerea solutiilor Volkov IX
si Zi un bispinor constant. Alegerea celor 4 bispinori constanti Zi este complet arbitrara.
Un criteriu pentru o alegere particulara provine din conditia ca in limita A → 0 solutiile
Volkov sa se reduca la solutii Dirac libere; astfel suntem condusi la alegerea cea mai
simpla
Zi = ζi , (137)
cu ζi bispinorii care au o componenta egal cu 1, si restul zero
       
1 0 0 0
 0   1   0   0 
ζ1 = 
 0 ,
 ζ2 = 
 0 ,
 ζ3 = 
 1 ,
 ζ4 = 
 0
,
 (138)
0 0 0 1
Pentru acesta alegere, are loc proprietatea (i pb + mc)ζi = ξi (p), cu ξi (p) bispinorii Dirac
liberi, si astfel gasim in final

i
ψi (p; x) = exp − i (x · p) + Λi (φ; p) Ωi (φ; p) ξi (p), i = 1, . . . , 4; (139)
~
pentru calculele ulterioare va fi utila notatia
i
Fi (p; x) = − i (x · p) + Λi (φ; p), (140)
~
Deducerea solutiilor Volkov X
mentionam si identitatea, folosita in unele aplicatii practice

" #
pb − i e A(φ)
b + i mc
Ωi (φ; p)ξi (p) = nbξi (p); (141)
2(n · p)
In toate ecuatiile scrise mai sus limita inferioara a integralelor care apar nu a fost
definita, deoarece schimbarea sa duce doar la introducerea unui factor de faza
nerelavant. In cele mai multe aplicatii concrete potentialul A(φ) este ales de tipul unui
puls finit, astfel ca
lim A(φ) = 0, (142)
φ→±∞
si atunci alegerea naturala a limitei inferioare este −∞.

In continuare prezentam o discutie legata de terminologie: dupa cum am vazut, exista o
corespondenta biunivoca intre solutiile Dirac libere si solutiile Volkov, prin introducerea
unui potential de tip puls (142) fiecare solutie libera evolueaza continuu intr-o solutie
Volkov. Din acest motiv, pentru usurinta exprimarii, uneori se spune ca solutiile Volkov
cu indice i = 1, 2 sunt solutii Volkov de energie pozitiva, iar cele cu indice 3, 4 sunt de
energie negativa. Trebuie retinut ca aceasta exprimare, desi larg raspandita, este un
abuz de limbaj, deoarece in prezenta campului extern solutiile Volkov nu sunt functio
Deducerea solutiilor Volkov XI
proprii ai proiectorilor pe subspatiul solutiilor de energie pozitiva/negativa. Exprimarea

corecta ar fi: solutiile care evolueaza din solutii libere de energie pozitiva/negativa.
Urmatorul aspect pe care il discutam este legat de etalonarea folosita. Pana acum am
folosit conditia n · A(φ) = 0, ceea ce, pentru potentialul scris explicit pe componente
A(φ) ≡ (A0 (φ), Ax (φ), Ay (φ), Az (φ)) se reduce la conditia A0 (φ) = Az (φ). Este
convenabil sa scriem potentialul ca suma a doi termeni
A(φ) = A⊥ (φ) + Ak (φ) (143)
cu
A⊥ (φ) ≡ (0, Ax (φ), Ay (φ), 0), Ak (φ) ≡ (A0 (φ), 0, 0, Az (φ)); (144)
etalonarea coulombiana, folosita practic in toate aplicatiile concrete, inseamna alegerea
Ak ≡ 0. In cele ce urmeaza vrem sa punem in evidenta explicit efectul asupra solutiilor
Volkov al folosirii etalonarii n · A = 0, fata de cea mai simpla, coulombiana. Mai intai
Deducerea solutiilor Volkov XII
observam ca A2 (φ) = A2⊥ (φ), si de asemenea, A(φ) · p = A0 (φ)n · p + A⊥ (φ) · p; tot asa,
avem ca nbA(φ)
b = nbAb⊥ (φ). Cu aceasta, solutiile Volkov (139) se scriu
 
Zφ h

i 1
 i 
ψi (p; x) = exp − i (x · p) − 2eA⊥ (χ) · p − i e 2 A2⊥ (χ) dχ
 ~ 2(n · p) 
 φ 
Z
i e
× exp  A0 (χ)dχ × 1 − i Ab⊥ (φ)b
n ξi (p) i = 1, . . . , 4;
~ 2(n · p)
(145)
daca am fi folosit etalonarea coulombiana, singura modificare fata de formula mai

generala de mai sus ar fi fost absenta celei de-a doua exponentiale.
Deducerea solutiilor Volkov XIII
In fine, o alta forma a exponentului Fi (p; x) ce apare in expresia solutiilor Volkov, utila
in unele aplicatii este:
i
Fi (x; p) ≡ − i (x · p) + Λi (φ; p) = (146)
~
Zφ h
 
i  1 i 1
i p⊥ · r⊥ − (eA⊥ (χ) − i p⊥ )2 + m2 c 2 dχ − (r · n + ct)(n · p) +
~ 2(n · p) 2
Zφ
i
+ A0 (χ)dχ.
~
Proprietatile solutiilor Volkov I
Se poate arata
usor ca solutiile
Volkov sunt
vectori proprii
ai operatorilor
∂ ∂ ∂ ∂
P⊥ ≡ −i~ ex ∂x + ey ∂y si (n · P) ≡ i~ ∂(ct) + ∂x 3 :
P⊥ ψi (p; x) = i p⊥ ψi (p; x), (147)
(n · P)ψi (p; x) = i (n · p)ψi (p; x). (148)
Proprietati foarte importante sunt ortogonalitatea

Z
hψi (p 0 ; x)|ψj (p; x)i ≡ dr ψi+ (p; x)ψj (p 0 ; x) = δij δ(p − p0 ) (149)
R3
si completitudinea
XZ
dp ψi (p; t, r) ψi+ (p; t, r0 ) = δ(r − r0 ) I4 . (150)
i=1,4 3
R
Proprietatile solutiilor Volkov II
In ecuatia de mai sus dependenta de 4-vectorul coordonata a fost scrisa

explicit ca x → (t, r) pentru a sublinia ca ambii ψi (t, r; p) si ψi+ (t, r0 ; p)
sunt la acelasi moment.
Ortogonalitatea solutiilor Volkov I
Vom considera separat doua cazuri (Atentie la limbaj):
A. solutiile sunt ambele de energie pozitiva, sau negativa,
B. una din solutii e de energie pozitiva, iar cealalta negativa.
Vrem sa demonstram identitatea
hψi (p 0 ; x)|ψj (p; x)i = δij δ(p − p0 ) (151)
unde i, j = 1, 2 sau i, j = 3, 4. Folosind expresia solutiilor Volkov (139) avem

 
Z
∗ 0
0 0 + 0 F (p ;x)+F (p;x)
hψi (p ; x) | ψj (p; x)i = hξi (p ) |  dr Ωi (φ; p )Ωj (φ; p) e i j  | ξj (p)i. (152)
R3
In ecuatia de mai sus se poate efectua direct integrarea dupa r⊥ care duce la
(2π~)2 δ(p⊥ − p0⊥ ). Mai departe, avem
hψi (p 0 ; x) | ψj (p; x)i = (2π~)2 δ(p⊥ − p0⊥ )×

  ∞  
 Z 
0
× hξi (p 0 ) |  dz Ω+ 0
i (φ; p )Ωj (φ; p) e
Qij (z;p,p ) 
| ξj (p)i , (153)
 
−∞ p⊥ =p0⊥
Ortogonalitatea solutiilor Volkov II
cu
i
Qij (z; p, p 0 ) = − ± n · (p 0 − p) ×

(154)
~
 
Zφ h
1 1
 i 
2 2 2
× (z + ct) − (p⊥ ∓ eA⊥ (χ)) + m c dχ ;
2 2(n · p)(n · p 0 ) 
in formula anterioara trebuie luat semnul de sus daca ambele solutii sunt de energie
pozitiva, si cel de jos daca ambele sunt de energie negativa. Matricea care apare sub
integrala se prelucreaza folosind identitatile
nbpb = nbpb⊥ + nbγ 0 (n · p), pb0 nb = pb0 ⊥ nb + γ 0 nb(n · p 0 ) (155)
precum si (141), obtinandu-se
[p⊥ ∓ eA⊥ (φ)]2 + m2 c 2

0 1
Ω+
i (φ; p )Ωj (φ; p) = 1+ (γ 0 nb)2 .
p⊥ =p0⊥ 4 (n · p)(n · p 0 )
(156)
Ortogonalitatea solutiilor Volkov III
Pasul urmator este efectuarea schimbarii de variabila
Zφ h
 
1 1 2 2 2
i
ρ= z + ct − (p⊥ ∓ eA⊥ (χ)) + m c dχ . (157)
2 (n · p)(n · p 0 )
Observand ca jacobianul transformarii
[p⊥ ∓ eA⊥ (φ)]2 + m2 c 2

dρ 1
= 1+ (158)
dz 2 (n · p)(n · p 0 )
0
este deja format in expresia (156) lui Ω+
i (φ; p )Ωj (φ; p) integrala ramasa peste ρ poate fi
calculata direct, cu rezultatul
hψi (p 0 ; x)|ψj (p; x)i = (2π~)3 δ(p⊥ − p0⊥ )×

× δ((n · p 0 ) − (n · p)) hξi (p 0 )|(γ 0 nb)2 |ξj (p)i. (159)
Mai departe, folosim relatiile

E
δ((n · p 0 ) − (n · p)) = δ(pk − pk0 ) (160)
c(n · p)
Ortogonalitatea solutiilor Volkov IV
si
1 2c(n · p)
hξi (p)|(γ 0 nb)2 |ξj (p)i = δij , i, j ∈ {1, 2} or i, j ∈ {3, 4} (161)
(2π~)3 E
care ne conduc la relatia dorita
hψi (p 0 ; x)|ψj (p; x)i = δij δ(p − p0 ). (162)
Calculul in acest caz este similar cu cel prezentat anterior; vom prezenta doar
principalele etape. Vrem sa aratam ca
hψi (p 0 ; x)|ψj (p; x)i = 0, i = 1, 2, j = 3, 4 (163)
Ca si mai devreme, folosim expresia solutiilor Volkov in cantitatea de mai sus, si

efectuam direct integrala peste r⊥ , care de data asta va duce la (2π~)2 δ(p⊥ + p0⊥ ). Mai
departe, avem
hψi (p 0 ; x) | ψj (p; x)i = (2π~)2 δ(p⊥ + p0⊥ )×

  ∞  
 Z 
0
0 + 0 Q (z;p,p )
× hξi (p ) |  dz Ωi (φ; p )Ωj (φ; p) e ij  | ξj (p)i , (164)
 
−∞ p⊥ =−p0⊥
Ortogonalitatea solutiilor Volkov V
cu
i
Qij (z; p, p 0 ) = − n · (p 0 + p) ×

(165)
~
 
Zφ h
1 1
 i 
2 2 2
× (z + ct) − (p⊥ − eA⊥ (χ) + m c dχ ;
2 2(n · p)(n · p 0 ) 
folosind acceasi expresie echivalenta a partii matriceale
[p⊥ − eA⊥ (φ)]2 + m2 c 2

0 1
Ω+
i (φ; p )Ωj (φ; p) = 1+ (γ 0 nb)2 .
p⊥ =p0⊥ 4 (n · p)(n · p 0 )
(166)
Pasul urmator este iarasi, o schimbare de variabila

Zφ h
 
1 1 2 2 2
i
ρ= z + ct − (p⊥ − eA⊥ (χ)) + m c dχ . (167)
2 (n · p)(n · p 0 )
Ortogonalitatea solutiilor Volkov VI
cu jacobianul tranformarii format direct sub integrala, de unde gasim
hψi (p 0 ; x)|ψj (p; x)i = (2π~)3 δ(p⊥ + p0⊥ )×

× δ((n · p 0 ) + (n · p)) hξi (p 0 )|(γ 0 nb)2 |ξj (p)i = 0. (168)
Ultima egalitate cu zero a fost scrisa deoarece produsele de forma n · p sunt pozitive
pentru orice p, astfel ca functia δ(n · p + n · p 0 ) = 0. Astfel am incheiat a doua parte a
demonstratiei.
Completitudinea solutiilor Volkov I
Vrem sa demonstram identitatea

XZ
C (r, r0 , t) ≡ dp ψi (r, t; p) ψi+ (r0 , t; p) = δ(r − r0 ) I4 . (169)
i=1,4 3
R
Pentru claritate in relatia de mai sus am indicat explict faptul ca ambele solutii Volkov
sunt calculate la acelasi timp.
Initial facem o schimbare de variabila in (169)
{p⊥ , pk } −→ {i p⊥ , v ≡ (n · p)}; (170)
aceasta schimbare de variabila ne va permite sa decuplam variabilele p⊥ . Avem
p0 − p3 p2⊥ + (mc)2 v p2⊥ + (mc)2 v

dv = − dp3 , p3 = − , p0 = + (171)
p0 2v 2 2v 2
si
p 3 ∈ (−∞, ∞), → dv ∈ (∞, 0) (172)
Completitudinea solutiilor Volkov II
Cu aceasta solutiile Volkov trebuie exprimate ca functii de noile variabile
ψi (p; x) → ψ( p⊥ , v ; x) (173)
iar marimea de evaluat devine

Z∞
p2⊥ + (mc)2
XZ
0 dv v
C (r, r , t) ≡ dp⊥ + ψi (p⊥ , v ; r, t) ψi+ (p⊥ , v ; r, t). (174)
i=1,4 2
v 2v 2
R 0
Prin calcul direct se demonstreaza identitatea

 
Zφ Z
i  1 i 0
C (r, r0 , t) = exp  dχeA0 (χ) dp⊥ e ~ p⊥ ·(r⊥ −r⊥ ) × (175)
~ (2π~)3
φ0 R2

1
× Γ0 (p⊥ , φ, φ0 )C0 (a, b) + Γ−1 (p⊥ , φ, φ0 )S−1 (a, b) + Γ−2 (p⊥ , φ, φ0 )C−2 (a, b) .
2
Completitudinea solutiilor Volkov III
unde
Z∞ Z∞
b b
Cn (a, b) = dv v n cos av − , Sn (a, b) = dv v n sin av − . (176)
v v
0 0
cu
0
Zφ
z − z0 1 h i
a= , b= dχ (eA⊥ (χ) − p⊥ )2 + m2 c 2 , ab > 0 (177)
2~ 2~
φ
Completitudinea solutiilor Volkov IV
si matricile Γi , i = 1, . . . , 3 date de
Γ0 (p⊥ , φ, φ0 ) = 1 − α3 (178)
nh i o
Γ−1 (p⊥ , φ, φ0 ) = −i p⊥ + mc) − e Ab⊥ (φ) + Ab⊥ (φ0 ) γ 0 + e Ab⊥ (φ) − Ab⊥ (φ0 ) γ 3
2(b
(179)
h
0
Γ−2 (p⊥ , φ, φ ) = p2⊥ 2 2
+ m c + e Ab⊥ (φ)bp⊥ + pb⊥ Ab⊥ (φ0 ) − e 2 Ab⊥ (φ)Ab⊥ (φ0 )+
i
+ mc e Ab⊥ (φ0 ) − e Ab⊥ (φ) (1 + α3 ). (180)
Se poate arata ca integralele C0,−2 (a, b) si S−1 (a, b) pentru parametri a si b reali sunt
S−1 (a, b) = 0, C0 (a, b) = πδ(a), C−2 (a, b) = πδ(b). (181)
mai departe folosim identitatile
z − z0

δ = 2~δ(z − z 0 ), (182)
2~
Completitudinea solutiilor Volkov V
 0

Zφ
 1 2~
h i
δ dφ (eA⊥ (χ) − p⊥ )2 + m2 c 2  = δ(z − z 0 ) (183)

2~ (eA⊥ (φ) − p⊥ )2 + m2 c 2
φ
si
h i
Γ−2 (p⊥ , φ, φ0 ) = (eA⊥ (φ) − p⊥ )2 + m2 c 2 (1 + α3 ). (184)
z=z 0
Cu acestea gasim
Z
1 i 0 1 1
C (r, r0 , t) = dp⊥ e ~ p⊥ ·(r⊥ −r⊥ ) (1 + α3 ) + (1 − α3 ) δ(z − z 0 ) (185)
(2π~)2 2 2
R2
sau
C (r, r0 , t) = δ(r − r0 ) (186)
care este identitatea dorita
Anexa 1 I
Fie o matrice patratica M(φ), vom intelege orice functie de M(φ) prin dezvoltarea sa in
serie; de exemplu
1 2
exp[M(φ)] = I + M(φ) + M (φ) + . . . (187)
2!
Cu aceasta definitie se poate calcula derivata fata de parametrul φ a exponentialei

d dM(φ) 1 dM(φ) dM(φ)
exp[M(φ)] = + M(φ) + M(φ) + . . . (188)
dφ dφ 2! dφ dφ
Se vede ca in cazul general in care matricea M(φ) nu comuta cu derivata sa in raport cu

φ expresia de mai sus, cu o forma complicata, nu se poate simplifica. Daca insa cele
doua comuta [M(φ), dM(φ)
dφ
] = 0, atunci derivata in (188) se poate da factor comun - la
stanga sau la dreapta-, si gasim

d dM(φ) 1 1 2 2 2
exp[M(φ)] = 1+ (M(φ) + M(φ)) + A (φ) + A (φ) + A (φ) . . .
dφ dφ 2! 3!
dA
= exp[M(φ)] (189)
dt
Anexa 1 II
unde, pentru a scrie ultima egalitate am observat ca seria infinita ramasa in paranteza se
poate restrange ca o exponentiala. Concluzia calcului de mai sus este: daca M(φ)
comuta cu dM(φ)
dφ
atunci are loc relatia
d dM(φ)
exp[M(φ)] = exp[M(φ)] (190)
dφ dφ
Altfel spus, solutia ecuatiei diferentiale pentru necunoscuta F (φ)
d dM(φ)
F (φ) = F (φ) (191)
dφ dφ
este matricea F (φ) = exp[M(φ)], inteleasa, conform cu cele explicate anterior prin seria
sa Taylor, cu conditia ca M(φ) si dM(φ)
dφ
sa comute. Ecuatia care ne intereseza pe noi,
(129) este de acest tip; partea matriceala relevanta pentru analiza proprietatilor de
comutare este
dM(φ) d A(φ)
b
M(φ) → nbA(φ),
b → nb (192)
dφ dφ
Anexa 1 III
pentru care este evidenta comutarea. Intr-adevar, folosind anticomutarea lui Ab cu nb
bn d A nb = −Ab
bnnb d A = 0
b b
Ab (193)
dφ dφ
si
d Ab b d Ab b
n=−
nbAb nbnbA = 0 (194)
dφ dφ
de unde se vede ca putem rezolva ecuatia diferentiala (129) ca pe o ecuatie obisnuita,

cu functii.
Anexa2 I
Scriem integralele care ne intereseaza de forma
S−1 (b, d) = lim S−1 (b, d; ε, ) (195)

ε→0, →∞
Cn (b, d) = lim Cn (b, d; ε, ), n = 0, −2, (196)

ε→0, →∞
unde au fost definite

sin (bv − dv )
Z
S−1 (b, d; ε, ) ≡ dv . (197)
ε v
si respectiv
Z
d
Cn (b, d; ε, ) ≡ v n sin (bv − ) dv n = 0, −2. (198)
ε v
Anexa2 II
Ne referim doar la cazul b d > 0 , in care suntem interesati, si facem

schimbarea de variabila
d 1
v= (199)
b u
care duce la
d d
S−1 (b, d; ε, ) = −S−1 (b, d; , ). (200)
b b ε
Deci
lim S−1 (b, d; ε, ) = 0 for bd > 0. (201)

ε→0, →∞
Anexa2 III
In mod asemanator, pentru integralele Cn , prin acceasi schimbare de

variabila
cos (bv − dv )
Z Z
d
C0 (b, d; ε, ) ≡ cos (bv − ) dv , C−2 (b, d; ε, ) ≡ dv
ε v ε v2
(202)
se demonstreaza ca verifica
1 1
C−2 (b, d; ε, ) = C0 (d, b; , ) , (203)
ε
deci e suficient sa calculam una din ele. Scriem integrala C0 ca
Z −ε Z
1 d
C0 (b, d; ε, ) = + exp i b v − dv . (204)
2 − ε v
Anexa2 IV
Pentru b > 0 , d > 0 , formam un contur de integrare inchis adaugand
doua semicercuri, de raza si respectiv ε , in semiplanul superior al
planului complex, si folosim teorema Cauchy pentru a scrie
1 1
C0 (b, d; ε, ) + Cε + C = 0 , (205)
2 2
unde Cε si C sunt contributiile celor doua semicercuri. Pentru valori
mari ale lui avem
exp(ibz) z= 1 sin(b) 1
C = − + O( ) = −2 + O( ) . (206)
ib z=− b
in timp ce integrala Cε se anuleaza pentru ε → 0 . Recunoscand o
reprezentare a functiei δ
sin(b)
lim = πδ(b) (207)
→∞ b
Anexa2 V
gasim
lim C0 (b, d; ε, ) = π δ(b) , bd ≥ 0 (208)

ε→0, →∞
si, folosind relatia dintre C0 si C−2
lim C−2 (b, d; ε, ) = π δ(d) , bd ≥ 0. (209)

ε→0, →∞
In cazul b < 0 , d < 0 procedam similar, inchizand conturul de integrare

cu doua semicercuri de raza ε si prin semiplanul inferior, cu acelasi
rezultat.
Potentialele Lienard-Wiechert I
Ecuatiile de propagare a potentialelor electrodinamice A(~ ~ x , t) si Φ(~

x , t) in prezenta unei
distributii spatiale de sarcina electrica ρ si a unei densitati de curent ~j sunt
∂2Φ ρ
∆Φ − 0 µ0 =− (210)
∂t 2 0
∂2A~
~ − 0 µ0
∆A = −µ0~j (211)
∂t 2
care sunt verificate de potentialele retardate
Z ∞
x 0 , t 0 ) 0 |~ x 0|
Z
1 ρ(~ x −~
Φ(~x , t) = x0
dt 0 d 3 ~ 0
δ(t + − t) (212)
4π0 −∞ |~
x −~ x| c
Z ∞ Z ~j(~
x 0 , t 0 ) 0 |~ x −~x 0|
~ x , t) = µo
A(~ dt 0 x0
d 3~ δ(t + − t) (213)
4π |~
x −~ x| 0 c
−∞
In cazul unei sarcini punctiforme q in miscare cu viteza ~v (t) pe traiectoria ~r (t)

densitatea de sarcina si, respectiv cea de curent pot fi scrise ca
x 0 , t 0 ) = qδ(~
ρ(~ x 0 − ~r (t 0 )), x 0 , t 0 ) = q~
~j(~ v (t 0 )δ(~
x 0 − ~r (t 0 )). (214)
Potentialele Lienard-Wiechert II
x 0 ecuatiile 212 si 213 devin
Folosind functiile δ pentru a efectua integralele peste ~
0
∞
0 δ(t
0
− t + |~x −~rc(t )|
)
Z
q
Φ(~
x , t) = dt (215)
4π0 −∞ x − ~r (t 0 )|
|~
0
∞
δ(t 0 − t + |~x −~rc(t )|
)
Z
q
~ x , t) =
A(~ dt 0 ~
v (t 0 ) . (216)
4π0 c 2 −∞ x − ~r (t 0 )|
|~
Pentru a calcula integralele precedente folosim formula de transformare a functiei δ
x − ~r (t 0 )|
|~ δ(t 0 − τ ) δ(t 0 − τ )
δ(t 0 + − t) = |~ r (t 0 )|
x −~
= (217)
c ∂
(t 0 + − t) ~ 0) · n
1 − β(t ~(t 0 )
∂t 0 c
unde au fost folosite notatiile
~ 0) = ~ ~ˆ 0 ), v (t 0 )
~ 0) = ~
R(t x − ~r (t 0 ), ~(t 0 ) = R(t
n β(t (218)
c
iar τ , numit timp retardat, este solutia ecuatiei
R(τ )
t=τ+ (219)
c
Potentialele Lienard-Wiechert III
Cu acestea se obtin potentialele Lienard-Wiechert

q 1 1
Φ(~
x , t) = , (220)
4π0 R(t 0 ) [1 − n ~ 0 )]
~(t 0 )β(t t 0 =τ
~ x , t) = q v (t 0 )
~ 1
A(~ . (221)
4π0 c R(t 0 ) [1 − n
2 ~ 0 )] 0
~(t 0 )β(t t =τ
Energia radiata de o sarcina in camp laser I
Campurile electric si magnetic se obtin inlocuind expresiile (220) si (221) relatiile de

definitie. Prin calcul direct se obtine
q (1 − β 2 )(~ ~
n − β) q n~ × [(~ ~ × β]
n − β) ~˙
E~ (~
x , t) = + (222)
4π0 R 2 (1 − n ~ 3
~β) 4π0 c 2 R(1 − n ~ 3 0
~β) t =τ
~˙
( )
q (1 − β 2 )(~ ~
n − β) ~ × [(~
n ~ × β]
n − β) 1
~ x , t) =
B(~ ~×
n + = ~ × E~
n (223)
4π0 c R 2 (1 − n ~ 3
~β) c 2 R(1 − n ~ 3
~β) c
t 0 =τ
Campul electromagnetic al sarcinii punctiforme se descompune in doua parti: o parte
dependenta numai de viteza, proportionala cu inversul patratului distantei dintre
particula si punctul de observatie, si un termen proportional cu acceleratia si cu inversul
distantei de la particula la punctul de observatie. La fluxul de energie radiata printr-o
sfera cu raza R → ∞ aduce contributie doar cel de-al doilea termen. Exprimam vectorul
lui Poynting folosind relatia dintre E~ si B
~
1 ~ ~ 1 ~ 1
S~ = E ×B = n × E~ ) =
E × (~ nE 2 − E~ (~
(~ n · E~ )) (224)
µ0 µ0 c µ0 c
Energia radiata de o sarcina in camp laser II
u expresia de distante mari a lui E~ (~
x , t)
q n~ × [(~ ~ × β]
n − β) ~˙
E~ (~
x , t) ≈ (225)
4π0 c 2 R(1 − n ~ 3 0
~β) t =τ
observam ca termenul n ~ · E~ se anuleaza, astfel ca vectorul Poynting se reduce la

( 2
)
~ 1 2 q2 1 1 ~ 0 ˙ 0
~
S(~x , t) ≈ ~E = n
n ~ ~ × [(~
n n − β(t )) × β(t )] ,
µ0 c 4π0 4πc κ6 (t 0 )R 2 0 t =τ
κ = 1−n ~
~·β (226)
Facem observatia ca la distante mari R → ∞ se poate face aproximatia

x − ~r (t)
~
~=
n ≈ ~xˆ (227)
|~
x − ~r (t)|
~ este versorul directiei de observatie, si energia este emisa pe directie radiala.
adica n
Energia care traverseaza in intervalul de timp (t, t + dt) un element infinitesimal dΣ al
suprafetei unei sfere de raza R → ∞
d 2 W = (~ ~
nS)dΣdt = (~ ~ 2 dΩdt
nS)R (228)
Energia radiata de o sarcina in camp laser III
astfel ca energia radiata in unitatea de unghi solid pe unitatea de timp va fi
d 2W q2 1 2

1 ~˙ 0 )]
~ 0 )) × β(t
= ~
n × [(~
n − β(t (229)
dΩdt 4π0 4πc κ6 (t 0 ) t 0 =τ
Prin integrare peste timp gasim distributia unghiulara a energiei totale radiate
Z ∞
q2 1 2

dW 1 ~˙ 0 )]
~ 0 )) × β(t
= dt ~
n × [(~
n − β(t (230)
dΩ 4π0 4πc −∞ κ6 (t 0 ) t 0 =τ
Pentru a calcula integrala este convenabil sa trecem la variabila τ . Pornind de la

definitia timpului retardat
R(τ )
τ+ =t (231)
c
obtinem
1 dR(τ ) 1 dR(τ )
dt = dτ + dτ = dτ (1 + ) (232)
c dτ c dτ
Folosind aproximatia, valabila la distante mari
R(τ ) ≈ |~
x| − n
~ · ~r (t) (233)
Energia radiata de o sarcina in camp laser IV
gasim in final
dt = κdτ (234)
de unde
∞
q2 1 2
Z
dW 1 ~ ~˙
= dt ~ × [(~
n n − β(t)) × β(t)] (235)
dΩ 4π0 4πc −∞ κ5 (t)
Integrala precedenta poate fi calculata numeric daca este cunoscuta (numeric sau
analitic) traiectoria particulei.
In limita nerelativista β 1 expresia (229) se reduce la
2
d W q2 1 ~˙
2 q2
= ~ × (~
n n × β) = β̇ 2 sin2 (Θ) (236)
dΩdt nr 4π0 4πc 16π 2 0 c
unde Θ este unghiul dintre versorul directiei de observatie n ~ si acceleratia β. Observam

astfel ca in limita nerelativista energia esta radiata cu precadere in directia
perpendiculara pe acceleratie. Energia totala radiata de particula in unitatea de timp
(puterea radiata) se obtine integrand expresia 236 pe toate directiile
2
q2
Z
dW d W
= dΩ = β̇ 2 (237)
dt nr (4π) dΩdt nr 6π 0 c
obtinandu-se astfel formula Larmor.

Operatorul energiei. Stãrile Fock I
p
∆E ≡ < Ψ | E op · E op | Ψ > − < Ψ | E op | Ψ > · < Ψ | E op | Ψ > . (238)
Pentru cazul unui singur mod de oscilaţie, ı̂ntr-o stare cu n fotoni, este valabil rezultatul
r
~ω
∆Emod = (n + 1/2) . (239)
0 V
Uneori este convenabil sã se treacã la formularea Heisenberg. Trecerea o face o
transformare unitarã datã de operatorul
i
ÛS→H (t) = e ~ Ĥrad t .
Vectorii de stare devin independenţi de timp, ı̂n particular
| ΨH
stat , Fock >=| Fock > , (240)
iar operatorii asociaţi potenţialului vector şi câmpurilor devin operatori dependenţi de
timp. Operatorul de anihilare al unui mod oarecare ı̂n formularea Heisenberg este
†
âH (t) = ÛS → H â ÛS→H = â e −iωt , (241)
Operatorul energiei. Stãrile Fock II
şi evident operatorul de creare este adjunctul operatorului precedent, (âH (t))† = â† e iωt .
In consecinţã, ı̂n formularea Heisenberg, potenţialul vector al ı̂ntregului câmp este
r
X ~
Aop,H (r , t) = [ s e i(κ·r −ωt) âmod + s ∗ e −i(κ·r −ωt) âmod
†
]. (242)
20 V ω
mod
Expresia aminteşte expresia clasicã (??) a potenţialului vector, ı̂n locul unor coeficienţi
numerici apãrând acum operatorii de anihilare â şi creare â† din formularea Schrödinger.
Aceeaşi afirmaţie este valabilã pentru operatorii ataşaţi câmpurilor.
In general, câmpul electromagnetic se aflã ı̂ntr-o stare mixtã, descrisã printr-un operator
statistic, numit şi operator al densitãţii. Radiaţia termicã şi radiaţia laser reprezintã
forme posibile de existenţã a câmpului electromagnetic, cu proprietãţi complet diferite.
Radiaţia termicã rezultã prin emisie independentã de la un numãr mare de atomi, ı̂n
condiţii de echilibru radiativ. Vom da unele detalii despre stãrile mixte ale câmpului ı̂n
§10. In cazul radiaţiei laser atomii emit radiaţie electromagneticã ı̂n fazã unii cu alţii.
Cu bunã aproximaţie abaterea pãtraticã medie a numãrului de fotoni ı̂ntr-un câmp laser
ascultã de distribuţia Poisson pentru care (∆n)2 = n̄. Distribuţia Poisson pentru
numãrul de fotoni se ı̂ntâlneşte ı̂n cazul unor stãri particulare ale câmpului
electromagnetic, numite stãri coerente. Definim şi studiem aceste stãri ı̂n continuare.
Coherent states
Generation of coherent states

1 2 †
| zi = e − 2 |z| e z â | 0i . (243)
One defines †
−z ∗ â
D̂(z) ≡ e z â . (244)
(Glauber displacement operator) with
1 2 † ∗
D̂(z) = e − 2 |z| e z â e −z â
, (245)
† ∗
D̂(z) | 0i = e z â −z â | 0i =| zi , (246)
†
D̂(z) â D̂(z) = â − z Iˆ , D̂(0) = Iˆ , D̂(z)† = D̂(−z) . (247)
Coherent states
Minimum uncertainity states: one defines

1/2 1/2
~ ~ω
Q̂ ≡ â† + â , P̂ ≡ i â† − â . (248)
2ω 2
with
[ Q̂ , P̂ ] = i ~Iˆ , (249)
i.e. “position” and “momentum” operators
2~
hz | Q̂ | zi = Re (z) , hz | P̂ | zi = 2~ω Im (z) ,
ω
(δQ)2 = ~/2ω , (δP)2 = ~ω/2 , (250)
and ∆Q · ∆P = ~/2 , (minimum)
Phase operator
One defines
∞
X ∞
X
ê = | mihm + 1 | ê † = | m + 1ihm | . (251)
m=0 m=0
Properties:
∞
X
ê | ni = | miδm,n−1 =| n − 1i , n 6= 0 , (252)
m=0
ê | 0i = | zeroi , ê † | ni =| n + 1i , (253)
† †
ê ê = Iˆ , ê ê = Iˆ − | 0ih0 | . (254)
(isometric, not unitary). Also
[ê, ê † ] =| 0ih0 | , [ê, N̂] = ê . (255)
One can write

â = (N̂ + Iˆ)1/2 ê , â† = ê † (N̂ + Iˆ)1/2 . (256)
or
1 1
Ĉ ≡ [ ê + ê † ] , Ŝ ≡ [ ê − ê † ] . (257)
2 2i
Phase operator
One can write

ê = e i φ̂ (258)
and
Ĉ = cos φ̂, Ŝ = sin φ̂ (259)
Expectation values in a Fock state is zero; in a coherent state non-zero.
Uncertainity relations in a arbitrary state:
i
[Ĉ , N̂] = i Ŝ , [Ŝ, N̂] = − i Ĉ , [Ŝ, Ĉ ] = | 0ih0 | (260)
2
1 1 1
∆C · ∆N ≥ |S |, ∆S · ∆N ≥ |C |, ∆C · ∆S ≥ | | 0ih0 | | . (261)
2 2 4
Phase operator
The eigenvalue problem of ê:

ê | φi = e iφ | φi (262)
∞
1 X
| φi = √ e inφ | ni . (263)
2π n=0
Z 2π
hφ | φ0 i = δ(φ − φ0 ) | φihφ | dφ = Iˆ . (264)
0
Semiclassical approximation
Work in Heisenberg picture: In a coherent state the expectation values of E and B

concide with the classical expressions. Use the unitary transformation
r
~ h i
D̂(z)† Aop,H (r , t)D̂(z) = s z e i(κ·r −ωt) + s ∗ z ∗ e −i(κ·r −ωt)
20 V ω
+ Aop,H (r , t) . (265)
| Ψi → D̂(z)† | Ψi . (266)
†
If | Ψi = | zi then D̂(z) | Ψi = |0i and the expectation values of the second term in
the transformed operator is zero.
More general: semiclassical description is “good” for large number of photons.
Se numesc componentele ı̂n cvadraturã ale unui mod de oscilaţie operatorii
1 i
â1 ≡ √ (â† + â) , â2 ≡ √ (â† − â) . (267)
2 2
Ei diferã doar prin factori reali, dependenţi de frecvenţã, de operatorii

”poziţiei” şi ”impulsului”, Q̂ şi P̂, definiţi ı̂n rel. (248). Din relaţia
fundamentalã (??), rezultã
[ â1 , â2 ] = i Iˆ . (268)
Operatorii hermitici â1 şi â2 sunt asociaţi unor câmpuri electrice, defazate
cu 900 , de unde denumirea ”ı̂n cvadraturã”. Intr-adevãr, ı̂n formularea
Heisenberg, operatorul câmpului electric pentru un mod de oscilaţie cu
polarizaţie liniarã se scrie
r
~ω
E op,H
(r , t) = i s [â e i(κ·r −ωt) − â† e −i(κ·r −ωt) ]
2 0 V
r
~ω
= s [ â1 sin(ωt − κ · r ) − â2 cos(ωt − κ · r(269)
)].
2 0 V
Este adevãratã inegalitatea (relaţia de nedeterminare)
∆ a1 ∆ a2 ≥ 1/2 . (270)
Intr-o stare cu numãr determinat de fotoni, avem
∆ a1 ∆ a2 = n + 1/2,
ı̂n timp ce ı̂ntr-o stare coerentã [vezi relaţiile (250)
1 1
(∆ a1 )2coer = (∆ a2 )2coer = , (∆ a1 )coer (∆ a2 )coer = . (271)
2 2
Intr-o stare coerentã abaterile standard pentru componentele ı̂n cuadraturã
sunt egale, iar produsul lor are valoarea minimã permisã de relaţia
Heisenberg.
Prin definiţie, stãrile comprimate (squeezed states) sunt stãri ı̂n care
1 1
(∆ a1 )comp (∆ a2 )comp = , (∆ aj )comp < √ , j = 1 sau 2 .
2 2
(272)
Stãrile comprimate sunt stãri proprii ale unei combinaţii liniare ale
operatorilor de anihilare şi creare
b̂ ≡ µ∗ â + ν â† , (273)
unde µ şi ν sunt numere complexe. Dacã se cere ca [b̂, b̂ † ] = Iˆ ,

atunci rezultã
| µ |2 − | ν |2 = 1 . (274)
Trecerea de la operatorii â şi â† la operatorii b̂ şi b̂ † este cunoscutã

sub numele de transformarea Bogoliubov. Trecerea este realizatã cu
ajutorul unui operator unitar, pe care ı̂l descriem acum. Numãrul complex
µ poate fi ales real şi, cum modulul sãu trebuie sã fie mai mare ca 1, se
scrie convenabil
µ = cosh ρ , ν = e iγ sinh ρ , (275)
cu ρ şi γ mãrimi reale, din care se poate forma numãrul complex

ζ ≡ ρe −iγ . Operatorul care face trecerea doritã,
Ŝ(ζ)âŜ(ζ)† = b̂ ≡ cosh ρâ − e iγ sinh ρâ† , (276)

este operatorul unitar

1 2 ∗ †2
Ŝ(ζ) ≡ exp (ζ â − ζ â ) , (277)
2
aşa cum se verificã prin calcul.
Se constatã cã prin acţiunea operatorului Ŝ(ζ) asupra stãrii de vid se
obţine o stare proprie a operatorului b̂ , corespunzãtoare valorii proprii
zero, deoarece

b̂ Ŝ(ζ) | vid > = Ŝ(ζ)âŜ(ζ)† Ŝ(ζ) | vid >= Ŝ(ζ)â | vid >

= | zero >= 0 Ŝ(ζ) | vid > .
Dacã ı̂n continuare aplicãm un operator de deplasare (244) caracterizat

prin parametrul α , se obţine o stare proprie a operatorului b̂
corespunzãtoare valorii proprii complexe β ≡ α cosh ρ + α∗ e −iγ sinh ρ ,
adicã avem
b̂ | β >comp = β | β >comp ,
| β >comp ≡| α cosh ρ + α∗ e −iγ sinh ρ >comp = D̂(α)Ŝ(ρe iγ ) | vid(278)
> .
Calculul abaterilor standard asociate operatorilor â1 şi â2 conduce la
1 −2ρ 1 2ρ
(∆ a1 )2comp = e , (∆ a2 )2comp = e . (279)
2 2
Se observã cã pentru componenta
√ â1 abaterea standard are o valoare mai
micã decât valoarea 1/ 2, pe care o ia ı̂n orice stare coerentã. Aceasta se
face cu preţul creşterii abaterii standard ı̂n componenta â2 cu care este ı̂n
cuadraturã.
Recent, au fost create stãri comprimate ı̂n laborator.
Ca şi ı̂n cazul sistemelor atomice, câmpul electromagnetic se aflã rareori
ı̂ntr-o stare purã. Pentru a descrie o stare mixtã se foloseşte şi ı̂n cazul sãu
operatorul statistic, notat cu ρ̂em .
La echilibru termic operatorul statistic al câmpului electromagnetic are
expresia !
1 Ĥ rad
ρ̂em
0 (T ) = exp − , (280)
Zem kB T
unde kB este constanta lui Boltzmann şi T temperatura termodinamicã a
sistemului mecanic, considerat ca sistem exterior radiaţiei
electromagnetice, cu care radiaţia este ı̂n echilibru. Suma de stare are
h i
expresia Zem = Sp exp ( −β Ĥrad ) (urma operatorului exponenţial),
fiind astfel asiguratã condiţia de normare pentru operatorul statistic
Sp ρ̂em
0 = 1 . Am folosit notaţia β ≡ 1/kB T .
Sunt uşor de calculat elementele de matrice ale operatorului ρ̂em0 (T ) ı̂n
baza Fock. Pentru simplificare, ne referim la un singur mod de oscilaţie.
Prin calcul direct, se gãsesc rezultatele
1
Zem, mod = −β~ω
,
1
− e
< m | ρ̂em,
0
mod
(T ) | n > = 1 − e −β~ω
e −nβ~ω δmn , (281)
de unde expresia operatorului statistic

∞
X
ρ̂em,
0
mod
(T ) = 1 − e −β~ω e −nβ~ω | n >< n | . (282)
n=0
Conform principiului interpretãrii statistice, formulat cu ajutorul

operatorului statistic, elementul de matrice diagonal < n | ρ̂em, 0
mod
|n>
reprezintã probabilitatea, notatã cu p(n) , ca ı̂n starea descrisã de
operator, ı̂n cazul de faţã starea de echilibru termic, numãrul de fotoni
asociaţi modului de oscilaţie considerat sã fie egal cu n:

p(n) = 1 − e −β~ω e −nβ~ω . (283)
Probabilitatea nu depinde decât de frecvenţa fotonului şi nu de alte

atribute ale sale (direcţie de propagare, polarizaţie). Numãrul mediu de
fotoni pentru un mod de oscilaţie dat este
1
n = Sp N̂ ρ̂em,0
mod
= β~ω , (284)
e −1
şi, ca urmare, energia medie a unui mod de oscilaţie la echilibru termic este
op ~ω
H mod = . (285)
e β~ω −1
Rezultatul precedent reprezintã tocmai formula lui Planck.
Menţionãm posibilitatea de a transcrie operatorul statistic al radiaţiei
termice ca
∞ n
em, mod 1 X n̄
ρ̂0 (T ) = | n >< n | , (286)
1 + n̄ 1 + n̄
n=0
folosind numãrul mediu de fotoni din starea respectivã. Abaterea pãtraticã
medie a numãrului de fotoni are expresia
(∆n)2 = n̄ ( 1 + n̄ ) . (287)
Se pot calcula uşor şi elementele de matrice ale operatorului statistic (280)
ı̂n baza stãrilor coerente. Se gãseşte rezultatul
| z |2 + | z 0 |2 n̄z ∗ z 0

em, mod 0 1
< z | ρ̂0 (T ) | z >= exp − + ,
1 + n̄ 2 1 + n̄
(288)
unde n̄ are aceeaşi expresie (284) ca şi ı̂n formulele precedente.
Dacã ţinem seama de toate modurile de oscilaţie, avem
⊗ρ̂em, mod
Y
ρ̂em
0 (T ) = 0 (T ) . (289)
mod
Numãrul total mediu de fotoni pe unitatea de volum se calculeazã dupã

procedeul cunoscut
Z
1 X 2
N/V = n̄mod −→ n̄ dκ ≡ N , (290)
V (2π)3 κ mod
mod
cu rezultatul
∞ 3
ω2
Z
1 2 kB T
N = dω = 2 3 ζ(3) ≈ 2·107 T 3 , (ζ(3) ≈ 1
π2c 3 0 e β~ω − 1 π c ~
(291)
Aproximaţia semiclasicã I
Tratarea cuanticã a câmpului electromagnetic nu este necesarã ı̂ntotdeauna. Pornind de

la ea, poate fi justificatã ı̂n anumite condiţii descrierea clasicã, descriere ı̂n care
operatorii asociaţi câmpului electromagnetic sunt ı̂nlocuiţi prin funcţii de coordonate şi
timp. Existã diferite procedee de trecere la limita clasicã. Prezentãm una din variante.
Pornim prin a ne plasa ı̂n formularea Heisenberg.
Am vãzut cã ı̂ntr-o stare coerentã mediile câmpurilor electric şi magnetic coincid cu
expresiile lor clasice, funcţii de coordonate şi timp. Observãm acum cã dacã efectuãm
transformarea unitarã asociatã adjunctului operatorului D̂(z) , definit ı̂n (244), cu z
deocamdatã arbitrar, şi folosim relaţia (246) ţinând seama cã D̂(z)† = D̂(−z) [rel.
(??)], obţinem pentru potenţialul vector
r
~ h i
D̂(z)† Aop,H (r , t)D̂(z) = s z e i(κ·r −ωt) + s ∗ z ∗ e −i(κ·r −ωt) + Aop,H (r , t) .
20 V ω
(292)
Primul termen este pur şi simplu expresia clasicã a potenţialului vectorial pentru modul
de oscilaţie considerat, cu o anumitã amplitudine complexã proporţionalã cu z . Al doilea
termen coincide cu operatorul netransformat. Dacã vrem sã lucrãm cu acest operator
Aproximaţia semiclasicã II
transformat ı̂n locul celui de plecare, transformarea unitarã descrisã de operatorul

D̂(z)† trebuie efectuatã şi asupra stãrilor câmpului, adicã trebuie sã facem ı̂nlocuirea
| Ψ >→ D̂(z)† | Ψ > . (293)
Dacã efectul termenului al doilea din expresia potenţialului vectorial este mic ı̂n starea
transformatã, atunci este justificatã neglijarea sa, deci ı̂nlocuirea operatorilor de câmp cu
funcţii de coordonate şi timp. In particular, starea coerentã de parametrul z este
transformatã ı̂n starea de vid. Pentru ea media celui de al doilea termen din (292) este
nulã. Am arãtat anterior [rezultatul (??)] cã fluctuaţiile câmpului electric ı̂ntr-o stare
coerentã sunt fluctuaţiile lui ı̂n starea de vid. Rezultã cã ı̂n stãri coerente efectele
cuantice sunt legate de interacţia ı̂ntre atom şi câmpul electromagnetic aflat ı̂n starea de
vid. Aceastã interacţie se manifestã ı̂n mod evident ı̂n cazul atomului aflat ı̂ntr-o stare
excitatã.
Descrierea semiclasicã este adaptatã stãrilor constituite din suprapunerea unor stãri Fock
cu valori mari ale numãrului de fotoni. Ea este ı̂nsã valabilã şi ı̂n alte stãri.
Linear Compton Scattering I
A free electron absorbs a photon of momentum k1 and emits another photon of

momentum k2 ; the initial and final electron momenta are denoted by p1 and,
respectively, p2 .
The two diagrams are represented below
Linear Compton Scattering II
The transition amplitude is formally identical with the amplitude for the Bremsstrahlung
effect, but the four-potential of the Coulomb field must be replaced by the vector
potential of a photon.
Z "
e Â(k2 , x2 ) e Â(k1 , x1 )
Sfi = −i dx1 dx2 Ψ̄f (x2 ) SF (x2 − x1 ) +
~ ~
#
e Â(k1 , x2 ) e Â(k2 , x1 )
SF (x2 − x1 ) Ψi (x) (294)
~ ~
with
Z
dp i p̂ + mc
SF (x1 − x2 ) = ~ e − ~ p·(x−y ) 2 (295)
(2π~)4 p − (mc)2 + i
r
~ ∗ ik·x
A(k, x) = e + e −ik·x , ∗ · = −1, ·k =0 (296)
20 ωV
r
1 − ~i p1 ·x mc 2
Ψi (x) = √ e ui (p1 ) (297)
V E1
r
1 i mc 2
Ψf (x) = √ e − ~ p2 ·x uj (p2 ) (298)
V E2
Linear Compton Scattering III
We study the absorption of the photon of momentum k1 and emission of the photon of
momentum k2 ; then in A(k1 , x) we retain only the term ∼ exp(−ik1 · x) and in A(k2 , x)
we retain only the term ∼ exp(ik2 · x); this choice will lead to the conservation law
expressed by the delta function δ(p1 + ~k1 − p2 − ~k2 ). We assume real polarization
vectors 1 and 2 .
The transition amplitude
s r
ie 2 ~2 1 (mc 2 )2 ~
Sfi = − × (299)
~ 420 V 2 ω1 ω2 V E1 E2 (2π~)4
Z Z Z
i i p̂ + mc
dx1 dx2 dpe ~ (p2 +~k2 −p)·x e − ~ (p1 +~k1 −p)·x ūj (p2 )ˆ2 2 ˆ1 ui (p1 )+
p − (mc)2 + i
Z Z Z
i (p −~k −p)·x − i (p −~k −p)·x
2 1 1 2
p̂ + mc
dx1 dx2 dpe ~ e ~ ūj (p2 )ˆ1 2 ˆ2 ui (p1 ) .
p − (mc)2 + i
In the expression above the integrals over x1 and x2 lead to δ function, one of them is
used to evaluate the remaining integral over p.
s r
ie 2 ~2 1 (mc 2 )2
Sfi = − ~(2π~)4 δ(p1 + ~k1 − p2 − ~k2 ) × M(f , i) (300)
~ 420 V 2 ω1 ω2 V E1 E2
Linear Compton Scattering IV
with
M(f , i) = µ ν
2 1 Mµν (301)
and
" #
p̂1 + ~k̂1 + mc p̂1 − ~k̂2 + mc
Mµν = ūj (p2 ) γµ γν + γν γµ ui (p1 ) (302)
2p1 · ~k1 −2p1 · ~k2
For the calculation of the differential cross section we use the following:
the square of the δ function is calculated as δ 2 (P) = VcT (2π~)
1
4 δ(P)
the incident flux J = |vVrel | , if we calculate in the reference frame of the incident
electron then vrel = c
Vdp2 Vdk2
the density of final states dΓ = (2π~)3 (2π)3
Linear Compton Scattering V
the fully differential cross section becomes
e02 (4π)2 (mc 2 )2 dp2 dk2

dσ = (2π~)4 δ(p1 + ~k1 − p2 − ~k2 )|M(f , i)|2 (303)
4ω2 ω1 E1 E2 (2π~)3 (2π)3
2
with e02 = 4π
e
0
.
In order to calculate the photon angular distribution we must integrate over the
unobserved variables (final electron momentum and photon energy); the integration over
the electron momentum leads to
e04 (mc 2 )2 ω2
dσ = δ(E2 + ~ω2 − E1 − ~ω1 )|M(f , i)|2 d(~ω2 )dΩk2 (304)
c 2 E1 E2 ω1 cons
The index cons in the previous equation means that in the everywhere expression of the
differential cross section the final electron momentum p2 must be replaced by the
expression given by the conservation law p2 = p1 + ~k1 − ~k2 . Note that p2 appears in
M and also in the argument of the remaining δ function through E2
p
E2 + ~ω2 − E1 − ~ω1 = ~ω2 + (mc 2 )2 + c 2 (p1 + ~k1 − ~k2 )2 − E1 − ~ω1 ≡ f (~ω2 )
(305)
Linear Compton Scattering VI
If we want to integrate over the unobserved final photon energy ~ω2 we must use the
rule for transformation of the δ function
δ(~ω2 − ~ω20 )
δ(f (~ω2 )) = ∂f (~ω2 )
(306)
∂~ω2
where ~ω20 is the solution of the equation f (~ω2 ) = 0. f in the reference frame of the
incident electron is
p
f (~ω2 ) = ~ω2 + (mc 2 )2 + (~ω1 )2 + (~ω1 )2 − 2~ω1 ~ω2 cos Θ − ~ω1 − mc 2 , (307)
∂f (~ω2 ) ~ω2 − ~ω1 cos Θ mc 2 + ~ω1 (1 − cos Θ)

=1+ = (308)
∂~ω2 E2 E2
with Θ = ∠(k1 , k2 ). If we take the Oz axis of the reference frame along k1 then Θ is
just the polar angle θk2 of the emitted photon. Next we shall find the solution of the
equation f (~ω2 ) = 0: starting from the conservation law written with four momenta
p1 + ~k1 = p2 + ~k2 (309)
Linear Compton Scattering VII
and taking the square of the previous equation we obtain
p12 + 2p1 · ~k1 + ~2 k12 = p22 + 2p2 · ~k2 + ~2 k22 , −→ p1 · k1 = (p1 + ~k1 − ~k2 ) · ~k2
(310)
and, working in the electron rest frame
mc 2 ω1 = ω2 [~ω1 (1 − cos θk2 ) + mc] (311)
mc 2
ω2 = ω1 . (312)
mc 2 + ~ω1 (1 − cos θk2 )
Then the angular differential cross section becomes
2
e 4 mc 2 ω2

dσ E2 ω2
= 02 |M|2 = r02 (mc)2 |M|2 ; (313)
dΩk2 c e2 ω1 mc 2 + ~ω1 (1 − cos θ) cons ω1 cons
in the rightmost term of the previous equation we used the relation

1/(mc 2 + ~ω1 (1 − cos θ)) = ω2 /ω1 and introduced the classical electron radius
r0 = e02 /(mc 2 ). The index cons means that every term in the expression of the
Linear Compton Scattering VIII
differential cross section must be expressed in terms of the only independent variable,
the unit vector n2 of the emitted photon momentum.
mc 2
ω2 = ω1 , (314)
mc 2 + ~ω1 (1 − cos θk2 )
ω2
k2 = n2 , ∠(n2 , k1 ) = θk2 , (315)
c
p2 = p1 + ~k1 − ~k2 . (316)
Calculation of |M|2 for unpolarized particles, i.e.

averaged over the initial photon polarization and incident electron spin
summed over the emitted photon polarization and final electron spin
Linear Compton Scattering IX
Sum over electron spins:

" #
p̂1 + ~k̂1 + mc p̂1 − ~k̂2 + mc
M = ūj (p2 ) ˆ2 ˆ1 + ˆ1 ˆ2 ui (p1 ); (317)
2p1 · ~k1 −2p1 · ~k2
as we will take also the sum over photon polarizations 2 and 1 we can use a particular
choice such that 1 · p1 = 0, 1 · p1 = 0, i.e. we take the photon polarization orthogonal
on the initial electron momentum. Such a choice is always possible; starting from
arbitrary polarization vectors ˜1 and ˜2 such that ˜i · ˜i = −1 and ˜i · ki = 0, i = 1, 2 we
define
˜i · p1
i = ˜i − ki , i = 1, 2 (318)
ki · p1
which obey
i · i = −1, i · ki = 0, i · p1 = 0, i = 1, 2. (319)
Linear Compton Scattering X
With this choice the expression of M simplifies

" #
k̂1 k̂2 −p̂1 + mc −p̂1 + mc
M = ūj (p2 ) ˆ2 ˆ1 + ˆ1 ˆ2 + ˆ2 ˆ1 + ˆ1 ˆ2 ui (p1 ),
2p1 · k1 2p1 · k2 2p1 · ~k1 −2p1 · ~k2
(320)
or, using (p̂1 − mc)ui (p1 ) = 0 we obtain

" #
k̂1 k̂2
M = ūj (p2 ) ˆ2 ˆ1 + ˆ1 ˆ2 ui (p1 ), (321)
2p1 · k1 2p1 · k2
Then

1 p̂2 + mc p̂1 + mc
|M|2 −→ Tr Q Q̄ (322)
2 mc mc
with
k̂1 k̂2 k̂1 k̂2
Q = ˆ2 ˆ1 + ˆ1 ˆ2 , Q̄ = ˆ1 ˆ2 + ˆ2 ˆ1 (323)
2p1 · k1 2p1 · k2 2p1 · k1 2p1 · k2
Linear Compton Scattering XI
Using the rules for calculating traces of γ matrices we obtain by direct calculation

1 1 k2 · p1 k1 · p1 2
Tr {. . .} = + + 4(2 · 1 ) − 2 (324)
2 (2mc)2 k1 · p1 k2 · p1
and the angular differential cross section in the incident electron rest frame becomes
2
r2

dσ ω2 ω2 ω1
= 0 (mc)2 + + 4(1 · 2 )2 − 2 (325)
dΩk2 4 ω1 ω1 ω2 cons
which is the Klein-Nishina formula. In order to calculate the sum over photons
polarizations, two possible choices, in agreement with the imposed conditions of
orthogonality on p1 are i ≡ (0, i ): one choice is to take both 1 and 2 in the plane
defined by k1 and k2 , such that i · ki = 0 and 1 · 2 = − cos θk2 . The second choice is
with 1 = 2 orthogonal on the plane defined by k1 and k2 and then 1 · 2 = −1. Finally
we obtain
2
r 2 ω2

dσ ω2 ω1
= 0 + − sin2 θk2 ; (326)
dΩk2 2 ω1 ω1 ω2 cons
in the nonrelativistic limit the above formula reduces to the Thomson cross section
dσTh r2
= 0 1 + cos2 θk2 . (327)
dΩk2 2 cons
Notations I
the initial electron four-momentum p 1

the initial electron spin index i1
the final electron four-momentum p 2
the final electron spin index i2
the laser propagation direction by n and choose n = ez
n = (1, −n)
define n = (1, n), e
ω1
the laser photon four-momentum k 1 = c
n (only for the monochromatic case)
define φ = n · x = ct − z, φ n · x = ct + z
e=e
the laser polarization parameter ζ
ω2 ω2

the emitted photon four-momentum k 2 ≡ c
, k2 , |k2 | = c
.
the emitted photon polarization four-vector s 2
Notations II
an arbitrary electromagnetic plane wave propagating along the n direction is
described by
A (x) ≡ (0, A(ct − n · r )) ≡ (0, A(φ)), φ = n · x = ct − n · r . (328)
The Lorentz gauge condition ∂µ Aµ = 0: ∇ · A = 0 or n · A = 0 (usually n ≡ ez ).

The Cartesian components of the vector potential for arbitrary polarization

φ ω
Ax (φ) = A0 f cos φ (329)
τ cT c

cT
Ay (φ) = ζAx φ − (330)
4
(f ≡ 1 for monochromatic case).
the Dirac matrices:

0 σ I 0
α= , β= ≡ γ0, γ = γ 0 α, γ = (γ 0 , γ)
σ 0 0 −I
(331)
Notations III
one defines
â ≡ a · γ = γ 0 a0 − γ · a. (332)
a set of linearly independent solutions of the free Dirac eqnarray
1 E + c α · p + mc 2

i 1 i
ui x, p = √ p ζi exp − i p · x ≡ √ ξi (p) exp − i p · x
V 2E (E + mc 2 ) ~ V ~
(333)

ξ η 0 0
ζ1 = , ζ2 = , ζ3 = , ζ4 = (334)
0 0 ξ η

+1, i = 1, 2
i = ; (335)
−1, i = 3, 4
u1,2 are the positive energy solutions, and u3,4 are the negative energy solutions.
Notations IV
the orthogonality and the completeness relations
(2π~)3
Z
hui x, p 0 |uj x, p i ≡ d r ui+ x, p · uj x, p 0 = δ(p − p 0 ) δij ,

(336)
V
R3
4 Z
X (2π~)3
dp ui t, r 0 , p ui+ t, r 0 , p = δ(r − r 0 ) I4 .

(337)
i=1
V
R3
the quantized electromagnetic field

Φc
Ac = , Ac , (338)
c
r
X ~ + ∗
Ac,µ (x) = an,λ exp(−ik n · x)sλ,µ + an,λ exp(ik n · x)sλ,µ
20 ωn V
n,λ
Notations V
s λ is the polarization four-vector which must be orthogonal on k n and with

four-norm equal to −1.
k n · s λ = 0, s λ · s λ = −1 (339)
for any four-vector kn there are two linearly independent polarization four-vectors,
which can be chosen real.
The transition amplitude; general equations I
The Hamiltonian of the system interacting with the laser field A(φ) and with the
quantized field Ac (x) is
H = cα · (P − eA(φ) − eAc (x)) + eΦc (x) + mc 2 β + H0,c (340)
where H0,c is the Hamiltonian of the free quantized field. By direct calculation it can be
written as
H = H0 + Hi , H0 = cα · (P − eA(φ)) + mc 2 β + H0,c , Hi = γ 0 ec Abc (341)
The initial and final states are

1 i
|Ψi (−∞)i = √ |ξi1 (p 1 )i exp i1 p1 · r ⊗ |0i (342)
V ~

1 i
|Ψf (∞)i = √ |ξi2 (p 2 )i exp i1 p2 · r ⊗ |1k 2 ,s 2 i (343)
V ~
and the action of the free evolution operator on them is
U0 (t, −∞)|Ψi (−∞)i = |ψi1 (x; p 1 )i ⊗ |0i ≡ |Ψi (t)i, (344)

hΨf (∞)|U0 (∞, t) = hψi2 (x; p 2 )| ⊗ h1k 2 ,s 2 | ≡ hΨf (t)| (345)
The transition amplitude; general equations II
where |ψi (x; p)i are the Volkov solutions defined in (139) The transition amplitude
Ai→f = hΨf (∞)|U(∞, −∞)|Ψi (−∞)i (346)
becomes, in the first order perturbation theory

Z∞
1
Ai→f = dthΨf (∞)|U0 (∞, t)Hi (t)U0 (t, −∞)|Ψi (−∞)i = (347)
i~
−∞
Z∞
1
dthΨf (t)|Hi (t)|Ψi (t)i
i~
−∞
or
Z∞ Z∞
ec ec
Ai→f = dthΨf (t)|γ 0 Abc |Ψi (t)i = dthΨf (t)|Abc |Ψi (t)i (348)
i~ i~
−∞ −∞
The transition amplitude; general equations III
where we have used the notation hΨ| = hΨ|γ 0 . After replacing the initial and final states
and the expression of the quantized field in the transition amplitude expresion one gets
r Z∞
ec ~
Ai→f = s2 exp(ik 2 · x)|ψi1 (p 1 , x)i
dthψ i2 (p 2 , x)|b (349)
i~ 20 ω2 V
−∞
Calculation of the transition amplitude: the case of
electrons only I
By direct calculation one obtains
r Z∞ Z
ec ~ 1
Ai→f = dt drhξ i2 (p 2 )|Ω(φ; p 2 )b
s2 Ω(φ; p 1 )|ξi1 (p 1 )i×
i~ 2ω2 V V
−∞
h i
i
× exp −F (x, p 2 ) + ~k 2 · x + F (x, p 1 ) (350)
~
After the change of variable
r, t −→ r⊥ , φ ≡ ct − z, φ
e ≡ ct + z (351)
the integrals over r⊥ and φe can be directly calculated and lead to δ functions. The
result is
r
e ~ 1
Ai→f = (2π~)3/3 Iφ (f , i)
i~ 22 ω2 V V
δ(p2,⊥ − p1,⊥ + ~k2,⊥ )δ((n · p 2 ) − (n · p 1 ) + (n · k 2 )) (352)
electrons only II
where
Z∞
i ~
Iφ (f , i) = dφQfi (φ) exp − f (φ, p2 ) − f (φ, p1 ) − φ(e
n · k 2) (353)
~ 2
−∞
and
Qfi (φ) = hξ i2 (p 2 )|Ω(φ; p 2 )b

s2 Ω(φ; p 1 )|ξi1 (p 1 )i (354)
Next we prove that for the case of a finite pulse the integral Iφ (f , i) is finite: first, we
shall isolate the term independent of φ from Qf ,i .
(1) (2)
Qf ,i (φ) = Qf ,i (φ) + Qf ,i (355)
electrons only III
with
(1) 1
Qf ,i (φ) = hξ (p )|n̂(p̂2 + mc)ŝ2 (−e Â(φ))n̂|ξi1 (p 1 )i+
4(n · p 1 )(n · p 2 ) i2 2
1
+ hξ (p )|n̂(−e Â(φ))ŝ2 (p̂1 + mc)n̂|ξi1 (p 1 )i+
4(n · p 1 )(n · p 2 ) i2 2
1
+ hξ (p )|n̂(−e Â(φ))ŝ2 (−e Â(φ))n̂|ξi1 (p 1 )i (356)
4(n · p 1 )(n · p 2 ) i2 2
and
(2) 1
Qf ,i = hξ (p )|n̂(p̂2 + mc)ŝ2 (p̂1 + mc)n̂|ξi1 (p 1 )i (357)
4(n · p 1 )(n · p 2 ) i2 2
and write the integral I as the sum of the two corresponding terms
(1) (2)
Iφ (f , i) = Iφ (f , i) + Iφ (f , i), (358)
electrons only IV
Z∞
(1) (1) i
Iφ (f , i) = dφQfi (φ) exp − (f (φ, p2 ) − f (φ, p1 ) − ~φ(e
n · k 2 )) (359)
2~
−∞
Z∞
(2) (2) i
Iφ (f , i) = Qfi dφ exp − (f (φ, p2 ) − f (φ, p1 ) − ~φ(e
n · k 2 )) (360)
2~
−∞
(1)
The integral Iφ (f , i) is finite due to the presence of terms proportional to the vector
(2)
potential A in front of the exponential. In order to discuss the integral Iφ (f , i) we
electrons only V
notice that, by performing an integration by parts we obtain

Z∞
i
dφe − 2~ (f (φ,p2 )−f (φ,p1 )−~φ(en·k 2 )) =
−∞
Z∞
1 d[f (φ, p2 ) − f (φ, p1 )] − 2~i (f (φ,p2 )−f (φ,p1 )−~φ(en·k 2 ))
dφ e
n2 · k
~e dφ
−∞
0
(2)
≡ Iφ (f , i) (361)
Obs: one can prove that the integrated term is proportional to a δ function
00
(2)
Iφ (f , i) ∼ δ((ñ · p 1 ) − (ñ · p 2 ) − ~(ñ · k 2 )) (362)
electrons only VI
Using also the result (352) it follows that the total contribution to the total result of
00
(2)
Iφ (f , i) will be proportional to the four dimensional δ function δ(p 1 − p 2 − ~k 2 ). The
corresponding conservation law
p 1 = p 2 + ~k 2 (363)
is equivalent to
p 1 · p 1 = p 2 · p 2 + ~2 k 2 · k 2 + 2~p 2 · k 2 (364)
or
q
~ω2 2
(mc) + p2 − ~p2 · k2 = 0
2 (365)
c
00
(2)
As the previous equation can not be satisfied it follows that Iφ (f , i) doesn’t contribute
to the transition amplitude.
electrons only VII
Finally we obtain
r
e ~ 1
Ai→f = (2π~)3/3 Iφ (f , i)
i~ 22 ω2 V V
δ(p2,⊥ − p1,⊥ + ~k2,⊥ )δ((n · p 2 ) − (n · p 1 ) + (n · k 2 )) (366)
0
(1) (2)
Iφ (f , i) = Iφ (f , i) + Iφ (f , i) (367)
0
(1) (2)
with Iφ (f , i) and Iφ (f , i) defined in (359) and respectively (361).
Simplified form of matrix elements Q I
The polarization four-vector of the emitted field s 2 must be chosen orthogonal on k 2 ,

i.e. (k 2 · s 2 ) = 0 and of four norm -1 (s 2 · s 2 ) = −1. Starting form such a vector, one
can build another one
(s 2 · k 1 )
s̃ 2 = s 2 − k 2 (368)
(k 1 · k 2 )
whose properties are:
s̃ 2 · s̃ 2 = s 2 · s 2 = −1 (369)
s̃ 2 · k 2 = s 2 · k 2 = 0 (370)
s̃ 2 · k 1 = s 2 · k 1 − s 2 · k 1 = 0 (371)
i.e. it is possible to use a polarization four vector orthogonal on both k 1 and k 2 . In the
following we shall assume that such a choice was made, and, using the identities
(p̂ + mc) |ξi (p)i = 2(mc)|ξi (p)i, (p̂ − mc) |ξi (p)i = 0, (372)
{â, b̂} = 2(a · b) (373)
s2 · k2 = s2 · k1 = A · n = n · n = 0 (374)
Simplified form of matrix elements Q II
one obtains by direct calculation
(1) 1 1
Qfi (φ) = hξ (p )|ŝ2 (−e Â(φ))n̂|ξi1 (p 1 )i + hξ (p )|n̂(−e Â(φ))ŝ2 |ξi1 (p 1 )i
2(n · p 1 ) i2 2 2(n · p 2 ) i2 2
(375)
(2)
Qfi = hξ i2 (p 2 )|ŝ2 |ξi1 (p 1 )i (376)
General properties of the transition amplitude I
The transition amplitude is expressed in terms of the integrals

Z∞ Z∞
eA(φ) ~i Λ(φ,p1 ,p2) i
B1 = e , B2 = e 2 A2 (φ)(mc)2 e ~ Λ(φ,p1 ,p2) (377)
mc
−∞ −∞
Obs: B1 is a four vector and B2 is scalar.
Ai→f = Fct(p1 , p2 , k2 , B1 , B2 )δ(p1⊥ − p2⊥ − ~k2⊥ )δ(n · (p1 − p2 − ~h2 )) (378)
Note the differences between NLC and LC scattering (3 / 4 conservation laws)

In the monochromatic case
∞
X
Ai→f = Fct(p1 , p2 , k2 )δ (4) (q1 + N~k1 − q2 − ~k2 ) (379)
N=−∞
One can prove that the terms with N ≤ 0 do not contribute.

The generalized Compton formula
(N) n1 · p1
ω2 = Nω1 (380)
n2 · q1 + N~k1 · n2
General properties of the transition amplitude II
The dressed electron

e 2 A20 (1 + ζ 2 ) e 2 A20 (1 + ζ 2 )
q=p+ n1 , q · q = (mc)2 + (381)
4(n1 · p) 2
dσ
In the case of a pulse the spectrum ( dΩdΩ ) represented as a function of frequency for
fixed direction consists in a series of maxima whose position coincides with the Compton
lines defined in the monochromatic case.
Proof of Floquet theorem I
The case of a time-dependent Hamiltonian
Ĥ(t + T ) = Ĥ(t) . (382)
use the notation ω = 2π/T .

The Floquet theory: introduced by G. Floquet at the end of XIX century in Math. In
Physics
Shirley (1965)
Sambe (1973)
Fainsthein, Manakov si Rapoport(1978)
For a time periodic Hamiltonian theere is a solution of TDSE with the structure
i
| ΨF (t) i = e − ~ Wt | ΦF (t) i with | ΦF (t + T ) i =| ΦF (t) i . (383)
NB: Similar to the Bloch Theorem.

Proof:
Change of variable t → t + T and use the periodicity of H
d | Ψ(t + T ) i
i~ = Ĥ(t) | Ψ(t + T ) i ,
dt
Proof of Floquet theorem II
i.e. if | Ψ(t) i is solution also | Ψ̃(t) i ≡| Ψ(t + T ) i is solution (generally not the same)
One defines a Floquet solution as the solution for which
| ΨF (t + T ) i = λ | ΨF (t) i , (384)
any t , with constant λ

Properties of Floquet solutions:
The norm is constant in time (if the solution can e normalized)
hΨF (t) | ΨF (t) i = hΨF (t + T ) | ΨF (t + T ) i , (385)
i.e. | λ |= 1 . Then use the notation

i
λ = e − ~ WT , W = W∗ . (386)
If the solution can’t be normalized, use the same notation but with complex W
Proof of Floquet theorem III
In general case write the solution as

i
| ΨF (t) i = e − ~ Wt | Φ(t) i (387)
From the definition

| ΨF (t + T ) i = λ | ΨF (t) i , (388)
we get
i
| ΨF (t + T ) i = e − ~ WT | ΨF (t) i ,
or
i i i
e − ~ W (t+T ) | Φ(t + T ) i = e − ~ WT e − ~ Wt | Φ(t) i ,
i.e. | Φ(t + T ) i =| Φ(t) i . (QED)
Quasienergies; Floquet maps I
For a solution of the form

i
| ΨF (t) i = e − ~ Wt | ΦF (t) i with | ΦF (t + T ) i =| ΦF (t) i . (389)
W (in general a complex number) is named quasienergy.

Obs: the quasienergies are not well defined, but up to a multiple of ~ω .
i i
| ΨF (t) i = e − ~ Wt | Φ(t) i = e − ~ W̃ t | Φ̃(t) i , (390)
with
W̃ = W + N~ω , | Φ̃(t) i = e iNωt | Φ(t) i , (391)
But also | Φ̃(t) i leads to a Floquet solution.
Usually all the quasienergies are brought in the same interval
E − ~ω/2 ≤ W < E + ~ω/2 , cu E
The calculation is done numerically; by expanding |ΦF (t)i in a Fourier series
∞
X
| ΦF (t) i = e −inωt | Φn i , (392)
n=−∞
Quasienergies; Floquet maps II
where | Φn i the Fourier-Floquet components. Also the Hamiltonian can be expanded
∞
X
Ĥ(t) = e −inωt Ĥn , (393)
n=−∞
One obtains the system of Floquet equations

∞
X
Ĥn−n0 | Φn0 i = (W + n~ω) | Φn i , n = −∞, ... , −1, 0, 1, ... ∞ , (394)
n0 =−∞
For a Floquet solution

i
| ΨF (t) i = e − ~ Wt | ΦF (t) i (395)
iΓ
with the notation W = Wr − 2
we have
∗
hΨF (t)|ΨF (t)i ∼ e −i(W −W )t/~
(396)
−i(W − W ∗ ) = 2Im(W ) ≡ −Γ, (397)

then
hΨF (t)|ΨF (t)i ∼ e −Γt , Γ = −2Im(W ) (398)
Quasienergies; Floquet maps III
Γ is the ionization rate. The solutions with negative Γ are unphysical (named ghost
solutions).
In the absence of the electromagnetic field the Hamiltonian (constant) still has a
Floquet problem:
∞
X
Ĥn−n0 | Φn0 i = (W + n~ω) | Φn i , n = −∞, ... , −1, 0, 1, ... ∞ , (399)
n0 =−∞
with Hn ∼ δn the system of equations reduces to
Ĥ0 | Φn i = (W + n~ω) | Φn i , n = −∞, ... , −1, 0, 1, ... ∞ , (400)
i.e.
Wn = Ea + n~ω (401)
where Ea are the atomic levels.
For a given electromagnetic field (normally in the dipole approximation) with the vector
potential
A(t) = A0 [ cos ζ/2 cos(ωt + δ0 ) s1 + sin ζ/2 sin(ωt + δ0 ) s2 ] , (402)
Quasienergies; Floquet maps IV
electric field
E (t) = A0 ω [ cos ζ/2 sin(ω t + δ0 ) s1 − sin ζ/2 cos(ω t + δ0 ) s2 ] (403)
we define
e E (t) |e| A0
α(t) ≡ , α0 = (404)
me ω 2 me ω
One can solve the Floquet systems of equations, and calculate the quasienergy W for
different values of α (i.e. different intensities). A Floquet map: the graphical
representation of W as a function of α.
Quasienergies; Floquet maps V
M. Stroe, PhD thesis, 2009, UB,
Quasienergies; Floquet maps VI
Quasienergies; Floquet maps VII
Quasienergies; Floquet maps VIII
M. Boca, H. G. Muller, M. Gavrila, 2004
The atomic stabilization I
In the presence of the external electromagnetic field the energy levels are shifted
and they aquire a width, with the significance of ionization rate.
Atomic stabilization: the tendency of a tom to become stable against ionization
for large field intensity. Explained by the behaviour of the imaginary parts of the
Floquet quasienergies. They decrease when α0 increases; the stabilization is more
efficient at high frequencies.
this is named stationary stabilization, i.e. the stabilization in the monochromatic
regime.
In the realistic case of a finite laser pulse, the state of the system evolves in time; the
evolution is either along a Floquet state (adibatic), or along a path consisting of diffrent
states (diabatic).
The case of diabatic evolution: one defines diabatic paths.
The atomic stabilization II
The atomic stabilization III
The atomic stabilization IV

Under the effect of a pulse E0 = E0 (t), we have:
R
P ion = 1 − e − dtΓ(E0 (t))
(405)
Dynamic stabilization: the decrese of the total ionization proability at the end of a laser
pulse, as a function of the pulse intensity.
Effect of frequency and laser pulse shape. If more than one path is possible then we
have effects of the path (controled also by the pulse shape)
The atomic stabilization V
M. Boca, H. G. Muller, M. Gavrila,
Floquet theory in the oscillating frame I
After an unitary transformation we obtain the Schrodinger equation in the oscillating

frame 2
P ∂ΨKH (r , t)
+ V (r + α(t)) ΨKH (r , t) = i~ , (406)
2me ∂t
α is the classical trajectory of the free electron in the field. Write the electromagnetic
field as (dipole approximation)
A(t) = A0 [ cos ζ/2 cos(ωt + δ0 ) s1 + sin ζ/2 sin(ωt + δ0 ) s2 ] , (407)
E (t) = A0 ω [ cos ζ/2 sin(ω t + δ0 ) s1 − sin ζ/2 cos(ω t + δ0 ) s2 ] (408)

then the trajectory
e E (t)
α(t) ≡ . (409)
me ω 2
The Floquet theory in the KH (oscilating) frame: the Floquet theory applied for the
TDSE in the KH frame Solution:
i
ΨKH (r , t) = e − ~ WKH t ΦKH (r , t) , (410)
with ΦKH (r , t) periodic
Floquet theory in the oscillating frame II
The components Fourier Floquet ΦKH
n (r ) , obey the equations
2
∞
P X
W + n~ω − ΦKH
n (r ) = Vn−n0 (r ) ΦKH
n0 (r ) , (411)
2me 0 n =−∞
Z T
1
Vn (r ) = e inωt V (r + α(t)) dt . (412)
T 0
obs: the general form was
∞
X
Ĥn−n0 | Φn0 i = (W + n~ω) | Φn i , n = −∞, ... , −1, 0, 1, ... ∞ , (413)
n0 =−∞
Important property: at large distances the equations are not coupled, i.e. the
assimptotic conditions are easy to be imposed
Large distances:
~2
− ∆ΦKH n = (W + n~ω) Φn ,
KH
(414)
2me
define
~2 kn2
≡ W + n~ω , (415)
2me
for real W : define:
Floquet theory in the oscillating frame III
closed channels: W + n~ω < 0: kn ∈ R

1 ±ikn r
Φn ∼ e (416)
r
open channels: W + n~ω > 0: kn = iκn
1 −κn r
Φn ∼ e (417)
r
for complex W : ionization conditions: define:
kn = Re kn + i Im kn , (418)
~2 h i ~2
(Re kn )2 − (Im kn )2 = Re W + n~ω , Re kn · Im kn = Im W . (419)
2me me
Re W + n~ω > 0 for open channels

Re W + n~ω < 0 for clased channels
Floquet theory in the oscillating frame IV
e ikn r
ΦKH
n (r ) → r)
fn (ˆ , Re kn > 0 open ,
r
r → ∞ Im kn > 0 , closed . (420)
i.e. divergent wave in the open channels and decreasing in the closed channels.
Redefinition of choice of kn
Re kn > 0 , open Im kn > 0 , closed (421)
Phisycal interpretation: related to the the density current

~
J (r , t) ≡ (Ψ∗F ∇ΨF − ΨF ∇Ψ∗F ) = (422)
2ime

~ 2
(Φ∗ ∇Φ − Φ∇Φ∗ ) exp Im Wt . (423)
2ime ~
if
2 Im W
Im W T 1 sau 1/4π , (424)
~ ~ω
Floquet theory in the oscillating frame V
approximate the time average as

Z T ∞
1 ~ X 2Im W
hJ i ≡ J dt ≈ (Φ∗n ∇Φn − Φn ∇Φ∗n ) exp t . (425)
T 0 2ime n=−∞ ~
At large distances, (by direct calculation)
| f n |2

~ X 2Im W
hJ as i ≈ rˆ Re kn 2 exp(−2 Im kn r ) exp t , r → ∞ . (426)
me n
r ~
i.e. only open channels contribute Also it is interesting the density probaiblity

2Im W
P(r , t) ≡| Ψion 2 2
F (r , t) | =| Φ(r ) | exp t . (427)
~
and its time average
Z T ∞
1 X 2Im W
hP i ≡ Pdt ≈ | Φn |2 exp t . (428)
T 0 n=−∞
~
Floquet theory in the oscillating frame VI
The ionization rate calculated from the assymptotic curent
hJ as · dSR i
dR = R , R → ∞. (429)
V
hP id r
is a sum of contributions from the open channels
∞
dR X dRn
= , (430)
dΩ dΩ
n≥n0
dRn ~ Re kn | fn |2 e −2 Im kn R
= lim R P , n ≥ n0 . (431)
n0 | Φn | dr
dΩ me R→∞ 0 2
V
Rn : the ionization rate in the process in which n photons are absorbed Obs: applied
even if Floquet solutions are not normalizable One can prove that:
Γ
Im(W ) = − (432)
2
X XZ dΓn
Γ= Γn = dΩ >0 (433)
open open
dΩ
The imaginary part of the quasienergy is −1/2× the total ionization rate and is
negative.
High frequency Floquet theory I
Write the Floquet system of equations
P2
X
W + n~ω − − V0 (r ) ΦKH
n (r ) = Vn−n0 (r )Φn0 (r ) . (434)
2me 0 n6=n
and define
P2
Hd ≡ + V0 (r ) . (435)
2me
H0 the hamiltonian of a fictitious system with the potential
1 T
Z
V0 (r ) = V (r + α(t)) dt . (436)
T 0
HF limit (i.e. high frequencies and fixed α (high intensity))

The frequency does not appear in RHS, then in the HF limit
ΦHF
n = 0, n 6= 0 , ΦHF
0 (r ) 6= 0 , (437)
P2

W HF − − V0 (r ) ΦHF
0 (r ) = 0 , (438)
2me
High frequency Floquet theory II
In the high frequency limit the Floquet system of equation reduces to the equation of
structure, which has real eigenvalues W HF . In the HFFT there is no ionization.
Validity criterion: ~ω |E0 |,, where E0 is the ground state energy if the system.
Corrections to the high frequency limit: one can calculate analitically the first order
correction to the quasienergy
By iterating the Floquet system of equations
P2

(1)
W HF + n~ω − − V0 (r ) Φ(1)
n (r ) = Vn (r )Φ0 (r ) , n 6= 0 . (439)
2me
one can prove that
∞ Z
me X
Γ(1) = 2 3
kn | hkn − | Vn | ΦHF 2
0 i | d Ωkn , (440)
4π ~ n=n
0
kn ≡ kn rˆ , hr | kn − i = u (−) (kn ; r )
Atomic stabilization: the validity criterion of the HFFT is replaced by:
Validity criterion: ~ω |W0 |,, where W0 is the ground state of the structure
equation.
High frequency Floquet theory III
But, |W0 | decreases with α0 (i.e. with intensity).

conclusion: at large enough intensity the HFFT is allways valid
Results for Hidrogen atom: The dressed potential V0 becomes singular along the path of
the trajectory α(t) (M. Gavrila): in the case of linear polarization: log singularity along
the trajectory and 1/x −1/2 at the end points; for circular polarization log singularity
along the circle.
High frequency Floquet theory IV
High frequency Floquet theory V

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Intense laser radiation interaction with matter

December 13, 2017

4 Motion of the classical particle in electromagnetic fields

Plane wave monochromatic field (E0 : electric field amplitude)

It is convenient to describe the electromagnetic field by the electromagnetic potentials

One also defines a current density four vector

j(x) ≡ (cρ(x), j (x)) , x ≡ (r , t), (13)

obeying the continuity equation

Aµ (x) → A0µ (x) ≡ Aµ (x) + ∂ µ f (x) (20)

n ≡ (1, n), n2 = 0 (21)

Aµ (x) = F µ (φ) (23)

The simplest choice is C = 0; with these, a plane wave electromagnetic field

Aµ ≡ Aµ (φ) ≡ Aµ (n · x), A(φ) · n = 0, n ≡ (1, n) (26)

A particular gauge used often to describe a plane-wave electromagnetic field is the so

A ≡ (0, A(φ)), A(φ) ⊥ n (27)

The electric and magnetic fields are

Aµ (x) = A(0) (0)

where k is the wave-vector

The monochromatic solution presented before is not convenient to describe finite

Aµ (φ) = A(0) (0)

lim f (ρ) = 0; (36)

a typical expression used in numerical simulations is the Gaussian profile

It is useful to calculate the energy density

In the dipole approximation the dependence on coordinates of the laser field is

A(r , t) → A(d) (t), Φ(r , t) → Φ(d) (t) (41)

We look for the solutions as

We expanded the electromagnetic field in plane-waves. Note that kz is

A(kx , ky ). If they are chosen such as A(kx , ky ) 6= 0 only for kx , ky  k

and extend the integration domain to R 2 The beam divergence is

The beam transversal extension is

The ”ideal beam” has minimum divergence and transversal extension.

By direct calculation we obtain

1 ikz− 21−iζ 2 ρ2 −i arctan(ζ)

with ζ = z/zR , zR = kw02 /2, ρ2 = x 2 + y 2 i.e. a Gaussian transversal

shows a Gaussian profile perpendicularly to the propagation axis z

One defines the Gouy’s phase

Ψ0 (ζ) = arctan(ζ) (55)

Hermite-Gaussian beams are a family of laser modes which have

by direct calculation one obtains

with Ψn,m = (1 + m + n) arctan ζ and Hm Hermite polynomials.

with the result

Here Ψn,m = (1 + 2m + n) arctan ζ and Lnm are Laguerre polynomials. The

A(t) = f (t) [ζx ex sin(ωt) + ζy ey cos(ωt)] , ζx2 + ζy2 = 1 (60)

with f (t) arbitrary, and lim f (t) = 0

mr̈(t) = eE (t), mr(t0 ) = 0, mṙ(t0 ) = v0 (62)

Consider only plane-wave fields: A = A(φ) = A(ct − z). Initial conditions:

A0 ≡ (0, A0 ) = A(φ0 ) (65)

The Lagrange function of a nonrelativistic particle of mass m and electric charge e

Using this result in Eq.(68) one gets

It is convenient to use φ as the independent variable. From the relation

One notices that the solution ż is defined only if

Case 1 is described by the conditions: φ0 = −∞, A0 = 0, v0 = 0, the corresponding

In the case 2 we have φ0 = 0, A0 = 0, v0 = v03 n, and the corresponding solution

In this case the conditions of validity of the non-relativistic approximation are

dA1 (φ) dA2 (φ)

The differential equations in φ obeyed by the coordinates are

with the solution

Figure: Case 2, initial condition v0 = 0: the relativistic trajectory for

Figure: Case 2, initial condition v0 = V0 n: the relativistic trajectories for

Important conclusions: for typical cases, plane wave

the laser field: finite pulse

A (x) ≡ (A0 (ct − n · r), A(ct − n · r)) ≡ A(φ). (109)

A(kx , ky ). If they are chosen such as A(kx , ky ) 6= 0 only for kx , ky k

P⊥ ψi (p; x) = i p⊥ ψi (p; x), (147)

(n · P)ψi (p; x) = i (n · p)ψi (p; x). (148)

{p⊥ , pk } −→ {i p⊥ , v ≡ (n · p)}; (170)

S−1 (b, d) = lim S−1 (b, d; ε, ) (195)

Cn (b, d) = lim Cn (b, d; ε, ), n = 0, −2, (196)

lim S−1 (b, d; ε, ) = 0 for bd > 0. (201)

lim C0 (b, d; ε, ) = π δ(b) , bd ≥ 0 (208)

lim C−2 (b, d; ε, ) = π δ(d) , bd ≥ 0. (209)