Introduction To Biosciences PDF

(1 I)
QUANTUM SERIES
for
B.Tech Students of First Year of All Engineering Colleges Affiliated to

MTU, NOIDA, (U.P.)
Introduction to Bio Science

(AS 104/204)
By
Dr. Shraddha Sharma
TM
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Introdution to Bio Science
First Edition : 2012

Second Edition : 2013
Price : 55.00 /-
Type-set at : Krishna Graphics & Printers, Delhi-32.

(3 I)
BOOK TOUR GUIDE
The main objective of this book is to present to the students an accurate,

meaningful and easily digestable subject matter that will give the
discriptive material and fundamental concepts. For the students
following are the features included to help them study and be
successful in the subject:
1. The book is present in Question-Answer form for quick reference.
2. Concept Outline are given to introduce the topics which helps the
students to understand the concepts.
(4 I)
CONTENTS
AS 104/204 : INTRODUCTION TO BIO SCIENCE
UNIT - I : CELL STRUCTURE & FUNCTION (5 I—22 I)

Cell Structure & Function : The development of cell theory, Cell Size, The structure of
Cellular Membranes, Organelles composed of membranes, Plasma Membrane, Endoplasmic
Reticulum, Golgi Apparatus, Lysosomes, Perosisomes, Vacuoles & Vesicles, Nuclear
Membrane.
Metabolic Engineering : Biochemical Pathways-Cellular Respiration, An overview of
Aerobic cellular Respiration, Glycolysis, The Crebs Cycle, The Electron Transport System
(ETS).
UNIT – II : DNA AND RNA : THE MOLECULAR BASIS (23 I—31 I)
DNA and the Importance of Proteins, DNA Structure and Function, DNA Structure, Base
pairing in DNA Replication, The repair of genetic information, The DNA code, RNA
Structure and Function.
Synthetic Biology : Protein Synthesis : Central dogma
Step-1 : Transcription --- Making RNA
Step-2 : Translation----Making Protein
The Control of Protein Synthesis : Controlling Protein Quantity, Controlling Protein Quality.
UNIT-III : CELL DIVISION (32 I—36 I)
Asexual Reproduction, Sexual Reproduction, The Cell Cycle and Mitosis, The G1 stage of
Interphase, The S stage of Interphase, The G2 stage of Interphase.
Mitosis : Cell Replication, Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase, Cytokinesis
Controlling Mitosis.
UNIT-IV : GENETIC ENGINEERING (37 I—50 I)
DNA Fingerprinting : DNA Fingerprinting Technique, DNA Fingerprinting Application,
Polymerase Chain Reaction, Electrophoresis.
Gene Sequencing : Gene Sequencing and Human Genome Project, Human Genome Project
Techniques, Human Genome Project Application, Cloning Genes, Genetically modified
Food, Gene Therapy.
Stem Cells : Embryonic and Adult Stem Cells, Personalized Stem Cell Lines.
UNIT-V : HUMAN REPRODUCTION AND REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH (52 I—64 I)
Human Reproduction, Sex and Sexuality : The Male Reproductive System, The Female
Reproductive System, Gametogenesis, Menstrual Cycle, Fertilization and Implantation,
Pregnancy and Embryonic Development, Parturition and Lactation.
Reproductive Health : Problems and Strategies, Birth Control, Medical Termination of
Pregnency.
Contraception : Barrier Methods, Chemical Methods, Hormonal Control Methods, The
Timing Methods, Intra-uterine Devices, Surgical Methods.
CHAPTER 1
Cell Structure and Function
1.1. Discuss the development of cell theory.
The cell theory states that all living things are made up of cells. The cell is the basic
structural and functional unit of living things and it is the smallest unit that displays
the characteristics of life. However, the concept of cell did not emerge all at once but,
rather, was developed and modified over several centuries. The ideas of hundreds of
people were important in the development of cell theory, but key people can be
identified.
The first person to use the term cell was Robert Hooke. He used simple kind of
microscope to study thin slices of cork. He saw many cubicles fitting nearly together.
Anton Van Leeuwenhoek, was one of the first individual who carefully studied magnified
cells. He was the first individual to see cells and recognize them as living unit. But
he did not call them cells. The names he gave to the little “animals” he saw in pond
water was animicules.
Although Hooke, Van Leeuwenhoek, and others continued to make observation,
nearly 200 years passed before it was generally recognized that all living things are
made up cells and these cells can reproduce themselves. In 1838 M.J. Schleiden stated
that all plants are made up of smaller cellular units. In 1839 T. Schwann stated that
all animals are composed of cells.
Soon it was recognized that cell wall of plant cell was essentially lifeless and it was
really the content of cell that had life. The living material was termed as protoplasm.
As better microscope were developed, people began to distinguish two region of
protoplasm. One region is called nucleus appeared as a central body within more fluid
material surrounding it.
Today we know that nucleus has genetic information. Cytoplasm is name given to
fluid portion of protoplasm surrounding nucleus. The development of staining technique,
and electron microscope reveals the presence of organelles. Biologists have categorized
cells into two general type i.e., prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.
The cells of plant, animal, fungi, protozoa and algae are eukaryotic. All the eukaryotic
cells have their genetic material surrounded by a nuclear membrane forming the
cellular nucleus. They also have different types of organelles. There are two categories
of prokaryotic cells : Bacteria and Archaea. Neither of these cell types has nuclear
membrane; therefore they lack a cellular nuclei. They do not have organelles.
5 I
CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION 6 I INTRODUCTION TO BIO SCIENCE
1.2. What is cell ? Discuss the ultra structure of a generalized eukaryotic cell.
Draw a well labelled diagram of cell.
Cell is often defined as smallest unit of structure and function in living organism.
Broadly cells are classified into two types i.e. prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. Different
types of cells may vary in shape and size. Various component of cell for academic
convenience may include three parts :
(1) Cell membrane or plasma membrane
(2) Cytoplasm
(3) Nucleus
The outer boundary of a cell is called plasma membrane. In plant cell, cell wall is also
present on outerside of plasma membrane. It is made of protein and lipid molecule.
The plasma membrane play vital role.
The part of the cell between nucleus and membrane is called cytoplasm. Cytoplasm
and nucleoplasm together form protoplasm. Cytoplasm is highly organised part of cell.
The ground substance of cytoplasm is called cytosol. It contain water, protein,
carbohydrate, fat and other substance. Granular nature of cytosol is due to presence
of several organelles like, chloroplast, mitochondria, golgi complex, endoplasmic
reticulum, ribosomes, lysosomes etc.
All these organelles have different structure and functions like :
(a) Chloroplast perform photosynthesis.
(b) Mitochondria perform respiration.
(c) Endoplasmic Reticulum and ribosomes are important for protein synthesis.
Nucleus is generally present in the centre of all eukaryotic cell. Nucleus carries all
genetic information of individual. It is made up of nucleoplasm, nuclear membrane,
nucleolus and chromatin fibre.
1.3. Differentiate between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells :

There are several difference between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell.
INTRODUCTION TO BIO SCIENCE 7 I CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
Difference between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells
Character Prokaryotic cell Eukaryotic cell
1. Nuclear body Incipient nucleus. True nucleus.

No nuclear membrane Nuclear membrane present.
2. Mitosis No Mitosis Mitosis found
3. DNA arrangement One or more molecules but of In several or many
one type, not in chromosome Chromosome (histone present
(histones absent) in Chromosome)
4. Respiratory system Part of plasma membrane, In mitochondria
mitochondrion absent
5. Photosynthetic apparatus In internal membranes, In chloroplasts
chloroplasts absent
6. Golgibodies, Endoplasmic Absent Present
reticulum, Lysosome
7. Ribosomes 70S types 80S types
8. Cell wall Thin Thick, chemically different
9. Flagella Submicroscopic Microscopic size, each flagellum
composed of fibrils in a distinct
9 + 2 pattern.
10. Cytoplasmic movements Cytoplasmic streaming rare Cytoplasmic streaming often
or absent occurs.
11. Vacuoles Absent Present
12. Lysosome Absent Present in animals
13. Capsule May be present Always absent
1.4. Differentiate between plant cell and animal cell.

There are several difference in plant cell and animal cell.
Animal cell Plant cell
1. Cell wall is absent. 1. Cell wall is present.

2. Plastids are absent. 2. Plastids are present.
3. Few small sized food vacuole and 3. Vacuole are of very large size.
contractile vacuole may be present.
4. Centrioles are present. 4. Centrioles are absent.
5. Microvilli and desmosomes absent. 5. Both present.
1.5. Describe the fluid mosaic model of plasma membrane (cellular membrane).
OR
Describe the structure and function of plasma membrane.
One feature common to all cells and many of the organelles they contain is a thin
layer of material called membrane. Cellular membranes are thin sheets composed
primarily of phospholipids and proteins.
At present, the most widely accepted model of membrane structure is the fluid mosaic
model given by S.J. Singer and G. Nicolson (1974).
According to this model, the membrane contains a bimolecular lipid layer, the surface
of which is interrupted by proteins. Some proteins are attached at the polar surface
of the lipid (i.e., extrinsic or peripheral proteins). While other penetrates the bilayer
or span the membrane entirely (i.e., integral or intrinsic proteins). The lipid
molecule is made up of glycerol and fatty acids. The lipid molecules of membrane
have one end (the glycerol portion) soluble in water and therefore called
hydrophilic (hydro = water; phile = loving). The other end is not water soluble called
hydrophobic (hydro = water; phobia = fear). We commonly represent lipid molecule
as balloon with two strings.
The inflated balloon represents the glycerol and negatively charged phosphate; the
two strings represent the uncharged fatty acid. Consequently when lipid molecules
are placed in water they form a double layered sheet, with hydrophilic portion of
molecules facing away from each other. This is commonly known as lipid bilayer.
Other molecules found in cell membranes are cholesterol and carbohydrate.
Fig. Fluid-mosaic model of plasma membrane.
Functions of Cellular membrane/Plasma membrane :

(i) All the cell maintain individuality and form of cell and its organelles.
(ii) It helps to form sub-cellular organelles within the cytoplasm.
(iii) It controls the cellular interaction between the cells of a tissue.
(iv) The cell membrane play a role in the cellular movement by the formation of
pseudopodia.
(v) Cell membrane has receptor for certain hormones.
(vi) A plasma membrane remains dynamic as long as the plasma membrane is able
to determine which material should enter or leave the cell. Cell membrane
helps in regulating the flow of material and energy into and out of the cell
through the process of diffusion, osmosis, facilitated diffusion, active transport and
phagocytosis.
1.4. Define the following terms :

(i) Diffusion
(ii) Osmosis
(iii) Isotonic
(iv) Facilitated Diffusion
(v) Active transport
(vi) Phagocytosis
(i) Diffusion : Diffusion is defined as the net movement of a kind of molecule from
a place where that molecule is more scarce. Because the cell membrane is composed
of phospholipid and protein molecules that are in constant motion, temporary openings
are formed that allow small molecules to cross from one side of membrane to other.
Rate of diffusion is related to kinetic energy, size of molecules and relative concentration
of molecule.
The difference in concentration of molecules over a distance is known as concentration
gradient. Diffusion is a passive process i.e., chemical bond energy (ATP) does not have
to be expanded.
Example : Oxygen may diffuse into blood through the membrane of lungs gills or
other moist surface of animal body.
(ii) Osmosis : Net movement of water molecule through selectively permeable membrane.
For example : If two solution of 10% and 20% sugar are separated by a selectively
permeable mambrane, this system demonstrates osmosis. Means water move from
their higher concentration (i.e. 10%) to lower concentration (i.e. 20%). Osmosis is also
a passive process.
(iii) Isotonic : If cell contain a concentration of water and dissolved material equal to that
of surrounding, the cells are said to be isotonic to their surroundings.
(iv) Hypertonic and Hypotonic : Organism that live in fresh water have a lower
concentration of water (higher concentration of dissolved solute) than their surrounding
and tend to gain water by osmosis very rapidly. They are said to be hypertonic to
their surrounding and surrounding are hypotonic compared to cells.
(v) Facilitated Diffusion : When rate of diffusion of substance is increased in the
presence of carrier, we call this facilitating diffusion. It is also known as passive
movement.
Example : Movement of glucose molecule across the membrane of certain cells.
In order for glucose molecule to pass into these cell specific protein are required to
carry them across the membrane.
(vi) Active transport : When molecule are moved across the membrane from area of
low concentration to an area of high concentration the cell must expand energy. This
is opposite direction molecule movement in osmosis and diffusion.
The process of using a carrier protein to move molecule up a concentration gradient
is called active transport.
Example : Na+ and K+ are actively pumped across cell membrane. Na+ are pumped
out of cells up a concentration gradient. K+ are pumped into cells up a concentration
gradient.
(vii) Phagocytosis : Material can be transported into a cell by endocytosis and out by
exocytosis. Phyagocytosis is a type of endocytosis. That is a process cells use to wrap
membrane around a particle (usually food) and engulf it. The indented cell membrane
is pinched off inside the cell to form a sac containing the engulfed material. This sac
is called phagosome. The lysosomal enzyme then digest food particle.
If cell is merely engulfing some molecules dissolved in water, the process is called
pinocytosis, and the sac that are formed are very small in comparison to those formed
during phagocytosis.
Fig. Endocytosis and Exocytosis
1.5. Write down the name of organelles composed of membrane.

In addition to cell membrane many other organelles are composed of membrane.
Example : Endoplasmic reticulum, golgi complex, lysosomes nuclear membrane,
chloroplast and mitchondria.
Out of these organelles few can be converted into other organelles. Example :
Phagocytosis results in the formation of vacuolar membrane, from cell membrane
that fuse with lysosomal membrane which in turn come from golgi complex.
Chloroplast and mitochondria are two organelles made up of membrane are incapable
of interconversion and associated with energy conversion in the cell.
1.6. Discuss the structure and function of endoplasmic reticulum.

Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) : The term endoplasmic reticulum is coined by
Porter. The ER is a set of folded membrane and tubes through the cells. ER can
extend from nuclear envelop to plasma membrane.
Ultrastructure : ER is composed of three kind of structure viz.
(i) Cisternae (ii) Vesicles and (iii) Tubules.
(i) Cisternae : These are long, flattened, parallel, sac like interconnected structure.
These are found in the cell which are actively involved in protein synthesis.
Pancreatic cells.
(ii) Tubules : The tubules are branched or unbranched structure forming the reticular
system alongwith the cisternae and vesicles. They are free from ribosomes and
are common in cells involved in lipid and sterol biosynthesis.
(iii) Vesicles : The vesicles are oval, membrane bound vacuolar structure. They are
free from ribosomes. Example : Spermatocytes only have vesicles.
Types of ER : ER are of two types i.e. SER and RER.
Smooth ER : have smooth wall because the ribosomes are not attached to its
membrane. SER is found in adipose cells, liver cells, spermatocytes.
Rough ER : have rough walls, because ribosomes remain attached with its membrane.
RER are found in those cells which are actively involved in protein synthesis.
Common functions of RER and SER :

(i) Provide support to protoplasm (endoskeleton).
(ii) Transport and exchange of material.
Functions of RER :
(i) Provide surface for protein synthesis.
(ii) The proteins in ER lumen are processed and are packed in membrane bound
vesicles for storage, export or further processing in golgi complex.
(iii) Formation of nuclear membrane and plasma membrane.
(iv) Smooth ER formation
(v) Synthesis of lysosomal enzyme.
Functions of SER :
(i) Fat and steroidal biosynthesis.
(ii) Glycogen biosynthesis.
(iii) Detoxification of drug.
(iv) Muscle contruction by release and uptake of Ca++.
(v) Formation of organelles like glyoxysomes.
Fig. Three components of endoplasmic reticulum A–cisternae, B–vesicles, C–Tubules.
1.7. Write down the structure and function of Golgi complex.

Golgi complex : Golgi complex is made up
membranes. The typical Golgi apparatus consists
of 5–20 flattened, smooth membraneous sac which
resemble a stack flattened balloon. The Golgi
apparatus has following function :
(1) It modifies molecules shipped to it from
elsewhere in the cell.
(2) It manufacture some polysaccharides and
lipids.
(3) It packages molecules with in sac.
There is a constant traffic of molecules
through Golgi apparatus. Tiny membraneous
sac called vesicles deliver molecules to one
surface of Golgi apparatus. Many of these
vesicles are formed by endoplasmic reticulum
and contain protein. These vesicles combine
with the sacs of the Golgi apparatus and Fig. Golgi apparatus.
release their contents in toit. Many type of chemical reaction take place within
Golgi apparatus. Ultimately, new sacs, containing “finished products” are produced
from the surface of Golgi apparatus.
1.8. Discuss the structure and function of lysosome.

Lysosomes : Lysosomes are tiny vesicles that contain enzyme capable of digesting
carbohydrate, lipid, proteins.
Because cells are composed of these molecules, these enzymes must be controlled in
order to prevent the destruction of cell. This control is accomplished very simply. The
enzyme of lysosome function best at pH5. The membrane which is outer covering of
the lysosome, transport H+ into lysosome and create acidic pH. Since the pH of cell
is generally 7, these enzyme will not function if released.
On the basis of morphology, their content and function, lysosome are divided into
following four forms :
(i) Primary lysosomes : These are small vesicle like newly formed structure
produced from the Golgi apparatus at trans face. Primary lysosomes contain
inactive enzymes.
(ii) Secondary lysosomes : These are formed when phagosomes fuse to already
existing primary lysosome. These contain enzyme against the material to be
digested.
(iii) Residual bodies : They are secondary lysosomes formed from digestive and
autophagic vacuole which contain only undigested materials.
In some case residual bodies throw their content outside the cell through exocytosis
and in some case residual bodies load the cell and bring about ageing.
(iv) Autophagic vacuole : They are formed by union of many primary lysosomes
around old and dead organelles surround them c vacuolar membrane and digest
them by autolysis.
Function :
(1) Extra and Intra cellular digestion.
(2) Acrosome part of sperm release enzyme to dissolve the egg membrane for entry
of the sperm into ovum during fertilization.
Fig. Lysosome function

1.9. Write a short note on following :

(i) Peroxisomes
(ii) Vacuole
(iii) Nuclear membrane
(i) Peroxisomes : Peroxisomes (also called microbodies) are membranous organelles
found in virtually all eukaryotic cell. Peroxisomes have different types of enzymes
that are involved in different metabolic reactions.
Peroxisomes have an enzyme catalase that are involved in breakdown of H2O2 .
Catalase
H2O2  H2O + O2
Peroxisomes differ from lysosomes in that peroxisomes are not formed by Golgi
complex and contain different enzyme. It appear that membrane surrounding the
peroxisomes is formed from ER and enzyme are imported into this sac like container.
Enzyme of Peroxisomes are involved in breakdown of long chain fatty acids, the
synthesis of cholesterol and lipid.
(ii) Vacuole and Vesicles : There are many kinds of membrane enclosed containers in the
cells known as vacuoles and vesicles. Vacuoles are larger and vesicles are smaller ones.
In the plant there is one huge centrally located, water filled vacuole. Many kind of
protozoa have specialized water vacuole called contractile vacuole which are able to
forcefully expel water that has accumulated in cytoplasm. The contractile vacuole is
necessary organelle in cells that live in fresh water because water constantly diffuses
into cell.
(iii) Nuclear membrane : Nucleus is a place created by nuclear membrane. This
membrane separate genetic material (DNA) from cytoplasm.
The nuclear membrane composed of two layer and has openings called nuclear pore
complex. The nuclear pore complex consists of proteins which collectively form barrel
shaped pores. These pore allow to move RNA into cytoplasm. Thousand of molecule
move in and out through these pores.
1.10. Discuss the structure and function of mitochondria.

Mitochondria : Mitochondria were discovered by Koliker and mitochondria name
was given by Benda. Mitochondria are stained with Janus green B (a vital stain). They
are absent in prokaryotic cells. Mitochondria are secondarily lost in R.B.C. of mammals.
Number of mitochondria varies from cell to cell.
Cell Number of mitochondria
Sperm 25
Kidney cell 300 – 400
Amoeba 50,000
Sea urchin eggs 140,000 – 150,000
Size – 0.5 µ in diameter

Shape – cylindrical, spherical, filamentous
Ultrastructure : Mitochondria has two membrane :
(i) Outer mitochondrial membrane
(ii) Inner mitochondrial membrane
Both membrane are about 6 – 7.5 nm thick. Two membrane are separated by an inter
membrane space called as perimitochondrial space
Outer membrane is smooth but inner membrane projects itself into mitochondrial
cavity in the form of tabular infold known as cristae.
Fig. Section of mitochondrion.

The large mitochondrial cavity is filled with dense, gel fluid called mitochondrial
matrix. This matrix contain protein, lipid, DNA, 70S ribosome, Mn, K+ etc.
The cristae and inner membrane is studded with numerous spherical or knob like
protuberances called F1 particles or oxysomes.
Origin : Mitochondria are self duplicating organelles. Mitochondria are belived to be
bacterial endosymbiont of cell because :
(i) They have DNA, RNA and 70S ribosome.
(ii) They show binary division.
(iii) Their membrane resemble those of bacteria.
Mitochondria are dependent upon nucleus and cytosol (for raw material). Therefore
structure and working of mitochondria is partially controlled by cell nucleus and
cytosol. Hence mitochondria are semi autonomous organelle.
Function :
(i) Mitochondria are power house of the cell.
(ii) Mitochondria bring about oxidation of carbohydrate, protein and -oxidation of fat.
(iii) These are site of aerobic respiration, where Krebs cycle occur in matrix, while
ETS and oxidative phosphorylation enzyme are located on inner membrane.
(iv) Mitochondria are site for formation of certain intermediates which are important
in synthesis of chlorophyll, steroids and alkaloids etc.
(v) Mitochondria help in the synthesis and elongation of fatty acid.
1.11. Discuss the structure and function of plastids/chloroplast.

E. Haeckel gave the term plastid. These are of three types :
Chloroplast – green in colour
Leucoplast – colourless
Chromoplast – orange, red, yellow in colour.
Shape, size and number of chloroplast varies from species to species.
Shape : Ovoid, spheroid, disc shaped.
No. : Chlamydomonas : Single chloroplast, Cup shaped.
Spirogyra : 1 – 16
Higher plant : 20 – 40
Ultra Structure of Chloroplast :
Each chloroplast is bounded by two
unit membrane, separated by space
called periplastidial space. Part inner
to membrane is divided into two
portion : (i) Grana and (ii) Stroma.
Grana fraction consists of
membranous or lamellar system.
This lamellar system is made up of
thylakoid. Thylakoid is a sac like
structure.
Thylakoid are placed one above other
in the form of stacks and form
granum (singular).
The number of granum per chloroplast is 40 – 60 and number of thylakoid per
granum is 2–100. Thylakoid is a site of light reaction of photosynthesis.
Larger thykoids are also present between two grana known as fret channel.
Stroma : Dark reaction of photosynthesis occur in this fraction. Stroma is a
proteinaceous complex. It has 2–6 copies of circular double stranded DNA. Ribosome
are 70S type. Enzyme for dark reaction are also present here. Chloroplasts are
semiautonomous cell organelles. They are capable of self duplication. For duplication
they have DNA, RNA, ribosomes.
Chloroplast are also believed to be bacterial endosymbionts of cell.
Function :
(1) Photosynthesis : In which light energy of sun is converted into chemical form
of energy, which is utilized by all living organism to perform their activities.
1.12. Explain autotroph and heterotroph.

Every organism needs energy for its survival. Organisms are classified into groups on
the basis of type of energy they use.
(1) Autotrophs (auto = self; troph = feeding) : Organism that are able to use basic
energy source, to make energy containing organic molecules from inorganic raw
materials are called autotroph. Autotroph are of two types :
(A) Photosynthetic autotroph : These are green plants and some bacteria
which make their food (organic molecules) from inorganic substance (CO2 and
H2O) in presence of sunlight. This process is known as photosynthesis.
(B) Chemosynthetic autotrophs : Some bacteria are capable of synthesizing
their food (organic molecules) in absence of light. They use energy released
by biological oxidations of certain inorganic substances for the synthesis of
food instead of sunlight. This process is also known as chemosynthesis.
(2) Heterotrophs (Hetero = other; troph = feeding) : Those organism which are
unable to synthesize their food from inorganic material and are dependent on
other for food are known as heterotrophs. Example : Animals.
Heterotrophs get their energy from the chemical bonds of food molecules such as
carbohydrate, protein and fats, which they must obtain from their surrounding.
1.13. Give an overview of aerobic cellular respiration ?

All organisms, whether autotrophic or heterotrophic must carry out cellular respiration
if they are to survive. Because nearly all organisms use organic molecules (food) as
a source of energy, they must obtain organic molecule from their environment or
manufacture these organic molecules, which they will later breakdown. Cellular
respiration is a biochemical process by which chemical energy in organic molecules
is released by oxidation. This energy is then made available to cells in the form of
ATP.
If it require oxygen, it is called as aerobic respiration. If the process takes place in
absence of oxygen, it is known as anaerobic respiration. Aerobic respiration is a
specific series of enzyme controlled chemical reactions in which O2 is involved in
breakdown of glucose into carbon dioxide and water. The chemical bond energy of
glucose is released to the cell in form of ATP.
The following equation summarizes this process :
glucose + oxygen  carbon dioxide + water + energy
C6H12O6 + 6O2  6CO2 + 6H2O + energy (ATP + heat).
In eukaryotic cells, the process of releasing energy from food molecules begins in the
cytoplasm and is completed in mitochondria. There are three distinct enzymatic
pathways involved : Glycolysis, Krebs cycle, and Electron transport system.
Glycolysis (glyco = sugar, lysis = to split) is a series of enzyme controlled reactions
that takes place in the cytoplasm of cells which results in the breakdown of glucose
with release of electron and formation of ATP.
Fig. An Overview of aerobic respiration.

During glycolysis 6C sugar (Glucose) is split into two 3C pyruvic acid (C stands for
carbon). Enough energy is released to produce ATP molecules. Some of bonds holding
H-atoms to glucose molecule are broken, and the electrons are picked up by electron
carrier molecules (NAD +) and transferred to a series of electron-transfer reaction
known as electron transport system (ETS). Summary of one turn of glycolysis :
Glucose + 2ATP + 2NAD+  4ATP + 2NADH+ + 2 pyruvic acid
The 3C pyruvic acid molecules released from glycolysis enter the mitochondria. Here
one of its C is stripped off and remaining 2C fragment is attached to a molecule of
coenzyme A (CoA), becoming a compound called acetyl CoA.
Pyruvic acid + NAD+ + CoA  Co + NADH+ + Acetyl CoA
Now Acetyl CoA enter in Krebs cycle. Later is a enzyme controlled reactions that
takes place in mitrochondria. During Krebs cycle Acetyl CoA is completely oxidized
(i.e. remaining hydrogen and their electrons are removed).
The electrons are picked up by electron carriers NAD+ and FAD. These electron are
sent in ETS (Electron Transport System). ATP is also formed during Krebs cycle. The
remaining carbon and oxygen atoms are combined to form CO2 .
Fundamental Summary of one turn of Krebs cycle :
Acetyle CoA + ADP + 3NAD + FAD  CoA + ATP + 3NADH+ + FADH2
Of the 3 steps of aerobic respiration, cell generate the greatest amount of ATP from
Electron transport system. The energy from NADH and FADH2 molecules generated
in glycolysis and Krebs cycle is used to produce ATP.
Iron containing cytochrome enzyme molecule are located on inner mitochondrial
membrane. The energy containing electrons are passed from one cytochrome to other
cytochrome, and the energy is used to pump proton (H+) from one side of membrane
to the other.
As the concentration of hydrogen ions (H+) increases on one side, a proton gradient
builds up. Because of this concentration gradient, membrane channel is opened, the
protons flow back to the side from which they were pumped (mitochondrial matrix).
As they pass through the channels. ATPase (a phophorylase enzyme) speeds the
formation of an ATP molecule by bonding a phosphate to an ADP molecule. When all
the electrons and hydrogen ions are accounted for, a total 32 ATP. ATPs are formed
from the electron and hydrogen removed from the original glucose molecule. The
hydrogen are bonded to oxygen to form water.
Fundamental summary of electron transport system :
32 ADP + 10 NADH + 2 FADH2 + 6O2  32 ATP + 10 NAD+ + 2FAD+ + 12H2O
Total number of ATP produced by complete oxidation of one glucose molecule 36 is

eukaryotes.
1.14. Explain what happen in glycolysis. How many net ATP are produced.
OR
Discuss the process of glycolysis in detail.
Cellular respiration has three steps. The first step of cellular respiration takes place
in the cytoplasm. This step is known as glycolysis, consists of the enzymatic breakdown
of a glucose molecule into pyruvic acid. Because no oxygen is required glycolysis is
called an anaerobic process. In first reaction glucose reacts with ATP to form glucose–
6–phosphate, which is converted to fructose–6–phosphate. When fructose–6–phosphate
reacts with ATP, it is converted to fructose–1–6–Bisphosphate.
Due to cleavage of fructose–1–6–Bisphosphate 2 molecules of 3C compound are formed.
Both these compounds (Glyceraldehyde–3–phosphate and Dihydroxy acetone
phosphate) are interconvertable. In this way 2 molecules of Glyceraldehyde–3–phosphate
are produced from 1 molecule of glucose. Now Glyceraldehyde–3–phosphate is converted
into 1–3–bisphosphoglycerate.
Now a series of reduction follows, in which energy is released by breaking chemical
bonds that hold the phosphates to 1–3–bisphosphoglycerate. The energy and phosphates
are used to produce ATP. Since there are two 1–3–bisphosphoglycerate molecule each
with 2 phosphates, a total 4 ATPs are produced. Because 2 ATPs were used to start
the process a net yield of 2 ATPs result.
In addition four hydrogen atoms detach from the carbon skeleton and their electrons
are transferred to NAD+ to form NADH, which transfer the electrons to ETS. Two
molecules of pyruvic acids are produced from the break down of glucose also.
Fundamental summary of one turn of glycolysis :
Glucose + 2ATP + 2NAD +  4ATP + 2NADH + 2 pyruvic acid
Fig. Different steps in glycolysis or EMP pathway.

1.15. Describe the principle steps of Krebs cycle. Where in the cell does the cycle
take place ? How many ATP are produced ? What other compounds are
released as a result of the cycle ?
A series of reactions known as Krebs cycle takes place within the mitochondria of cell.
It gets its name from its discoverer, Hans Krebs. The cycle is also known as citric
acid cycle and Tricarboxylic acid cycle (TCA) The pyruvic acid molecule released from
glycolysis enter the mitochondria.
In the mitochondrial matrix pyruvic acid is converted into acetyl coenzyme A. The
reaction can be summarised as follow :
Pyruvic acid + NAD+ + Coenzyme A 
Pyruvate dehydrogenase
 CO2 + NADH + Acetyle CoA
This Acetyl coenzyme A enters the series of reaction known as Krebs cycle. During
Krebs cycle Aceyl CoA is systematically dismantled. Its hydrogen atoms are removed
and the remaining carbons are released as CO2.
In the first reaction Acetyl group of Acetyl-CoA is transferred to a 4C compound
(oxaloacetate), and a new 6C compound (Citrate) is formed, citrate is broken down in
a series of reaction, which ultimately produce oxaloacetate. Through this series of

reactions in Krebs cycle electrons are removed and along with proton, become attached
to NAD+ and FAD to form NADH and FADH2 which will be shuttled to ETS. Carbon
is released as CO2 Enough energy is released, i.e., 1 ATP for each Acetyl-CoA that
enter the cycle.
Fundamental summary of one turn of the Krebs Cycle :
Acetyl coenzyme A + ADP + 3NAD + FAD  CoA + ATP + 2CO2 + 3NADH + FADH2
For each acetyl – CoA molecule that enters the Krebs cycle :
(i) The 3 carbon from pyruvate are converted to acetyl CoA and released as CO2. One
CO2 is released before acetyl CoA is formed.
(ii) Five pair of hydrogens become attached to 4 NAD+ and 1 FAD to become 4NADH
and 1 FADH2. One NADH is released before the acetyl CoA enters the Krebs cycle.
(iii) One ATP is generated.
Fig. Different steps in Kreb’s cycle.
1.16. Describe the principle steps of electron transport chain. How many ATP are
produced by glucose molecule.
Of the three steps of aerobic cellular respiration (Glycolysis, Krebs cycle and electron
transport system) cell generate greatest amount of ATP from the electron transport
system (ETS). The series of reactions in which energy is transferred from the electron
and proton carried by NADH and FADH2 to produce ATP is known as ETS.
The reactions of ETS are associated with inner mitochondrial membrane. In ETS
there are 4 enzyme complex (I to IV) :
• The electrons carried by NADH enter reaction in enzyme complex I, where they
lose some energy and are eventually picked up by coenzyme Q.
• Electrons from FADH2 enter enzyme complex II and also eventually transferred
to coenzyme Q.
• Coenzyme Q transfers the electrons to enzyme complex III.
• In complex III, electron lose additional energy and are transferred to cytochrome
C which transfer the electrons to enzyme complex IV.
• In complex IV the electrons are eventually transferred to oxygen.
As electron lose energy in complex I, complex III, complex IV, additional proton are
pumped into perimitochondrial space from mitochondrial matrix. As concentration of
proton increases on one side, a proton gradient builds up. Because of this concentration
gradient, a membrane channel is opened, the protons flow back to side from which
they pumped. As they pass through the channel a phosphorylase enzyme (ATPase)
speeds the formation of an ATP molecule by bounding a phosphate to an ADP molecule.
Total ATP production from one Glucose molecule :
A total 12 pair of hydrogen and electrons are transported to the ETS from glycolysis
and Krebs cycle for each glucose that enter the process. In eukaryotic organism, the
pair of electrons can be accounted as follow :
• 2 pairs are carried by NADH and were generated during glycolysis outside the
mitochondria.
• 8 pairs are carried by NADH and were generated inside mitochondria.
• 2 pairs are carried by FADH2 and were generated inside mitochondria.
For each of the 8 NADH generated within mitochondria enough energy is released
to produce 3 ATP. Therefore 24 ATP are released from these electron carried by
NADH. In eukaryotic cell, the electron released during glycolysis are carried by
NADH and converted to FADH2 in order to shuttle them into mitochondria. Once
they are inside the mitochondria, they follow same path as the other 2 FADH2 from
the Krebs cycle.
The electrons carried by FADH2 are lower in energy. They release enough energy to
produce 8 ATPs (from one FADH2 2 ATP can be produced). Therefore, a total 32 ATPs
are produced from the hydrogen that enter the ETS. Finally, a complete accounting
of all the ATPs produced during all three parts of aerobic cellular respiration result
in total of 36 ATP : 32 from the ETS, 2 from glycolysis and 2 from Kreb cycle.
Aerobic ATP production :
Stage of Aerobic Prokaryotes Eukaryotes
respiration
Glycolysis Net gain 2 ATP Net gain 2 ATP
Krebs cycle 2 ATP 2 ATP
ETS 34 ATP 32 ATP
Total 38 ATP 36 ATP
Fig. Electron Transport System.

1.17. What do you understand by anaerobic respiration.

Anaerobic respiration is often
referred to as fermentation. A
variety of micro-organism use
anaerobic respiration as their
major source of energy. An
organism that does not require O2
as its final electron acceptor is
called anaerobe (an = without;
aerob = air) and perform anaerobic
cellular respiration.
Anaerobic respiration is an
incomplete oxidation of glucose. It
results in the production of small
electron containing compound and
energy in the form of heat and
ATP.
The first step of anaerobic
respiration is glycolysis whose end
product is pyruvic acid, ATP and
NADH.
Depending upon the kind of
organism and the specific enzyme
it possesses, the pyruvic acid can
be converted into lactic acid, ethyl
alcohol acetone or other
compound.
Alcoholic fermentation is the
anaerobic respiration path way
that yeast cells follow when O2 is
lacking in their environment. In Fig. Fermentations
this pathway that yeast cells follow
when O2 is lacking in their environment. In this pathway pyruvic acid is converted
to ethanol and CO2. Yeast cell then are able to generate net 2 ATP from glycolysis.
During alcoholic fermentation yeast cell get ATP and discard waste product (CO2 and
alcohol). These waste product are useful to human, Example : in manufacturing of
bread and alcohol. In lactic acid fermentation, the pyruvic acid is converted into lactic
acid. In this case net profit is again only 2 ATP per glucose. The lactic acid waste
product from these types of anaerobic bacteria are used to make yogurt, cheese etc.
As a result of excessive exercise, muscle may face O2 deficiency. And muscle cell
starts anaerobic respiration. That results in build up of lactic acid. Accumulation of
lactic acid in muscle may cause pain.

CHAPTER 2
DNA and RNA
2.1. Write down the structure of nucleic acid.
OR
Discuss the structure of DNA and RNA.
Nucleic acid was discovered by Friedrich Miescher from pus cells and he called it
nuclein. The term nucleic acid was introduced by Altman. The nucleic acids are highly
complex polymeric compound containing hydrogen, carbon, oxygen, nitrogen and
phosphorus. These are of 2 types :
(i) Deoxy ribonucleic Acid or DNA (ii) Ribonucleic Acid or RNA.
Nucleotides : The structural units forming a nucleic acid molecule are called
nucleotides. A single nucleotide is formed by combination of three compound – a
nitrogenous base, a pentose sugar and phosphoric acid.
Base : The base is nitrogenous organic compound which is derivative of either
pyrimidine or purine. The pyrimidine bases are Thymine (T), Cytosine (C), and Uracil
(U). The purine bases are Adenine (A) and Guanine (G). Only four bases (C, T, A, G)
are present in DNA as well as in RNA (C, U, A, G). Thymine of DNA is subsituted
by Uracil in RNA.
Nitrogenous bases of nucleic acids.

23 I
DNA AND RNA 24 I INTRODUCTION TO BIO SCIENCE
Sugar : Nucleic acids also have two type of sugar i.e. ribose in RNA and deoxyribose
in DNA.
Phosphoric acid : It is orthophosphoric acid and is often referred as phosphate.
Nucleotide = Nucleoside + Phosphoric acid
Nucleoside = Sugar + Nitrogenous base
In nucleotide base is attached to sugar at its C1 position and phosphoric acid is
attached to sugar at its C5 position. The nucleotide link together to form polynucleotide
strand.
Sugars and phosphate of nucleic acids.

In polynucleotide phosphate group of one nucleotide molecule link with 3' carbon
atom of sugar molecule of other nucleotide.
DNA : James. D. Watson and Francis H. Crick proposed a model of DNA for which
they were awarded Nobel prize in 1962.
Molecular structure of DNA.

INTRODUCTION TO BIO SCIENCE 25A DNA AND RNA
In brief DNA model has following characteristics :

(1) A polynucleotide is formed by many nucleotide which in turn consist of nitrogenous
base, sugar and phosphate.
(2) Nitrogenous base is attached at 1 carbon of sugar.
(3) Sugar and phosphate form long axis of a polynucleotide and base are at right angle.
(4) Phosphodiester bond joins adjacent nucleotide of same strand forming linkage between
5 carbon of sugar of one nucleotide and 3 carbon of other nucleotide.
(5) Two polynucleotide strands are antiparallel as they run in opposite direction.
(6) Two polynucleotide strand are complementary to one another. The complementary
base pair are adenine in one strand opposite to thymine of other strand. Similarly
cytocine is opposite to guanine.
(7) Hydrogen bonds join 2 strands between their complementary base. There are 3
hydrogen bond between cytosine and guanine while 2 hydrogen bond between adenine
and thymine.
(8) Diameter of double stranded DNA molecule is 20A°.
(9) One complete turn of helix is of 34A°.
(10) Each turn has 10 base pairs and distance between each pair is 3.4A°.
(11) Double strand has right hand coiling and it is called B-DNA.
RNA (Ribonucleic acid) : The RNA is also consist of nucleotide, like DNA, but they
differ from DNA. RNA nucleotide has ribose sugar. RNA contain nitrogenous bases
Uracil (U), Guanine (G), Cytosine (C) and Adenine (A). RNA exists only as single
stranded. On the bases of their function four kinds of RNA have been recognized :
(a) m-RNA (b) r-RNA (c) t-RNA (d) Viral-RNA
(a) m-RNA (messenger RNA) : It serve as a template for the synthesis protein
(b) r-RNA (ribosomal RNA) : It makes upto 75% of total cellular RNA. It occur in the
ribosomes.
(c) t-RNA (transfer RNA) : It is known as transfer RNA, because it accept and transport
specific amino acid to ribosome for protein synthesis. It is also known as soluble RNA.
(d) Viral-RNA : It is the genetic material of such viruses that do not possess DNA.
2.2. Describe differences in the structure of DNA and RNA.
Characteristic RNA DNA
(1) Occurrence In cytoplasm, nucleolus and Mainly nucleus also in chloroplast

chromosome and mitochondria
(2) Bases Adenine, Guanine, Cytosine, Adenine, Guanine, Cytosine,
Uracil Thymine
(3) Sugar Ribose Deoxyribose
(4) Hydrolyzing Ribonuclease Deoxyribonuclease
enzyme
(5) Function Protein synthesis, some times Always genetic information
genetic information
2.3. What functions are performed by nucleic acid ?

All organism use nucleic acid as genetic material to :
(i) store information that determine the characteristic of cell and organism.
(ii) direct the synthesis of proteins essential to the operation of cell or organism;
(iii) chemically change (mutate) genetic characteristics that are transmitted to future
generations; and
(iv) replicate prior to reproduction by directing the manufacture of copies itself.
2.4. What is gene ?

Gene is a fragment of DNA that is capable of producing a particular protein by the
process of transcription and translation.
2.5. What is a base pairing rule and what factor stabilize the DNA double helix ?
The two paired strands of DNA form double helix. The double helix is stabilized
because nitrogenous bases are only able to match with certain other nucleotide on
opposing strand. Pairing is determined by the molecular shape of bases and their
ability to form hydrogen bond. Just which pair come together is referred to as base-
pair rule. The rule states that Adenine (A) pairs with Thymine (T) and Guanine (G)
pairs with Cytosine (C).
2.6. Why DNA replication is necessary ? Write down the process of replication.
When a cell grows and divide, two new daughter cells result. Both daughter cells need
DNA to survive, so the DNA of parent cell is copied. One copy is provided to each new
cell. DNA replication is a process by which a cell makes copies of its DNA. DNA
replication is also necessary for the repair of damage DNA.
Process of DNA replication : The process of DNA replication relies on DNA base
pairing rule and many enzymes. The process of DNA replication involve following
steps :
(1) DNA replication begins as helicases enzymes
gets attach to DNA and separate 2 strand. This
forms a replication bubble. In prokaryotic cells,
replication starts at ony one place along the
cells DNA molecule. This place is called origin
of replication. In eukaryotic cells the replication
process starts at same time in several different
places along the DNA molecule.
(2) Unwinding is followed by synthesis of new
opposite the parental or template strand.
(3) Initiation of replication is done by RNA
polymerase enzyme which synthesize a small
streach of RNA, known as primer. This RNA
primer is extented by DNA polymerase III. DNA polymerase III attach new incoming
nucleotide one at a time onto the surface of parent strand. Nucleotide enter each
position according to base pair rules – (A) binds with (T) and (G) pairs with (C).
RNA primer is removed once initiation of DNA synthesis occur.
(4) DNA replication occur in 5 – 3 direction during synthesis of new strand. When DNA
replication proceeds, of the 2 parental strands the enzyme forms one new strand
(daughter strand) in continuous streach in 5 – 3 direction. It is known as leading
strand. On the other parent strand enzyme forms short pieces of DNA in 5 – 3
direction starting from RNA primer. This is called lagging daughter strand. These
short pieces of DNA is called Okazaki fragment.
Short pieces of lagging strand are joined by enzyme DNA ligase. RNA primer is also
replace with DNA. Thus continuous DNA strand is formed.
In this way 2 DNA molecule are formed from one DNA molecule. Each daughter
molecule of DNA consists of 2 strand one parental (old) and other new. Hence newly
synthesized molecule would conserve one of the 2 strands from the parental molecule
and other would be assembled new. This is known as semiconservative mode of
replication.
2.7. List the sequence of event that take place when a DNA message is translated
into protein.
OR
Discuss the process of protein synthesis
OR
What do you understand by transcription and translation ?
Proteins are synthesized in two steps, that is, transcription and translation.
Step one : Transcription – Making RNA :
Transcription is a process of using DNA as a template (stencil) to synthesize RNA.
This work is performed by RNA polymerase enzyme. RNA polymerase enzyme attaches
to the DNA at specific site, known as promoter sequence. This is the specific sequence
of DNA nucleotide that indicate the location of protein coding region and identifies
which of the 2 DNA strand should be used. One of the 2 strand of DNA is used as
template for RNA synthesis. This strand is known as coding strand. As RNA polymerase
moves down the coding strand, new complementary RNA nucleotide are base-paired
to template (coding) strand. The base paired RNA nucleotide are linked together by
RNA polymerase to form new RNA molecule that is complementary to nucleotide
sequence of DNA.
RNA polymerase stop transcribing the DNA when it reaches to termination sequence.
Termination sequence are DNA nucleotide sequences that indicate when RNA
polymerase should finish making of an RNA molecules.
The cells have mainly 3 types of RNA (r-RNA, t-RNA, m-RNA). In a prokaryotic cell
all types of RNA are synthesized by only one type of RNA polymerase. In eukaryotic
cell, RNA polymerase are of 3 types :
(i) RNA Polymerase I  (r-RNA) ribosomal RNA synthesis
(ii) RNA Polymerase II  (m-RNA) messenger RNA synthesis
(iii) RNA Polymerase III  (t-RNA) transfer RNA synthesis
In eukaryotic cell RNA Polymerase II produces nascent RNA. This nascent RNA must
undergo the process of processing to become mature messenger RNA. The process of
processing includes :
(a) Splicing (Removal of introns)
(b) Modification of 5' end of m-RNA by capping (Methylated guanosine cap is added at 5'
end of m-RNA).
(c) Polyadenylation at 3' end (Poly (A) is added to 3' end of m-RNA).
Step Two : Translation – Making Protein :
DNA (or RNA) carries all genetic information. It is expressed in form of proteins.
Proteins are made up of 20 different amino acids. The information about number and
sequence of these amino acids forming protein is present in DNA and passed on to
m-RNA during transcription. Hence, translation is a process of using information in
RNA to direct protein synthesis by attaching amino acids to one another.
The m-RNA is read linearly in sets of three nucleotides called codons. Each codon
codes for the placement of a specific amino acid. Hence sequence of codons in m-RNA
determines the sequence of amino acids in protein.
The process of translation has 3 basic steps :

(i) Initiation : The protein synthesis begins with small ribosomal subunit binding to
specific, location on m-RNA. (Ribosome is a non-membranous organelles that synthesize
protein. A Ribosome is made of different types of protein and different types of
ribosomal RNA. Each ribosome has 2 subunits i.e. larger and smaller subunits).
Amino acid are taken to m-RNA-ribosome complex by transfer RNA (t-RNA). The
portion of t-RNA that interact with codons of m-RNA is called anticodon. The anticodon
of t-RNA is a short sequence of nucleotide that base-pair with the nucleotide in
m-RNA molecule. The other end of t-RNA carries an amino acid. The correct match
between t-RNAs and amino acids is made by an enzyme in cell.
The first codon is always AUG that codes for methionine amino acid. So methionine
is always the first amino acid of each protein.
After the first methionine t-RNA molecule is lined up over the start codon, the larger
subunit of ribosome joins the smaller subunit to bind the m-RNA.
(ii) Elongation : Now second t-RNA (whose anticodon is complementary to second codon
of m-RNA) along with its amino acid attaches to m-RNA ribosome complex. A peptide
bond is formed between methionine and second amino acid. Now second t-RNA has
2 amino acid and first t-RNA is released. Once the new amino acid has been added
to growing polypeptide chain the ribosome moves one codon along the m-RNA.
Now next t-RNA enters with its amino acid and ribosome adds the new amino acid
to growing chain. The ribosome continue to add one amino acid after another to
growing protein unless it encounter a stop signal.
(iii) Termination : The stop signal in m-RNA is also a codon. The stop codon can be
either UAA, UGA, UAG. When any of these three codon appear during elongation
process, a chemical release factor enter the ribosome. The release factor causes the
ribosome to detach from protein. When protein releases the ribosomal, subunits
separate and release the m-RNA. The subunits of ribosome can also be reused. They
can be used to make another copy of protein or can be broken down according to cell’s
need.
2.8. What is genetic code.

DNA determine the sequence of amino acids in protein. Proteins are not synthesized
directly on DNA. Infact they are manufactured in cytoplasm along ribosomes involving
RNA.
The genetic information is passed through m-RNA on to the protein. Hence it was
needed to prepare a dictionary for translating the language of RNA to language of
protein. One language has 4 alphabets (A, U, G, C) and other has 20 alphabets (20
different amino acids). It is not possible that one alphabet or single base of RNA may
be equivalent to single alphabet or amino acid of protein. A single code could give only
4 codons, a doublet code could have 16 codon and a triplet code would express 43 (64)
triplets. These 64 triplets could be enough to code for 20 amino acids.
Following are the 20 common amino acids used in the protein synthesis operation of
a cell. Each has a known chemical structure and is coded for by specific m-RNA
codons.
Table : Amino acid-mRNA dictionary and the 20 common amino acids and
their abbreviations
Characteristics of genetic code :
(i) Genetic code is triplet : A triplet code consisting of 3 nucleotide is required for each
amino acid.
(ii) Genetic code is degenerate : More than one triplet codon can be used for one
amino acid. This characteristics of code is known as degenerate.
(iii) Genetic code is non-overlapping : The same letter is not used for 2 different
codons of same message, this is called non-overlapping code.
(iv) Genetic code is non ambiguous : There is no ambiguity about particular codon
which will always code for same amino acid. Thus each codon has specific meaning.
(v) Genetic code is commaless : After one amino acid is coded, the second amino acid
will automatically coded by next codon. Thus there is no gap or punctuation between
two consecutive codon or synthesis of 2 consecutive amino acids.
(vi) Genetic code is universal : Bacteria, Algae, protozoa, plants, fungi and animals, all
of them uses the same codon to code for same amino acids.
2.9. Discuss how a cell may regulate the gene-expression/protein synthesis.

Gene expression occur when cell transcribe and translate a gene. Cell and organisms
use thousands and thousands of different proteins to survive, grow and reproduce.
Cell do not produce all the proteins at once. It would be great waste of resource. It
is crucial for organisms to control what proteins are produced and active at diferent
times under different condition. A number of different mechanism occur in cell to

ensure that proper proteins are produced at right times. These mechanism act at all
different stages of protein synthesis, from before transcription to after translation.
The control of gene expression may occur at several levels in the cell. For example
genes rarely operate during mitosis, when DNA fibre is shorter and thicker to form
chromatids. The inactive chromatin is compacted and tightly coiled and this coiling
regulate access to gene (RNA polymerase can not transcribe this gene).
Other levels of gene control can occur during and after transcription. In transcription,
certain segments of DNA (enhencers) can increase and accelerate the activity of
nearby genes.
After transcription has taken place the m-RNA molecule can altered to regulate gene
activity. For example researchers have have found that m-RNA molecule contains
many useless bit of RNA (intron) that are removed in production of m-RNA. The
remaining pieces of m-RNA called exon, are then spliced to form final m-RNA. Thus
through removal of intron and retention of exon can alter the message received from
DNA and control gene expression. One advantage of introns is that a single protein
coding region can code more than one protein.
Scientist originally estimated that human had 80,000 to 100,000 genes.
This was based on a techniques that allowed them to estimate the number of different
proteins found in humans. When human genome was mapped, scientists were surprised
to find that human have only 25000 gene. This suggests that many of our genes are
capable of making several different proteins. Alternative splicing is the process of
selecting which exon will be retained during the normal process of splicing.
In this way quality and quantity of protein in the cell may be regulated.
2.10. What amino acid sequence would occur in the protein chemically coded by
following sequence :
TACCAAAGCA.
It is DNA sequence. So first m-RNA is synthesized from this sequence and then it is
translated.
TACAAAGCA DNA
 Transcription
AUGUUUCGU m-RNA
 Translation
Methonine – Phenylalanine – Arginine (Protein)
As AUG is codon for Methioninc
As UUU is codon for Phenylalanine
As CGU is codon for Aryinine.

CHAPTER 3
Cell Division
3.1. What are the three general types of cellular reproduction ?

The ability to grow and reproduce are two basic features of life. Both these feature
depend on the process of cell division. Cell division is a process by which single cell
generates new daughter cells.
Cell division is a mean of increasing the number for single celled organism. For
multicellular organism, cell division is a process that lead to growth, healing of
injuries and formation of gametes.
There are three general type of cell division i.e., Binary fission, Mitosis and Meiosis.
Binary fission is a method of cell division used by prokaryotic cell (Bacteria). During
binary fission, the bacteria DNA replicates and becomes attached to the plasma
membrane inside the cell. As a membrane forms inside the cell, two DNA copies
become separated into two daughter cell.
Mitosis is a method of cell division used by eukaryotic cells. Mitosis also results in
two daughter cells that are genetically identical to parent cell. It is a complex process
by which chromosomes of eukaryotic cell are replicated and divided into two daughter
cells.
Meiosis is a method of cell division used by eukaryotic cells. As a result of meiosis
daughter cells are produced but they have half the genetic information of parent cell.
3.2. What do you understand by sexual and asexual reproduction ?

For a single celled organism, binary fission and mitosis are method of asexual
reproduction.
Asexual reproduction requires only one parent that divides and result in two organism
that are genetically identical to parent.
Prokaryotes (Bacteria) typically undergo binary fission whereas single celled and
multicellular eukaryotes undergo mitosis.
For multicellular organisms mitosis is a process that lead to growth, the replacement
of host cells, the healing injuries, and formation of reproductive cells.
Sexual reproduction require two parents to donate genetic information when creating
offspring. The result of sexual reproduction is genetically unique individual.
32 I
INTRODUCTION TO BIO SCIENCE 33 I CELL DIVISION
Meiosis is a process that produces cells (gametes) needed for sexual reproduction.
Gametes (reproductive cell) receive half of the parent cells genetic information.
3.3. Give difference between asexual and sexual reproduction.
Difference between asexual and sexual reproduction :
Asexual Reproduction Sexual Reproduction

(i) Only one parent is required (i) Two parents are required
(ii) Type of cell division are mitosis and (ii) Type of cell division is meiosis.
binary fission
(iii) Daughter cell is genetically identical (iii) As a result of meiosis (egg and sperm)
to parent cell. reproductive cells are formed. These
cells are fused to form unique
individual.
3.4. Outline briefly the event that take place in each stage of cell cycle.
OR
Discuss the process of Mitosis with the help of suitable diagram.
The sequence of event which occur between one cell division and the next is called
cell cycle. It has three main stage :
(i) Interphase (ii) Mitosis (iii) Cytokinesis/Cell division
(i) Interphase : It is metabolically most active
stage. Interphase is the longest phase of cell.
It is divided into three parts : (a) G1 phase
(b) S phase (c) G2 phase.
(a) G1 phase : This is period of high activity
of RNA and protein synthesis. This is
longest phase of interphase in which cell
grows in size. The decision to divide is
taken during G1 phase. Synthesis and
organisation of substances and enzyme
necessary for DNA synthesis take place
during this phase.
(b) S phase : It is a period of DNA replication and histone synthesis. The structure
of chromosome consists of DNA wrapped around histone proteins to form
chromatin. The individual strands of chromatin are too thin and tangled to be
seen with a compound microscope. As a cell gets ready to divide, the chromatin
coils become visible as chromosome. As chromosome become more visible at the
beginning of mitosis you can see two thread like part lying side by side each
parallel thread is called chromatid. After DNA replication chromosome contain
two DNA molecule, one in each chromatid.
(c) G2 phase : It is a final stage of interphase. In this phase synthesis of protein for
spindle formation, division of chloroplast and mitochondria occur. The doubling of
centriole occur.
(ii) Mitosis : G2 phase is followed by mitosis phase. During which duplicated chromosome
CELL DIVISION 34 I INTRODUCTION TO BIO SCIENCE
are separated into two nuclei. Mitosis phase includes four stages :
(a) Prophase (b) Metaphase (c) Anaphase (d) Telophase.
(a) Prophase : It is the longest phase of

mitosis. It involves number of changes
in cell which take place more or less
simultaneously.
A new set of two centrioles appears. The
centrioles move apart and migrate
towards opposite pole of the cell.
Numerous microtubules radiates from
the centriole like the rays of a star. They
are termed as aster rays.
The fine chromatin threads shorten and thicken. These threads are known as
chromosomes. Each chromosome has a single centromere with which are attached
two identical chromatid. Numerous fibre make their appearance on ways to form
spindle between the two set of centrioles while above changes go on the nucleolus
and nuclear membrane gradually disappear.
(b) Metaphase : While spindle is being
formed, the chromosome, with their
chromatids still attached, move
towards the equitorial plane of the
cell, i.e., a plane midway between two
planes. A equitorial plane, each
centromere gets attached to two
opposing fibres of the spindle. Astral
mitosis or amphiastral mitosis occur
in animal cell.
INTRODUCTION TO BIO SCIENCE 35 I CELL DIVISION
In cells of higher plants centriole and asters are absent such mitosis is called
anastral mitosis.
(c) Anaphase : Each centromere divides to
separate two sister chromatids. The sister
chromatids, now called chromosome
migrate towards the opposite poles by
contraction of spindle fibres of respective
sides. During their migration centromere
again foremost so that chromosome
characteristically appear U, V and J shaped.
After the arrival of chromosome at the
poles, the spindle fibres disappear. Anaphase
is shortest phase of all stages in mitotic
cycle.
(d) Telophase : This may be called as
reconstruction and reorganization phase.
The chromosome uncoil, become thinner
and longer and finally form chromatin.
A nuclear membrane appears around
each set of chromosomes, leaving the
centriole outside it, to form daughter
nuclei. A nucleus appear in each
daughter nucleus. The asters gradually
disappear.
(iii) Cytokinesis : At the end of telophase cell has two nucleus. The division of nucleus
is called karyokenesis, is followed by division of cytoplasm. The latter is known as
cytokenesis. Cytokenesis occur by two method :
(a) Cell furrow method
(b) Cell plate method
Cell furrow method occur in animal cells. In the centre of or at equator of cell, the
cell membrane begins to invaginate. This furrow develop during telophase and gradually
deepens to separate daughter cells.
Cell plate formation occur in plants cell. To separate two daughter cells, a cell plate
is formed in the centre of cell and then it proceed to periphery. In the equator of cell
interzonal microtubules are deposited around a plasma body called phagmoplast. Golgi
body vesicles are deposited and fuse with phagmoplast to form cell plate. Around cell
plate primary cell walls are deposited on each side.
The completion of mitosis and cytokenesis marks the end of one round of cell
division.
3.5. What is a difference between plant and animal cell mitosis ?

Difference between plant and animal cell mitosis :
CELL DIVISION 36 I INTRODUCTION TO BIO SCIENCE
Animal cell Plant cell

(a) It occur in almost all tissue of body (a) Occur generally in meristematic tissue
(b) Centrioles are generally present (b) Centriole is absent
(c) Astral mitosis occur (c) Anastral mitosis occur
(d) Cytokenesis occur due to furrow (d) Cytokinesis occur due to cell plate
formation formation.
3.6. What role does p53 have in controlling cell division.

OR
Why regulation/controlling of mitosis is necessary ?
Uncontrolled cell division may lead to cancer. That’s why regulation of cell division
is very necessary process.
The progression of mitosis involves several check points which ensure that all cellular
component are present and in good working condition. These check point also ensure
that cell with lost or damaged DNA do not proliferate.
The check points are G1 S and G2 M. G1 S occur before S phase and G2 M occur after
G2 before cell enters mitosis. Both these checkpoints regulate the mitosis by a
mechanism which involves the interaction of two protein cyclin and cyclin dependent
kinase.
Maturation promoting factor includes Cdk and cyclins that triggers progression through
cell cycle
p53 is a protein that functions to block the cell cycle if DNA is damaged. If cell damage
is severe this protein can cause apoptosis (cell death). p53 mutation is most frequent
mutation leading to cancer.

CHAPTER 4
Genetic Engineering
4.1. Write down a short note on electrophoresis.
Electrophoresis is a technique used to separate different pieces of DNA on the basis
of their length. Electrophoresis involves movement of DNA fragments or molecules
under high voltage electricity. The mixture of DNA is loaded in well created on one
edge of the gel. The dimension of gel is usually 10 cm long and 0.5 cm thick. The most
commonly used gel is agarose which is a natural polymer extracted from sea weed.
Since DNA is negatively charged molecules they can be separated by forcing them to
move towards anode under electric field through gel. The rate of the movement of
molecule is inversely correlated with the size of fragments or molecules, so heavier
fragment will remain closer to the site of loading and lighter fragments will move
away.
37 I
GENETIC ENGINEERING 38 I INTRODUCTION TO BIO SCIENCE
The separated fragment can be visualised only after staining the DNA with ethidium
bromide followed by exposure to UV radiation. You can see bright orange coloured
bands (fragments) of DNA in ethidium bromide stained gel. The separated band of
DNA is cut out from the agarose gel and extracted from gel piece. This step is known
as elution. This purified fragment can further be used for different purposes. In some
case polyacrylamide gel is also used in place of agarose gel.
4.2. Discuss the technique by which you can multiply the DNA in laboratory.
OR
Discuss the polymerase chain reaction.
Polymerase reaction is a laboratory procedure for copying, or multiplying the particular
DNA segment. With PCR, a single cell may provide enough DNA for analysis and
identification. It is a newer technique, having been developed in 1983 by Kary Mullis,
for which discovery he won Noble prize in 1993.
Requirement of PCR :
(i) DNA from the sample specimen serve as template for replication.
(ii) Tag polymerase is an enzyme. It is used to catalyze the reaction or DNA synthesis.
(iii) DNA primers are short segments of single stranded DNA, which are used to direct
the Tag DNA to replicate only certain region of the template DNA. These primers are
specifically designed to flank the ends of the target region’s DNA sequence.
(iv) All four free DNA nucleotides (A, G, T, C) are used to assemble new strands of DNA.
Procedure :
(i) To begin a PCR amplification, enzyme, template, primer and all four types of nucleotide
are added and incubated so that it synthesizes new complementary strand.
(ii) The mixture is then heated to 94°C so that newly synthesized strand gets detach from
template. This process is known as denaturation.
(iii) Now cooled the reaction mixture, enabling more primers to hybridize at their respective
position, including position on newly synthesized DNA. This process is known as
hybridization.
(iv) Now carry out the second round of replication.
(v) The cycle of denaturation–hybridization–Synthesis is repeated, usually 25 – 30 times,
resulting in the eventual synthesis of several hundred million copies of amplified DNA
fragment. At the end of a PCR sample of the reaction mixture is usually analyed by
agarose gel electrophoresis.
INTRODUCTION TO BIO SCIENCE 39 I GENETIC ENGINEERING
Fig.
4.3. Discuss the technique of DNA sequencing.

OR
What do you understand by the dideoxy method or Sanger method ?
Fig.
DNA Sequencing : DNA sequencing is the determination of the precise sequence of

nucleotides in a sample of DNA. The most popular method for doing this is called the
dideoxy method or Sanger method (named after its inventor, Frederick Sanger).
DNA is synthesized from four deoxynucleotide triphosphates. The figure shows one
of them : deoxythymidine triphosphate (dTTP). Each new nucleotide is added to the
3' –OH group of the last nucleotide added.
The dideoxy method gets its name from the critical role played by synthetic nucleotides
that lack the –OH at the 3' carbon atom. A dideoxynucleotide can be added to the
growing DNA strand but when it is, chain elongation stops because there is no 3'
–OH for the next nucleotide to be attached to. For this reason, the dideoxy method
is also called the chain termination method.
The Procedure : The DNA to be sequenced is prepared as a single strand.
This template DNA is supplied with
• a mixture of all four normal (deoxy) nucleotides in ample quantities
• dATP
• dGTP
• dCTP
• dTTP
• a mixture of all four dideoxynucleotides, each present in limiting quantities and

each labelled with a “tag” that fluoresces a different color :
• ddATP
• ddGTP
• ddCTP
• ddTTP
• DNA polymerase I
Because all four normal nucleotides are present, chain elongation proceeds normally
until, by chance, DNA polymerase inserts a dideoxy nucleotide instead of the normal
deoxynucleotide. If the ratio of normal nucleotide to the dideoxy versions is high
enough, some DNA strands will succeed in adding several hundred nucleotides before
insertion of the dideoxy version halts the process.
At the end of the incubation period, the fragments are separated by length from
longest to shortest. The resolution is so good that a difference of one nucleotide is
enough to separate that strand from the next shorter and next longer strand. Each
of the four dideoxynucleotides fluoresces a different color when illuminated by a laser
beam and an automatic scanner provides a printout of the sequence.
4.4. What do you understand by DNA finger printing ? Discuss its technique and
applications.
OR
What is DNA Fingerprinting ?
The chemical structure of everyone’s DNA is the same. The only difference between
people (or any animal) is the order of the base pairs. There are so many millions of
base pairs in each person’s DNA that every person has a different sequence.
Using these sequences, every person could be identified solely by the sequence of
their base pairs. However, because there are so many millions of base pairs, the task
would be very time-consuming. Instead, scientists are able to use a shorter method,
because of repeating patterns in DNA.
These patterns do not, however, give an individual “fingerprint”, but they are able to
determine whether two DNA samples are from the same person, related people, or
non-related people. Scientists use a small number of sequences of DNA that are
known to vary among individuals a great deal, and analyse those to get a certain
probability of a match.
Variable Number Tandem Repeats (VNTRs) : Every strand of DNA has pieces
that contain genetic information which informs an organism’s development (exons)
and pieces that, apparently, supply no relevant genetic information at all (introns).
Although the introns may seem useless, it has been found that they contain repeated
sequences of base pairs. These sequences, called Variable Number Tandem Repeats
(VNTRs), can contain anywhere from twenty to one hundred base pairs.
Every human being has some VNTRs. To determine if a person has a particular
VNTR, a Southern Blot is performed, and then the Southern Blot is probed, through
a hybridization reaction, with a radioactive version of the VNTR in question. The
pattern which results from this process is what is often referred to as a DNA
fingerprint.
A given person’s VNTRs come from the genetic information donated by his or her
parents; he or she could have VNTRs inherited from his or her mother or father, or
a combination, but never a VNTR either of his or her parents do not have. Because
VNTR patterns are inherited genetically, a given person’s VNTR pattern is more or
less unique. The more VNTR probes used to analyze a person’s VNTR pattern, the
more distinctive and individualized that pattern, or DNA fingerprint, will be.
The process of the DNA fingerprinting includes following steps :
(i) The first step to making a genetic fingerprint requires getting a sample of DNA. This
sample can come from blood, semen, hair or saliva, and may be an extremely small
sample. The root from a single strand of hair is enough for researchers to work with.
(ii) PCR is used to make many copies of the portions of the DNA that contain VNTR.
(iii) Next the restriction enzymes are used to cut the VNTR DNA into smaller pieces.
Restriction enzymes work by cutting the DNA at a specific sequence. So that VNTR
can be detected.
(iv) To detect the differences in VNTR, the pieces are separated by electrophoresis.
(v) Comparison between patterns can be made.
Applications of DNA Fingerprinting :
(i) Paternity and Maternity : Because a person inherits his or her VNTRs from his
or her parents, VNTR patterns can be used to establish paternity and maternity. The
patterns are so specific that a parental VNTR pattern can be reconstructed even if
only the children’s VNTR patterns are known. Parent-child VNTR pattern analysis
has been used to solve standard father-identification cases as well as more complicated
cases of confirming legal nationality and, in instances of adoption, biological parenthood.
(ii) Criminal Identification and Forensics : DNA isolated from blood, hair, skin cells,
or other genetic evidence left at the scene of a crime can be compared, through VNTR
patterns, with the DNA of a criminal suspect to determine guilt or innocence. VNTR
patterns are also useful in establishing the identity of a homicide victim, either from
DNA found as evidence or from the body itself.
(iii) Personal Identification : The notion of using DNA fingerprints as a sort of genetic
bar code to identify individuals has been discussed, but this is not likely to happen
anytime in the foreseeable future. The technology required to isolate, keep on file,
and then analyze millions of very specified VNTR patterns is both expensive and
impractical. Social security numbers, picture ID, and other more mundane methods
are much more likely to remain the prevalent ways to establish personal identification.
Problems with DNA Fingerprinting :
Like nearly everything else in the scientific world, nothing about DNA fingerprinting
is 100% assured. The term DNA fingerprint is, in one sense, a misnomer: it implies
that, like a fingerprint, the VNTR pattern for a given person is utterly and completely
unique to that person. Actually, all that a VNTR pattern can do is present a probability
that the person in question is indeed the person to whom the VNTR pattern belongs.
Given, that probability might be 1 in 20 billion, which would indicate that the person
can be reasonably matched with the DNA fingerprint; then again, that probability
might only be 1 in 20, leaving a large amount of doubt regarding the specific identity
of the VNTR pattern’s owner.
4.5. What do you understand by genetic engineering ? How does it works.

OR
What is the process of gene cloning ?
Genetic engineering is the deliberate, controlled manipulation of the genes in an
organism with the intent of making that organism better in some way. Proponents
of genetic engineering claim that it has numerous benefits, including the production
of food-bearing plants that are resistant to extreme weather and adverse climates,
insect infestations, disease, molds, and fungi. In addition, it may be possible to reduce
the amount of plowing necessary in the farming process, thereby saving energy and
minimizing soil erosion. A major motivation is the hope of producing abundant food
at low cost to reduce world hunger, both directly (by feeding GMOs to human beings)
and indirectly (by feeding GMOs to livestock and fish, which can in turn be fed to
humans).
Genetic engineering carries potential dangers, such as the creation of new allergens
and toxins, the evolution of new weeds and other noxious vegetation, harm to wildlife,
and the creation of environments favourable to the proliferation of molds and fungi.
Genetic engineering is also known as genetic modification.
Working of genetic engineering :
Stage 1 : The desired gene can be removed from the DNA of the donor organism
using enzymes called restriction endonucleases. These are enzymes which chop up
DNA strands, cutting them at specific sites, which means they can be used to remove
very specific genes. Certain types of restriction endonucleases are particularly useful
because they leave small regions of DNA sticking out at each end of the required
gene. These are known as sticky ends, and make it much easier to attach the gene
into another piece of DNA.
Stage 2 : The second step is to prepare a vector molecule to carry the DNA into the
host cell-often a bacterium. A bacterial plasmid (a small circular strand of DNA often
found in bacteria in addition to their main DNA) is often used as a vector. These
plasmids often carry a marker gene – for example, coding for resistance to a particular
antibiotic. This means that it is relatively easy to demonstrate later which organisms
have been successfully engineered by growing them in a medium containing the
antibiotic. Only the genetically-engineered organisms will be resistant, and so only
they will grow.
The bacterial plasmid is opened up using restriction enzymes which leave sticky ends
which correspond to those of the new gene.
Stage 3 : The third step is to join the new gene into the bacterial plasmid. The sticky
ends are lined up and the gene is attached – annealed – using enzymes called DNA
ligases to act as ‘genetic glue’ and join the pieces of DNA together.
Stage 4 : The final step is to incorporate the engineered DNA into the bacterium or
other cell where it is required. This is known as transformation. Once the plasmid
is inside the host bacterium (or other cell) it will be expressed and a new protein
made. Microorganisms are the most commonly used organisms in genetic engineering
because they are relatively easy, quick and cheap to culture and there are fewer
ethical issues about their usage. However increasing numbers of other types of cells
are being engineered on a regular basis as genetic modification techniques develop.
Fig. Process of Genetic Engineering
4.6. What is gene therapy ?

Genes, which are carried on chromosomes, are the basic physical and functional units
of heredity. Genes are specific sequences of bases that encode instructions on how to
make proteins. Although genes get a lot of attention, it’s the proteins that perform
most life functions and even make up the majority of cellular structures. When genes
are altered so that the encoded proteins are unable to carry out their normal functions,
genetic disorders can result.
Gene therapy is a technique for correcting defective genes responsible for disease
development. Researchers may use one of several approaches for correcting faulty
genes :
• A normal gene may be inserted into a nonspecific location within the genome to
replace a nonfunctional gene. This approach is most common.
• An abnormal gene could be swapped for a normal gene through homologous
recombination.
• The abnormal gene could be repaired through selective reverse mutation, which
returns the gene to its normal function.
• The regulation (the degree to which a gene is turned on or off) of a particular gene
could be altered.
4.7. Explain how does gene therapy work ?

In most gene therapy studies, a “normal” gene is inserted into the genome to replace
an “abnormal,” disease-causing gene. A carrier molecule called a vector must be used
to deliver the therapeutic gene to the patient’s target cells. Currently, the most
common vector is a virus that has been genetically altered to carry normal human
DNA. Viruses have evolved a way of encapsulating and delivering their genes to
human cells in a pathogenic manner. Scientists have tried to take advantage of this
capability and manipulate the virus genome to remove disease-causing genes and
insert therapeutic genes.
Target cells such as the patient’s liver or lung cells are infected with the viral vector.
The vector then unloads its genetic material containing the therapeutic human gene
into the target cell. The generation of a functional protein product from the therapeutic
gene restores the target cell to a normal state. Some of the different types of viruses
used as gene therapy vectors are : Retroviruses, Adenoviruses, Adeno-associated
viruses.
4.8. What factors have kept gene therapy from becoming an effective treatment
for genetic disease ?
Following are various factors :
• Short-lived nature of gene therapy : Before gene therapy can become a
permanent cure for any condition, the therapeutic DNA introduced into target cells
must remain functional and the cells containing the therapeutic DNA must be long-
lived and stable. Problems with integrating therapeutic DNA into the genome and
the rapidly dividing nature of many cells prevent gene therapy from achieving any
long-term benefits. Patients will have to undergo multiple rounds of gene therapy.
• Immune response : Anytime a foreign object is introduced into human tissues,
the immune system is designed to attach the invader. The risk of stimulating the
immune system in a way that reduces gene therapy effectiveness is always a
potential risk. Furthermore, the immune system’s enhanced response to invaders
it has seen before makes it difficult for gene therapy to be repeated in patients.
• Problems with viral vectors : Viruses, while the carrier of choice in most gene
therapy studies, present a variety of potential problems to the patient--toxicity,
immune and inflammatory responses, and gene control and targeting issues. In
addition, there is always the fear that the viral vector, once inside the patient, may
recover its ability to cause disease.
• Multigene disorders : Conditions or disorders that arise from mutations in a
single gene are the best candidate for gene therapy. Unfortunately, some the most
commonly occurring disorders, such as heart disease, high blood pressure, Alzheimer’s
disease, arthritis, and diabetes, are caused by the combined effects of variations in
many genes. Multigene or multifactorial disorders such as these would be especially
difficult to treat effectively using gene therapy.
4.9. Discuss the human genome project in detail.

Human Genome Project : The sequence of bases in DNA determines the genetic
information of a given organism. In other words, genetic make-up of an organism or
an individual lies in the DNA sequences. If two individuals differ, then their DNA
sequences should also be different, at least at some places. These assumptions led to
the quest of finding out the complete DNA sequence of human genome. With the
establishment of genetic engineering techniques where it was possible to isolate and

clone any piece of DNA and availability of simple and fast techniques for determining
DNA sequences, a very ambitious project of sequencing human genome was launched
in the year 1990.
Goals of Human Genome Project (HGP) :
Some of the important goals of HGP were as follows :
(i) Identify all the approximately 20,000 – 25,000 genes in human DNA;
(ii) Determine the sequences of the 3 billion chemical base pairs that make up human
DNA;
(iii) Store this information in databases;
(iv) Improve tools for data analysis;
(v) Transfer related technologies to other sectors, such as industries;
(vi) Address the ethical, legal, and social issues (ELSI) that may arise from the
project.
The Human Genome Project was a 13-year project coordinated by the U.S. Department
of Energy and the National Institute of Health. During the early years of the HGP.
The Welcome Trust (U.K.) became a major partner; additional contributions came
from Japan, France, Germany, China and others. The project was completed in 2003.
Knowledge about the effects of DNA variations among individuals can lead to
revolutionary new ways to diagnose, treat and someday prevent the thousands of
disorders that affect human beings. Besides providing clues to understanding human
biology, learning about non-human organisms DNA sequences can lead to an
understanding of their natural capabilities that can be applied toward solving challenges
in health care, agriculture, energy production, environmental remediation. Many
non-human model organisms, such as bacteria, yeast, Caenorhabdities elegans (a free
living non-pathogenic nematode), Drosophila (the fruit fly), plants (rice and Arabidopsis),
etc., have also been sequenced.
Methodologies : The methods involved two major approaches. One approach focused
on identifying all the genes that are expressed as RNA (referred to as Expressed
Sequence Tags (ESTs)). The other took the blind approach of simply sequencing the
whole set of genome that contained all the coding and non-coding sequence, and later
assigning different regions in the sequence with functions (a term referred to as
Sequence Annotation). For sequencing, the total DNA from a cell is isolated and
converted into random fragments of relatively smaller sizes and cloned in suitable
host using specialized vectors. The cloning resulted into amplification of each piece
of DNA fragment so that it subsequently could be sequenced with ease. The commonly
used hosts were bacteria and yeast, and the vectors were called as BAC (bacterial
artificial chromosomes), and YAC (yeast artificial chromosomes).
The fragments were sequenced using automated DNA sequencers that worked on the
principle of a method developed by Frederick Sanger. These sequences were then
arranged based on some overlapping regions present in them. This required generation
of overlapping fragments for sequencing. Alignment of these sequences was humanly
not possible. Therefore, specialised computer based programs were developed. These
sequences were subsequently annotated and were assigned to each chromosome. The
sequence of chromosome I was completed only in May 2006 (this was the last of the
24 human chromosomes – 22 autosomes and X and Y – to be sequenced). Another
challenging task was assigning the genetic and physical maps on the genome. This
was generated using information on polymorphism of restriction endonuclease

recognition sites, and some repetitive DNA sequences known as microsatellites.
Salient Features of Human Genome :
Some of the salient observations drawn from human genome project are as follows :
(i) The human genome contains 3164.7 million nucleotide bases.
(ii) The average gene consists of 3000 bases, but sizes vary greatly, with the largest
known human gene being dystrophin at 2.4 million bases.
(iii) The total number of genes is estimated at 30,000-much lower than previous
estimates of 80,000 to 1,40,000 genes. Almost all (99.9 per cent) nucleotide bases
are exactly the same in all people.
(iv) The functions are unknown for over 50 per cent of the discovered genes.
(v) Less than 2 per cent of the genome codes for proteins.
(vi) Repeated sequences make up very large portion the human genome.
(vii) Repetitive sequences are stretches of DNA sequences that are repeated many
times, sometimes hundred to thousand times. They are thought to have no direct
coding functions, but they shed light on chromosome structure, dynamics and
evolution.
(viii) Chromosome 1 has most genes (2968), and the Y has the fewest (231).
(ix) Scientists have identified about 1.4 million locations where single-base DNA
differences (SNPs – single nucleotide polymorphism) occur in humans. This
information promises to revolutionise the processes of finding chromosomal
locations for disease-associated sequences and tracing human history.
4.10. What is Genetically Modified Organism (GMO). Support your answer with
the help of few example of GMO.
Plant, bacteria, fungi and animals whose genes have been altered by manipulation are
called Genetically Modified Organism (GMO). GM plants are useful in many ways.
Genetic modification has :
(i) made crop more resistant to abiotic stresses (cold, drought, heat).
(ii) reduce reliance on chemical pesticides (pest-resistant crops).
(iii) helped to reduce post harvest losses.
(iv) increased efficiency of mineral usage by plants (this prevent early exhaustion of
fertility of soil).
(v) enhanced nutritional value, e.g. vitamin A enriched rice.
Examples of few GMO :
(i) Bt cotton : Bt cotton is insect resistant. Bacillus thuringiensis is a bacterium, it
produces a protein that can kill the insect. This protein (toxin) is produced by cry gene
of bacterium. The cry gene (Bt toxin gene) were isolated from the bacterium and
incorporated in the cotton plant. Now cotton plant start producing toxin protein and
becomes insect resistant.
(ii) A second kind of genetically engineered plant involves insertion of a gene for herbicide
resistance into genome of certain crop plants. When both the crop and weeds begin
to grow, the field could be sprayed with a specific herbicide that would kill the weeds
but not harm the herbicide resistant crop plants.
(iii) Third example is “golden rice”. Normally rice eaters suffer with vitamin A deficiency
because vitamin A is not present in rice. Genetically modified rice have gene for
vitamin A production (i.e. beta carotene gene).
(iv) Production of human insulin from bacteria : Insulin is a hormone that maintains
the blood glucose level. Diabetic patients do not have proper amount of this hormone.
Hence management of adult onset diabetes is possible by taking insulin at regular
time intervals.
The gene-cloning process is used to place a copy of human insulin gene into bacterium.
As the bacterial cell reproduce (divide) the human DNA it contains is replicated along
with bacterial DNA. The insulin gene is expressed along with bacterial gene and
colony of bacteria produce insulin. This bacteria-produced insulin is both more effective
and cheaper than previous therapies, which involved obtaining insulin from the pancreas
of slaughtered animals.
4.11. What do you understand by stem cells.

Stem cells are the cells that are self renewing and have not yet completed determination
or differentiation. So they have potential to develop into many different cell types.
Stem cells are involved in many processes like tissue regeneration, wound healing,
cancer, other disease treatment. Some kinds of degenerative disease occur because
specific kinds of cell die or cease to function properly, e.g., Parkinson’s disease results
from malfunctioning brain cell, and many form of diabetes are caused by malfunctioning
cells in pancreas.
If stem cells could be used to replace these malfunctioning cells, normal function
could be restored and the disease cured.
Embryonic stem cell : Embryo stem cell as their name suggests, are derived from
embryo.
Once sperm cell and egg cell have fused, cleavage produces a blastocyst. The inner
cell mass of the blastocyst develops into embryo.
Adult stem cell : Embryonic stem cell reach an intermediary level of determination
at which they are committed to becoming a particular tissue type, but not necessarily
a particular cell type. Scientist call these partially determined stem cell “tissue specific”.
These type of stem cells are found in adult, e.g., Hematopoietic stem cells from which
different type of blood cells (R.B.Cs, W.B.Cs and platelets) are formed.
Disadvantage of this type of cells is that they can differentiate only in a particular
tissue not all type of tissue.
Personalized stem cell line : One potential use of biotechnoloy is the production
of customized stem cell lines. In this application a somatic cell nucleus from patient
would be inserted into human egg from which the nucleus has been removed. The
egg would divide and generate stem cells. These cells could then be cultured and used
for therapy.
4.12. What is ‘somatic cell nuclear transfer’ technique. Discuss its use in cloning
of organism.
OR
Who is dolly ?
OR
What do you understand by clone and cloning of organism.
Cloning does not always refers to exchanging just a gene. Another type of cloning is
the cloning of entire organism. The technique used to accomplish cloning in vertebrates
is called somatic cell nuclear transfer. Somatic cell nuclear removes a nucleus from
a cell of the organism that will be cloned. After chemical treatment, that nucleus is
placed into an egg cell that has had it original nucleus removed. The egg cell will use
the new nucleus as genetic information. Now electric shock is used to stimulate the
egg to begin to divide as if it were a normal embryo. After transferring the egg with
its new nucleus into a uterus, the embryo grow normally. The resulting organism is
genetically identical to the organism that donate nucleus. Dolly is sheep who was first
mammal clone.
Cloning of Organism
Flow chart for the production of customized cell lines

CHAPTER 5
Human Reproduction and
Reproductive Health
5.1. Discuss the structure of male reproductive system.
Male Reproductive System : Male reproductive system is located in the pelvis
region. It includes a pair of testes along with accessory duct, glands and external
genitalia.
Testes : The testes are situated outside the abdominal cavity within a pouch called
scrotum. In adults each testes is oval in shape, with a length of about 4 to 5 cm and
width of about 2–3 cm. Each testes has 250 compartments called testicular lobules.
Each lobule contain 2–3 highly coiled seminiferous tubules in which sperm are produced.
The space outside the seminiferous tubules called interstitial spaces, contain small
blood vessel and interstitial cells/Leydig cells. These cells produce androgens (hormone).
Accessory ducts : The male sex accessory ducts include rete testis, vasa efferentia,
epididymis and vas deferens. The seminiferous tubules of testis open into vasa efferentia
through rete testis. The vasa efferentia leave the testis and open into epididymis. The
epididymis lead to vas deferens that ascends to the abdomen and loops over urinary
bladder. Vas deferens receive a duct from seminal vesicle and open into urethra as
ejaculatory duct. These duct store and transport the sperms from testis to outside
through bladder and extends through the penis to its external opening called urethral
meatus.
External genetalia : Penis is the male external genetalia. It is made up of special
tissue that helps in erection of penis to facilitate insemination (transfer of sperms
into female genital tract).
Male accessory gland : The male accessory glands include paired seminal vesicles,
a prostrate, and paired bulbourethral glands. Seminal vesicles produce viscous fluid
which contribute to volume of semen. It also protects and provides nourishment to
the sperms. Bulbourethral gland secrete a clear, alkaline viscid fluid which is ejected
out at the tip of penis at the time of sexual excitement. It also lubricates the vagina
of coupling women at the time of sexual intercourse.
Prostrate gland secretes an alkaline milky fluid, which neutralizes acidity in the
urethra caused due to residual urine.
51 I
HUMAN REPRODUCTION 52 I INTRODUCTION TO BIO SCIENCE
Fig. Side view of human Fig. Simplified diagram showing the structure
male reproductive system. of the human testis and tubes carrying sperm
from seminiferous tubules to the urethra.
5.2. Write down the structure of female reproductive system.

Female Reproductive System : The female reproductive system consists of a pair
of ovaries alongwith a pair of oviduct, uterus, cervix, vagina and external genitalia.
These part of system along with a pair of the mammary glands are integrated
structurally and functionally to support the process of ovulation, fertilization, pregnancy,
birth and child care.
Ovaries : Ovaries are the primary sex organs, that produce the female gamete
(ovum) and hormones. Each ovary is about 2-4 cm in length and is connected to pelvic
wall and uterus by ligaments.
Oviduct : Each Oviduct (fallopian tube) is about 10–20 cm long and extends from the
periphery of each ovary to the uterus, the part closer to the ovary is funnel shaped
infundibulum. The edge of infundibulum possess finger-like projections called fimbriae,
which help in collection of ovum after ovulation.
Uterus : Uterus is single and its is also called womb. Uterus opens in vagina through
cervix. The wall of uterus is made of 3 layer i.e. perimetrium, myometrium and
endometrium.
External genitalia : It include monspubis, labia major, labia minor, hymen and
clitoris. Mons pubis is cushion of fat tissue covered by skin and pubic hair. The labia
majora are fleshy folds of tissue, which extend down from mons pubis and surround
the vaginal opening. The labia minora are paired folds of tissue under labia majora.
The opening of vagina is often covered partially by a membrane called hymen. The
clitoris is tiny finger like structure which lies at upper junction of two labia minora
above urethral opening.
INTRODUCTION TO BIO SCIENCE 53 I HUMAN REPRODUCTION
Mammary Gland : A functional mammary gland is characteristic features of female

mammals. In human female mammary glands are paired structures (Breasts) that
contain glandular tissue. The glandular tissue of each breast is divided into 15–20
mammary lobes containing clusters of cells called alveoli. The cells of alveoli open
into mammary tubules. The tubules of each lobe join to form a mammary duct.
Several mammary duct join to form a wider ampulla which is connected to lactiferous
duct through which milk is sucked out.
Fig. Human female Reproductive System
5.3. What do you understand by gametogenesis ?

Gametogenesis : The process of formation of gametes is called gametogenesis. In
human beings male gamete is called sperm and female gamete is called ovum. The
sperms are produced in the testis by the process of spermatogenesis. The egg (ovum)
is produced in ovary by the process of oogenesis.
Spermatogenesis : The process of spermatogenesis begins at puberty. We can discuss
this process in following steps :
 In testis, spermatogonia (immature germ cells) is divided by mitotic division and is
increased in numbers.
 Some spermatogonia called primary spermatocytes periodically undergo meiosis.
 Primary spermatocytes is a diploid cell (has 46 chromosome in case of male human
being) and is divided into 2 haploid cells (each cell has 23 chromosomes) called
secondary spermatocytes by first meiotic division.
 The secondary spermatocytes undergo second meiotic division to (A type of cell division)
to produce 4 equal haploid spermatids.
 Spermatids are transformed into spermatozoa by the process called spermiogenesis.
Several hormones play an important role in this process. Spermatogenesis starts at
the age of puberty due to significant increase in the secretion of gonadotropin releasing
hormone (GnRH).
The GnRH then acts on pituitary gland and stimulate the secretion of (LH) leutunising
hormone and (FSH) Follicle stimulating hormones. LH acts on leydig cells and
stimulates the secretion of androgens. Endrogens, in turn, stimulate the process of
spermatogenesis. FSH is responsible for spermiogenesis.
Fig. Summary of gametogenesis in the male and female.
5.4. What do you understand by oogenesis ?

Oogenesis : The process of formation of mature female gamete is called oogenesis.
Unlike the production of sperm in male, which begins at puberty, the production of
egg in female begins before birth. During development of the fetus many oogonia are
produced. These undergo mitosis and form primary oocytes which remain at prophase
of meiosis I throughout the childhood. Primary oocytes are enclosed by single layer
of cells, granulosa cells (or follicle cells), and form a structure known as primodial
follicles. During woman’s fertile years one primodial follicles per month develops into
a mature follicle, known as Graafian follicle. This is in reponse to FSH (follicle
stimulating hormone).
Within each developing follicle, a primary oocyte starts to develop into an egg. The
primodial follicle first become a primary follicle as the granulosa cells multiply and
form many layer of cells around the primary oocyte. In addition cell form, cell from
the stroma of the ovary form further layers outside these cells collectively as theca.
Outer part of theca contains blood vessels and merges with stroma, the general
background material of the ovary. The inner part of theca secrete female sex hormones
as do the granulosa cells.
As primary follicle develops, a fluid is secreted by granulosa cells contains oestrogen,
one of the female sex hormone. A fluid filled space, the antrum develops in the
follicle. It is now referred to as a secondary follicle. Oestrogen stimulates growth of
the follicle, which eventually become mature follicle, also known as a Graafian follicle.
It contains a secondary oocyte and a polar body formed when the primary oocyte is
divided by meiosis I. The secondary oocyte is haploid. The second meiotic division
proceeds as far as metaphase but does not continue until sperm fuses with oocyte. At
fertilization the secondary oocyte undergoes the second meiotic division producing
large cell, the ovum and a second polar body.
Fig. Section through a human ovary showing the stages in the development of a Graafian follicle,
ovulation and the formation and degeneration of the corpus luteum. Not all these stages would
be seen together. The numbers indicate the sequence of the stages.
5.5. What is menstrual cycle. Discuss the role of different hormones involved in
this cycle.
Menstrual Cycle : The reproductive cycles in the female primates (e.g. Monkeys.
Apes and Human beings) is called menstrual cycle. With every cycle, a woman’s body
prepare for a potential pregnancy whether or not that is women’s intention. The term
menstruation refers to the periodic shedding of uterine lining. The first menstruation
begins at puberty and is called menarche. In human females, the menstruation is
repeated at an average interval of about 28 days, and the cycle of events starting from
one menstruation till next is called menstrual cycle.
The major events of menstrual cycle are discussed as follow :
(i) The cycle starts with menstrual phase, where menstrual flow occurs and lasts for
3–5 days. The menstrual flow is a result of breakdown of inner layer (endometrium)
of uterus wall.
(ii) The menstrual phase is followed by follicular phase. During this phase, primary
follicles in ovary grow to become Graafian follicle and simultaneously the endometrium
of uterus regenerates through proliferation. LS and FSH hormones are responsible
for these changes in ovary and uterus. FSH and LH stimulate follicular development
as well as secretion of estrogen by growing follicles. Both LH and FSH attain a peak
level in middle of cycle (about 14th day). Rapid secretion of LH leading to its maximum
level during the mid cycle called LH surge induce rapture of Graafian follicle and
thereby release the ovum (Ovulation).
(iii) The ovulation is followed by the
luteal phase during which the
remaining parts of the Graafian
follicle transform as corpus luteum.
The corpus luteum secretes large
amount of progesterone which is
essential for the maintenance of
endometrium. Such an
endometrium is necessary for
implantation of fertilised egg and
other event of pregnancy. During
pregnancy all events of the
menstrual cycle stop and there is
no menstruation. In absence of
fertilisation, the corpus luteum
degenerates. This causes
disintegration of endometrium
leading to menstruation, making
a new cycle. In human beings
menstrual cycle ceases around 50
years of age that is termed as
Fig. Changes occurring during the menstrual cycle. Levels
menopause. of the hormones FSH, LH, oestrogen and progesterone are
shown, and the associated changes in the ovaries and uterus
can be seen.
5.6. Discuss the different events that takes place during fertilization and
implantation.
Fertilisation : Fertilisation is the fusion of sperm nucleus with the egg nucleus to
form a diploid cell known as the zygote. During copulation semen is released by penis
into vagina (insemination). The sperms make their way through the cervix into
uterus and then on to the fallopian tubes, where fertilization takes place. The process
of fertilization takes place in following stages :
 The enzyme released by sperm digest a path through the material holds the granulosa
(follicle) cells together.
 The sperm move by lashing their tail and reach the outer surface of zona pellucida,
a thick surrounding of secondary oocyte.
 Another enzyme digest a path through the zona pellucida and sperm moves through
to the surface of the secondary oocyte.
 As a sperm is entered inside the egg, a fertilization membrane is formed outside the
secondary oocyte. It prevents the entry of further sperm and therefore the possibility
of more than one sperm fertilising the same egg.
 The entry of sperm act as stimulus for completion of the second meiotic division of
the secondary oocyte which produce ovum and polar body.
 Now the nucleus of sperm fuses with the nucleus of ovum and hence diploid zygote
is formed.
Implantation : As a result of fertilization zygote is formed. The mitotic division
starts as zygote move through fallopian tube (oviduct) towards uterus and forms 2, 4,
8, 16 daughter cells called blastomere. The embryo with 8 to 16 blastomeres is called
morula. The morula continues to divide and transforms into blastocyst as it moves
further into the uterus. The blastomere in the blastocyst are arranged into an outer
layer called trophoblast and an inner group of cells attached to trophoblast called
inner cell mass. The trophoblast layer then gets attached to endometrium and inner
mass get differentiated as the embryo. After attachment, the uterine cells divide
rapidly and covers the blastocyst. As a result the blastocyst become embedded in the
endometrium of uterus. This is called implantation and lead to pregnancy.
5.7. Discuss the different events occurring during the embryonic development of
human beings.
Embryonic development : As a result of fertilization, zygote is formed. Then this
zygote is implanted in the uterus. After implantation, a finger like projection appear
on trophoblast called chorionic villi which are surrounded by uterine tissue. The
chorionic villi and uterine tissue become interdigitated with each other and jointly
form a structural and functional unit between developing embryo (foetus) and maternal
body called placenta. Placenta plays a major role in nourishing and removing waste
from developing embryo. The placenta is connected to embryo through an umbilical
cord. Placenta produces several hormones like human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG),
human placental lactogen (hPL), estrogen, progestron etc. These hormones plays an
important role in maintenance of pregnancy.
The cells of inner cell mass, form a structure called embryonic disc, which give rise
to the embryo. The cells of embryonic disc differentiated and form an outer layer of
cells (ectoderm) and an inner layer (endoderm). At later stage the mesoderm is
formed and all these 3 ‘germ’ layer’s give rise to all tissue of embryonic development.
The development of three layers in this way is called gastrulation and occurs in
10–12 days after fertilisation. The brain and spinal cord develop in the third week
from a tube called neural tube which arise from ectoderm. After 6 weeks, the embryo
is recognisable human called fetus. The fetus normally completes a total of about 38
weeks of development, the gestation period, before birth occur. Most of the major
organs are formed by twelfth week of pregnancy, and remainder of the gestation
period is taken up by growth. The major events during pregnancy can be summarised
as follow :
Diary of development of the human foetus :
Week 1 : Fertilisation. Cleavage to form a blastocyst 4–5 days after fertilisation. More
than 100 cells. Implantation 6–9 days after fertilisation.
Week 2 : The three basic layers of the embryo develop, namely ectoderm, mesoderm
and endoderm. No research allowed on human embryos beyond this stage.
Week 3 : Woman will not have a period. This may be the first sign that she is
pregnant. Beginnings of the backbone. Neural tube develops, the beginning of the
brain and spinal cord (first organs). Embryo about 2 mm long.
Week 4 : Heart, blood vessels, blood and gut start forming. Umbilical cord developing.
Embryo about 5 mm long.
Week 5 : Brain developing. ‘Limb buds’, small swellings which are the beginnings of
the arms and legs. Heart is a large tube and starts to beat, pumping blood. This can
be seen on an ultrasound scan. Embryo about 8 mm long.
Week 6 : Eyes and ears start to form.
Week 7 : All major internal organs developing. Face forming. Eyes have some colour.
Mouth and tongue. Beginnings of hands and feet. Fetus is 17 mm long.
By week 12 : Fetus fully formed, with all organs, muscles, bones, toes and fingers.
Sex organs well developed. Fetus is moving. For the rest of the gestation period, it
is mainly growing in size. Fetus is 56 mm long from head to bottom. Pregnancy may
be beginning to show.
By week 20 : Hair beginning to grow, including eyebrows and eyelashes. Fingerprints
developed. Fingernails and toenails growing. Firm hand grip. Between 16 and 20
weeks baby usually felt moving for first time. Baby is 160 mm long from head to
bottom.
Week 24 : Eyelids open. Legal limit for abortion in most circumstances.
By week 26 : Has a good chance of survival if born prematurely.
By week 28 : Baby moving vigorously. Responds to touch and loud noises. Swallowing
amniotic fluid and urinating.
By week 30 : Usually lying head down ready for birth. Baby is 240 mm from head
to bottom.
40 weeks (9 months) : Birth.
5.8. Define the term parturition and lactation.

The average pregnancy is about nine months, which is called gestation period. Vigorous
contraction of the uterus at the end of pregnancy causes delivery of foetus. This
process of delivery of foetus is called parturition. The signal for parturition originate
from fully developed foetus and the placenta which induce mild uterine contraction
called foetal ejection reflex. This triggers release of oxytocin hormone from pituitary
gland of mother. Oxytocin acts on the uterine muscle and causes stronger uterine
contractions, which in turn stimulate further secretion of oxytocin. The stimulatory
reflex between the uterine contraction and oxytocin secretion continues resulting in
stronger and stronger contractions. This lead to expulsion of the baby out of the
uterus through birth canal parturition. Soon after the infant is delivered the placenta
is also expelled out of the uterus. The mammary gland of female undergo differentiation
during pregnancy and starts producing milk towards the end of pregnancy by the
process of lactation.
The milk produced during the initial few days of lactation is called colostrum which
contain several antibodies, absolutely essential to develop resistance for new born
babies. Upto the sixth week of the development, there is no structural difference
between male and female. After that sex chromosome determine whether the system
continues to develop as female or male.
It is the presence or absence of the sex determining region Y (SRY) gene located on
the short arm of the Y chromosome that determines the sex of developing individual.
The SRY gene produces a chemical, called testes determining factor (TDF), which act
as master switch that triggers the events that converts the embryo into male. Without
this gene, the embryo would become female.
5.9. Name the two developmental abnormalities associated with nondisjunction

of chromosomes.
Spermatogonia and oogonia are diploid cells (having 46 chromosomes which undergo
meiosis to produce haploid sperm (22 autosomes + X chromosomes and 22 autosomes
+ Y chromosomes) and ovum (22 autosomes + X chromosome) respectively.
An abnormal meiotic division that results in sex cells with too many or too few
chromosomes is a form of non disjunction.
If nonjunction affects the X and Y chromosomes, a gamete might be produced that
will be abnormal.
5.10. Describe the process that cause about 50% of babies to be born male and 50%
to be born female.
OR
What do you understand by sex determination.
OR
What triggers sexual differentiation in embryo.
There are 46 chromosomes (23 pairs) present in the nucleus of each somotic (diploid)
cell of human being. 44 chromosomes are known as autosomes and 2 chromosomes
are known as sex-determining chromosomes (X and Y chromosomes). Gametes (Sperm
and Ovum) are haploid structures. Sperm carries 22 autosomes and a sex determining
chromosome. Unlike eggs, which always carry an X chromosome, half the sperm cells
carry X chromosome, and the other half carry Y chromosome.
If an X-carrying sperm fertilizes with X-containing egg cell, the resultant embryo will
develop into a female.
If a Y-carrying sperm fertilizes the egg cell, a male embryo will develop. In the early
stage of embryonic development a pair of embryonic gonads, the genetial ridges,
develops together with he beginning of male and female reproductive system. 22
chromosomes and lack a sex ditermining chromosome, on the other hand, it might
have 24, with 2 sex determining chromosomes. If a cell with too few or too many sex
chromosomes is fertilized, sexual development is usually affected. If a normal egg cell
is fertilized by a sperm cell with no sex chromosome the off spring will have only 1X
chromosome. These people always women are designated as X0. They develop a
collection of characteristics known as Turner’s Syndrome.
A female with this condition is short for her age and fail to mature sexually resulting
sterility. In addition she may have thickened neck, hearing impairment etc. An
individual who has XXY chromosomes is basically male. This genetic condition is
called klinefelter’s syndrome. Individual with klinefelter’s syndrome may be sterile
and show breast enlargement, incomplete masculine body form, lack of facial hair and
some minor learning problems.
5.11. Define the term Medical Termination of Pregnancy (MTP).

Intentional or voluntary termination of pregnancy before full term is called medical
termination of pregnancy (MTP) or induced abortion. Nearly 45 to 50 million
MTPs are perormed in a year all over the world which accounts to 1/5th of the total
number of conceived pregnancies in a year. Obviously, MTP has a significant role in
decreasing the population though it is not meant for that purpose.
5.12. What are the causes of infertility.

Causes of Infertility : Infertility is a problem that has generated a major branch
of medicine to diagonse and treat the causes. Either or both partners can be the cause
of the infertility in a relationship, so both need to be assessed in the process of
diagnosis and treatment. In about 35% of cases, the fertility problem involves the
female; in about 35%, of cases, the fertility problem involves the male. In about 20%
of cases, both partners have a problem, and no cause has been identified in about 10%
of cases.
Common Causes of Infertility :
(i) Lifestyle Causes : Heavy use of alcohol and drugs Low body fat or anorexia in
women Tight clothing in men may raise the temperature in the scrotum and affect
sperm development.
Stress may cause irregular ovulation in women or reduce sperm count in men.
(ii) Infections : Sexually transmitted diseases often result in scarring of blockage of
reproductive tubes. Pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) is the most common cause of
infertility in women.
(iii) Physical Causes : Fibroids and endometriosis may cause blockage. Retrograde
ejaculation—the semen is forced into the bladder rather than being ejaculated.
(iv) Developmental Causes : Undescended testes, Swollen veins (varicocoele) in scrotum.
Undeveloped ovaries or testes (developmental defect, infection, etc.)
(v) Hormonal Causes : Any imbalance in the timing and quantity of the several sex
hormones can result in lack of ovulation. The uterus may not be prepared to accept
the embryo. Low progesterone levels may cause premature shedding of the uterine
lining. Low testosterone levels results in low sperm counts.
(vi) Immune System Causes : Females may develop antibodies against her partner’s
sperm. Males may develop an autoimmune response to their own sperm.
(vii) Illness and Medication Causes : Diseases such as diabetes, kidney disease, and
high blood pressure contribute to infertility. Tranquilizers and blood pressure drugs
may interfere with erection.
5.13. Explain the terms : ART, IVF, GIFT, ZIFT.

Assisted Reproductive Technology : The Centres for Disease Control and Prevention
defines assisted reproductive technology (ART) as “all fertility treatments in which
both eggs and sperm are manipulated. In general, ART involves surgically removing
eggs from a woman’s overies, combining them with sperm in the laboratory, and
returning them to the woman’s body or donating them to another woman. It does not
include procedures in which only sperm are manipulated (i.e., artificial insemination
or intrauterine insemination) or procedures in which a woman takes drugs only to
stimulate egg production, without the intention of having eggs retrieved.” There are
three types of ART : in vitro fertilization (IVF), gamete intra-fallopian transfer (GIFT),
and zygote intra-fallopian transfer (ZIFT).
IVF : In vitro fertilization is a method that uses hormones to stimulate egg production,
removing the egg or eggs from the ovary, and fertilizing it with donated sperm. The
fertilized egg is incubated to stimulate cell division in a laboratory dish and then
placed in the uterus.
GIFT : GIFT relies on the same hormonal treatment as IVF to stimulate ovulation.
The physician observes the transfer of unfertilized eggs and sperm into the woman’s
fallopian tube through an instrument inserted through a small incision in her abdomen.
Once fertilized, the zygote moves down through the fallopian tube into the uterus and
implants. GIFT is only an option for women with open fallopian tubes.
ZIFT :In the ZIFT procedure, a woman’s mature eggs are collected and fertilized in
the laboratory. Then, the zygote is inserted into the fallopian tube through a small
abdominal incision. The embryo will then travel down the fallopian tube and implant
in the uterus in a normal manner.
5.14. Define the term reproductive health. Write down the major elements of
Reproductive and Child Health programme (RCH) programme.
Reproductive Health : World Health Organization (WHO) has defined reproductive
health as follows :
Within the framework of WHO’s definition of health as a state of complete physical,
mental and social well-being, and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity,
reproductive health addresses the reproductive processes, functions and system at all
stages of life. Reproductive health, therefore, implies that people are able to have a
responsible, satisfying and safe sex life and that they have the capability to reproduce
and the freedom to decide if, when and how often to do so.
Reproductive and Child Health Programme :

Introduction : The International Conference of Population and Development (ICPD)
1994 established an International consensus on a new approach to policies to achieve
population stabilisation. Fertility reduction should be addressed at the level of broad
social policy, including reduction of gender discrimination in education, health care
and income generation. Reproductive health programmes should focus the needs of
actual and potential clients, not only for limiting births but also for healthy sexuality
and child bearing. In India, the implications of the reproductive health approach
would be to shift the focus from the use of family planning as a tool intended
essentially for population stabilisation, to use family planning as one among a
constellation of interventions that would enable women and men to achieve their
personal reproductive goals without being subjected to additional burdens of disease
and death associated with their reproduction.
Essential Components of RCH Programme are :
(i). Prevention and management of unwanted pregnancy.
(ii). Material care that includes antenatal, delivery and postpartum services.
(iii). Child survival services for newborns and infants.
(iv). Management of Reproductive Tract Infection (TRIs) and Sexually Transmitted Infections
(STIs).
Major Elements of RCH Programme :
A. Reproductive Health Elements
• Responsible and healthy sexual behaviors
• Interventions to Promote Safe Motherhood
• Essential Obstetric Care for All
• Prevention of Unwanted Pregnancies : Increase Access to Contraceptives
• Emergency Contraceptives
• Safe Abortion
• Pregnancy and Delivery Services
• First Referral Units (FRUs) for Emergency Obstetric Care
• Management of RTIs/STDs
• Infertility and Gynecological Disorders
• Referral facilities by Government/Private Sector for Pregnant Woman at Risk
• Reproductive Health Services for Adolescent Health
• Global Reproductive Health Strategy
B. Child Survival Element
• Essential New Born Care
• Prevention and Management of Vaccine Preventable Disease
• Urban Measles Campaign
• Elimination of Neonatal Tetanus
• Cold Chain System
• Polio Eradication : Pulse Polio Programmes
• Hepatitis B Vaccine
• MMR Vaccine
• Global Alliance for Vaccine and Immunisation (GAVI)
• Diarrhea Control Programme and ORS Programme

• Prevention and Control of Vitamin A deficiency among children
5.15. What do you understand by STDs diseases.

Diseases or infections which are transmitted through sexual intercourse are collectively
called sexually transmitted diseases (STD) or venereal diseases (VD) or reproductive
tract infections (RTI). Gonorrhoea, syphilis, genital herpes, chlamydiasis, genital warts,
trichomoniasis, hepatitis-B and HIV leading to AIDS are some of the common STDs.
Some of these infections like hepatities-B and HIV can also be transmitted by sharing
of injection needles, surgical instruments, etc., with infected persons, transfusion of
blood, or from an infected mother to the foetus too. Except for hepatitis-B, genital
herpes and HIV infections, other diseases are completely curable if detected early and
treated properly. Early symptoms of most of these are minor and include itching, fluid
discharge, slight pain, swellings, etc., in the genital region. Infected females may
often be asymptomatic and hence, may remain undetected for long. Absence or less
significant symptoms in the early stages of infection and the social stigma attached
to the STDs, deter the infected persons from going for timely detection and proper
treatment. This could lead to complications later, which include pelvic inflammatory
diseases (PID), abortions, still irths, ectopic pregnancies, infertility or even cancer of
the reproductive tract. STDs are a major threat to a healthy society. Therefore,
prevention or early detection and cure of these diseases are given prime consideration
under the reproductive health-care programmes. Though all persons are vulnerable
to these infections, their incidences are reported to be very high among persons in
the age group of 15-24 years the age group. One could be free of these infections by
following the simple principles given below :
(i) Avoid sex with unknown partners/multiple partners.
(ii) Always use condoms.
(iii) In case of doubt, one should go to a qualified doctor for early detection and get
complete treatment if diagnosed with disease.
5.16. Discuss the different methods of contraception.

Following are various methods of contraception :
Barrier Methods : One way to prevent conception is to physically prevent the sperm
from reaching the egg. Barrier methods include the male condom, which is inexpensive,
available everywhere, and effective when used properly. The condom (also called a
rubber) is a thin sheath placed over an erect penis. A condom worn by a man prevents
pregnancy by acting as a barrier to the passage of semen into the vagina. Condoms
made from latex are the best at preventing pregnancy. They also protect against
sexually transmitted diseases.
The female condom is a polyurethane sheath intended for 1-time use, similar to the
male condom. It has an inner ring, which sits over the cervix, and an outer ring,
which lies flat against the labia. The female condom prevents pregnancy by acting as
a barrier to the passage of semen into the vagina. Other methods of conception
control that prevent sperm from reaching the egg include the diaphragm, cervical cap,
and sponge.
Chemical Methods : Spermicides (that is, chemicals which destroy sperms) are also
widely used as contraception method. They work by killing sperm inside the vagina.
They do this because they contain a spermicide – an agent that attacks sperm. The
most common spermicide used in these products is nonoxinol-9. It's moderately
effective, but it can't be relied on to get rid of all sperm.
Hormonal Control Methods : The first successful method of hormonal control was
“the pill,” or “birth-control pill”. Birth control pills contain man-made forms of hormones
that are normally made in a woman's ovaries. These hormones are called estrogen
and progesterone. Birth control pills will have either both of these hormones, or
progesterone only.
Both hormones prevent a woman's ovary from releasing an egg during her menstrual
cycle (called ovulation). They do this by changing the levels of the natural hormones
the body makes. Progesterone also help prevent sperm from entering the uterus by
making the mucus around a woman's cervix thick and sticky.
The Timing Method : Not all methods of birth control require the use of physical
barriers, spermicides, or hormones. Any method that prevents sperm from reaching
the egg prevents conception. One method is to avoid intercourse during the times of
the month when an egg may be present. This is known as the rhythm method of
conception control. Although at first glance it appears to be the simplest and least
expensive, determining when an egg is likely to be present can be very difficult.
Intrauterine Devices (IUD) : The modern intrauterine device (IUD) is a form of
birth control in which a small 'T'-shaped device, containing either copper or
progesterone, is inserted into the uterus. IUDs are a form of long-acting reversible
contraception, which is the most effective type of reversible birth control. IUDs are
the most inexpensive long-term birth control method available.
Surgical Methods : Surgical sterilizations are considered permanent and may only
be reversed in special cases. Only men and women who have no intentions of ever
having children should consider using these surgical methods of contraception. Two
contraceptive methods that require surgery are tubal ligation and vasectomy.
Vasectomy : A vasectomy is usually performed by either a urologist or a general
surgeon. Under local anesthesia, the vas deferens (tubes that carry sperm from the
testicles into the urethra, also known as spermatic ducts) from each testicle is severed.
The open ends are then closed off. A vasectomy can be performed in the clinic and
involves making two small openings in the scrotum. A vasectomy does not interfere
with the ability of a man to have an erection or the quantity of his ejaculation fluid.
Vasectomy reversals are possible, but they tend to be expensive and are not guaranteed
to be effective. A vasectomy should be considered a permanent form of birth control.
Tubal ligation : Tubal ligation is also known as "having one's tubes tied," or having
a "tubal." Tubal ligation is for women, and like a vasectomy, should be considered a
permanent form of birth control.
A tubal ligation is performed under general, regional, or local anesthesia and can be
performed as an outpatient procedure. The surgeon uses one of several procedures
in order to access a woman's Fallopian tubes (which run from the top part of her
uterus to each ovary). A laparoscopy is a procedure in which a small incision is made
just below the navel. A viewing tube (scope) can then be inserted through this incision
to view and reach the Fallopian tubes. A minilaparotomy is a small incision in the
lower abdomen that is sometimes used for tubal ligation most commonly in the
postpartum period (after childbirth).
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B.Tech Students of First Year of All Engineering Colleges Affiliated to

Introduction to Bio Science

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Introdution to Bio Science

First Edition : 2012

Type-set at : Krishna Graphics & Printers, Delhi-32.

BOOK TOUR GUIDE

The main objective of this book is to present to the students an accurate,

1. The book is present in Question-Answer form for quick reference.

AS 104/204 : INTRODUCTION TO BIO SCIENCE

UNIT - I : CELL STRUCTURE & FUNCTION (5 I—22 I)

1.3. Differentiate between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells :

Difference between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells

Character Prokaryotic cell Eukaryotic cell

1. Nuclear body Incipient nucleus. True nucleus.

1.4. Differentiate between plant cell and animal cell.

Animal cell Plant cell

1. Cell wall is absent. 1. Cell wall is present.

Fig. Fluid-mosaic model of plasma membrane.

Functions of Cellular membrane/Plasma membrane :

1.4. Define the following terms :

Fig. Endocytosis and Exocytosis

1.5. Write down the name of organelles composed of membrane.

1.6. Discuss the structure and function of endoplasmic reticulum.

Common functions of RER and SER :

Fig. Three components of endoplasmic reticulum A–cisternae, B–vesicles, C–Tubules.

1.7. Write down the structure and function of Golgi complex.

1.8. Discuss the structure and function of lysosome.

Fig. Lysosome function

1.9. Write a short note on following :

1.10. Discuss the structure and function of mitochondria.

Size – 0.5 µ in diameter

Fig. Section of mitochondrion.

1.11. Discuss the structure and function of plastids/chloroplast.

1.12. Explain autotroph and heterotroph.

1.13. Give an overview of aerobic cellular respiration ?

Fig. An Overview of aerobic respiration.

Total number of ATP produced by complete oxidation of one glucose molecule 36 is

Fig. Different steps in glycolysis or EMP pathway.

a series of reaction, which ultimately produce oxaloacetate. Through this series of

Fig. Different steps in Kreb’s cycle.

Fig. Electron Transport System.

1.17. What do you understand by anaerobic respiration.

Nitrogenous bases of nucleic acids.

Sugars and phosphate of nucleic acids.

Molecular structure of DNA.

In brief DNA model has following characteristics :

2.2. Describe differences in the structure of DNA and RNA.

Characteristic RNA DNA

(1) Occurrence In cytoplasm, nucleolus and Mainly nucleus also in chloroplast

2.3. What functions are performed by nucleic acid ?

2.4. What is gene ?

The process of translation has 3 basic steps :

2.8. What is genetic code.

2.9. Discuss how a cell may regulate the gene-expression/protein synthesis.

times under different condition. A number of different mechanism occur in cell to

3.1. What are the three general types of cellular reproduction ?

3.2. What do you understand by sexual and asexual reproduction ?

Asexual Reproduction Sexual Reproduction

(a) Prophase : It is the longest phase of