Socio-Cultural Dimension of Village Community

Introduction: It is not recent that rural sociologists dwell on the study of rural institutions. The history of
the study of rural institutions goes back to the 18th century when British officials-turned anthropologists
studied village communities from the point of view of institutions, and their specific interest was on the
landowning caste. Later on, when village studies became very popular in the middle of fifties, a number
of other village institutions were studied by sociologists and anthropologists like marriage, family,
kinship, caste, etc. We will discuss it one by one.

 Ecology: Ecology is concerned with the habitat and environment in relation to living
organisms. The human settlement is thus determined by its ecology. Agriculture is the
major source of income and employment for the rural people. It decides the village
pattern, housing design and other such things related to human beings. For instance, the
tribals in India construct their houses in a scattered pattern. They keep their fields in the
neighbourhood of their houses. On the other hand, in the plains, the villages are compact
and the fields are quite away from the habitation.
 Rural family: a. Indian family is clan dominated, for eg. The Bhotias and Rebari have
their families based on clan ties. b. Agriculture based family in which there is some cattle
wealth also as secondary source of income c. Mostly the rural families are patriarchal and
patrilocal in which the male owns the headship. However, in some parts of India there are
matriarchal families too, like in Kerala and Tamilnadu. D. Subsistence based family in
which they practice shifting cultivation for consumption only. E. Closer degree of primary
relations in which there is a common roof, common kitchen, a generation depth, a
common religion, etc. F. Household division of labour in which rural household is
distributed among its members. G. A common lifestyle which revolves around agricultural
activities. H. Family tensions on account of division of property, women, share of water,
tc.
 Kinship: Primitive rural society is based on kinship. Every person must have a recognized
relationship, nearer or more remote, to every other member of the group. The ties of the
blood are primary and hence natural as opposed to other ties with arise in the process of
evolution. All the economic matters related to division of land, marital rules related to
exogamy, i.e. marriage outside one’s own village, and rituals related to lifecycle like birth,
marriage and death, etc. all are decided by the kinship relations.
 Marriage: Marriage is a sacrament and in dissolvable bond in the rural community. They
practice various forms of marriage in various parts of village India like polyandry in
 Todas, polygyny among the Muslim and ancient tribes and most modern and popular,
monogamy. Rules of marriage also apply in rural community like exogamy (marriage
outside village and clan), endogamy (marriage within the caste or sub-caste), hypergamy
(marriage of high caste man with lower woman), levirate (marriage with the deceased
brother’s widow or bhabhi) and sororate (marriage with wife’s sister, Sali). Here marriage
is less expansive in rural society with domination of caste norms.
 Religion: Religion plays a dominant role in rural community because of following
reasons:
a. Economy is dependent on nature and villagers used to perform various rituals and
ceremonies for crop protection, harvesting, rains, etc.
b. The religious outlook of the rural people overwhelmingly dominates their intellectual,
economic and political life. In fact, the history of village settlement begins with the provision
for the worship of a deity.
c. Priestly leadership in rural society which surpasses economic and political authority. For eg.
The supremacy of Brahmin temple priest
d. Religion plays the role of individual sense of belonging and identity with their knowledge
about ultimate survival in the world.
e. Body of rituals and sanskaras to be performed at every cycle of life.
f. Stratification of society is also maintained through religion.
g. Cult war in rural community with various schools of karmakanda

Caste system: Caste system is inbuilt in the village social system with rigid rules of social
behavior and public practices, like, segmental division of society into higher and lower social
units; a system of hierarchy which is based on the basis of purity and pollution; restrictions
on feeding and social intercourse (kachha food for lower castes and pakka food for upper
castes); various civil and religious disabilities ranging from use of separate public wells or
tanks to ban on temple entry; caste based occupation which restricts social and occupational
mobility and practice of endogamy, i.e. marriage within the own caste. Any person who
breaks these rules would be socially boycotted and may face brutal cases of honour killing.
Jajmani system: This was used to be a practice which was very popular in Northern Indian
villages few decades back. This was an economic division of labour based on caste and
hereditary lines. In this practice, there were two categories of people involved; the serving
caste (kameen) and the served caste (Jajman). The kameen has to serve the Jajman and his
 family in all economic matters and in return, the Jajman takes care of kameen’s family. This
practice passes from generation to generation in kameen’s family.

Socio-Cultural Dimensions of Cities

Introduction: Cities came into existence on account of growing trade and commerce along with the
process of industrialization. Those cities which have well established banks along river or sea side
become the strongest commercialized centers with well urban master plan for their development like
Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai, Bangalore, etc. Even the oldest civilization in Indian history like Harappa and
Mohenjo-Daro, used to have well maintained markets, houses, drainage facility, etc. Gradually with the
increase in population and limited job opportunities in villages and towns, a twin process of migration and
urbanization started taking place at a fast rate which also helped in the development of cities from metro
cities to mega cities and finally in the 21st century, we are witnessing metropolitan cities having a
population of 10 lakhs or more, comprising in one or more districts and consisting of two or more
municipalities. (For example, New Delhi and Mumbai) Cities bring with them various changes ranging
from better living standard to a fast pace socio-cultural lifestyle.

 Ecology: The ecology of city life can easily be characterized through densely populated cities
with compact, well-designed and scattered houses depending upon the nature and extent of
industrialization along with trade and commerce. In city, we can observe a multi-storied building
or a housing complex with various blocks for houses and, even we can observe a normal flat or a
slum area where the houses are scattered and commonly built.
 Family: The urban family is class dominated with division of labour properly distributed
between each member. There is a strong trend towards nuclear family patterns with the presence
of only husband-wife and their children, i.e. only one or two generations. They practice in
service, industrial and professional sectors with less or no power for head of the family. Actually,
the urban family is secular, democratic and individualistic with consciousness towards individual
rights and esteem. The women are freer and economically independent in urban system where
she discusses and decides all alma-matters of the family. Here there is no common lifestyle but
 everybody have a different tastes and opinions according to their age group. They practice
urbanism as a way of life and are very formal in relations in comparison to the agricultural
setting. Individualism is at its height in urban settings with self-centric approach among citizens.
They follow the proverb like “Jiyo or jeene do” with love for minimum interference.
 Kinship: Kinship has no such role to play in urban society as the nuclear families practice
minimal relations with kins and relatives. Only blood relations can sustain in nuclear family and
because of the busy and complex job patterns in urban area, they rarely celebrate family
functions in a joint manner with the presence of distant relatives.
 Marriage: Marriage is a choice based social and legal contract in urban families. However, they
are more open and democratic regarding individual choices in marriage or say, in freedom of
mate selection. We can observe various patterns of marriages in urban setting because of
freedom like late-marriages, love-marriages (with inter-caste and sometimes inter-religious
patterns), lesbian and gay marriages, etc. Even the proper arrange marriages comes with status
symbol and with concepts like ‘big fat Indian wedding’ or destination wedding. Marriages even
for some urban people have become a business to accumulate huge wealth through dowry-system
and fake marriages.
 Religion and ethics: Religion in urban society is highly commercialized with somehow
individualistic and secular values or practical approach. The religious priest or prophets have
huge centers with various branches all over the country. Yoga and ascetic life is gaining
popularity worldwide but along with fear and superstition in certain sectors. Every person in
urban setting is free to practice or respect any religion and to interpret it according to his
rationality or benefit. Values and ethics here play a choice based role with coming tends like Old
age homes, extra-marital relations, wife swapping, online paid sex, live-in relationships, sugar
mom and dad, etc.
 Class system: The urban society practices class based mobile system with ranking and status
based on performance and merit. It is the performance and income of an individual in an urban
family which gives him status and respect. This system is open and mobile where every person
has a chance to change his/her rank on basis of performance.

Social control: The urban setting follows a constitutional based democratic authority and agencies for
social control and code of conduct. The nature of social control is formal with agencies like Police,
Media, Court, etc. Unlike the village settings, where still in certain extreme backward regions, caste or
Khap Panchayats are working; urban society goes with proper codified law and social control.
Impact of Globalization on city life

Introduction: Globalization is a wide inter-connected process which touches every society in

various dimensions like, socio-cultural-economic-political, etc. with its accompanying agents and
agencies like market, MNCs, capital, global media, open gate policies, trade, etc. In this process,
there is a global transfer and receiving of knowledge, ideas, produces, cultures, way of life, etc.
between all countries of the world through open gate policy. It is like a double edged weapon
with various benefits and threats. It affects us all but affects us differently. Thus, for some, it
means new opportunities but for others, the loss of livelihood, for eg. Women silk spinners and
twisters of Bihar lost their jobs once the Chinese and Korean silk yarn entered the market. When
we have to study its socio-cultural impact on Indian society, it must be studied with various
dimensions of Indian social institutions.
 Family: Family is the most important agency and institution of socialization. It used to
be the prime loci for one’s creativity, values, social heritage, etc. Mostly, the Indian rural
families used to prefer the joint family patterns with a strong household division of
labour, in which the head of the family used to be the role determinant of all matters.
But, with the coming of the age of globalization, when family members for the sake of
new jobs, mobility, better living standard, etc. migrated to urban and industrial areas;
their started nuclear family patterns all over India which led to disintegration within the
traditional family settings. Now, decisions and matters are decided upon in families by
all members instead of the head. The traditional household division of labour is also lost
its importance in the new urban surrounding. Now, the women of the urban families are
more educated, assertive, independent, bold and economically successful. But one of the
negative consequences of this urban family is the increasing percentage of old age
homes in our country as the children are now hesitate to carry forward their grandparents
with them due to privacy, economic and other reasons. Apart from that, urban families
are getting highly individual centric and commercial with less interest on social and
ethical issues.
 Marriage: Marriage in urban globalized India has become more dynamic, fragmented,
bold and independent with various new trends. Marriage is no more a sacrosanct value;
as it has more to do with economic and professional adjustments. Now, freedom of mate
 selection, online marriage sites, late marriages because of competitive pressure, event
management in marriages like destination weddings, marital discords, etc. are the new
varied faces of Indian marriages. Marriage in urban areas has become an arena of pomp
and show with various rates and packages. The importance of rituals and sanskaras in
Hindu marriages has also decreased because of the paucity of time. Caste and religion
has also started losing its bound from marriage as inter-caste and inter-religious
marriages has also increased up to a level. Even being in marriage, the partners cheat
each other and even develop a parallel relational adjustment through live-in
relationships, post-martial sex, wife swapping, etc.
 Caste: Caste which used to be the prime locator of identity and stratification in rural
settlement has somewhat lost its face in urban globalized India. In urban areas, achieved
status, income, performance, merit, etc. are the new criterion for identity and
stratification, which finally makes a class system. However, in some way or the other,
caste manages to have a say in private matters of one’s life in urban India ranging from
marriage preferences to jobs. For eg. Increasing cases of honor killings for the sake of
caste status and indirect or selective preferences in job matters on the basis of caste and
regional nepotism. Even caste associations have now a pan-Indian character on account
of communication, media and digitalization which is actually a by-product of
globalization.
 Morality and values: Morality and values which used to be determined through religion
in rural settlement are now losing its importance in urban globalized India. In the
contemporary fast and professional life, honesty, love, emotions, sacredness, chastity,
etc. are the lost and failed words. Now the relations and values are commercialized and
cashed for vested interests. On a positive note, morality and values are being analyzed
individually by each member.
 Religion: Religion has become more global, practical and commercialized with the
impact of globalization. Now, spiritualism has found a global economic center through
yoga and philosophy with its carrying agents in the form of gurus and babas. It has both
positive and negative effects in the context of charismatic authority.
 Economy: Economy gets affected by globalization in the most turbulent manner with
various stories. Moving from the barter system of economy to cash economy, India at
present is moving towards a cashless economy in which future lies in the electronic and
online format with credit cards, Visa, Wallet, etc. The new economic reforms of 1990
have opened the gate for MNCs and trans-national corporations in India for trade,
 export-import, world market, etc. It has provided new kinds of jobs in the IT sector,
created global finance, tourism industry etc.; but, on the other hand, it displaced millions
of local artifacts and traditional laborers from their traditional indigenous jobs, led to
displacement of forests and natural surroundings which resulted in ecological
imbalances. It has created an international division of labour in which new challenges
are from outsourcing of knowledge and business. It has created a global consumer
culture in which every idea can be sold, women have been looked as a commodity and
culture has become glocal. (thinking globally and acting locally for new markets and
avenues) Even now new business partners are coming up which provide for individual
business startup through Flipkart, Amazon, Snapdeal, Myntra, etc. Even the media is
being controlled and owned by big business and advertising agencies and business
tycoons.
 Polity: It has created world power system in which at the center are the most developed
countries like USA and Britain and at the semi-peripheral and peripheral level are the
developing and dependent economies like India and African sub-continent respectively.
There has been a growth of international and regional mechanisms for political
collaborations like the UNO, European Union (EU), SARC, ASEAN, SAFTA, etc.
There has also been the rise of international governmental and non-governmental
organizations like WTO, Red Cross, Amnesty International, etc.

Crime: An urban social problem

Introduction: Crime is one of the most baffling problems of human society. There is no society without
the problem of criminality. In every society there are persons who do not confirm to the norms laid down
by society. Hence in the study of sociology, we are also interested in the negatives of man. In other
words, these negative activities which do not confirm to the rules of society are called anti-social
activities. The anti-social activities which a man can commit are of two types, namely, an offence against
an individual and offence against the state. The offence against an individual is called civil offence. On
the other hand, the offence against the state is called criminal offence.

Ingredients of crime
 Harm: As a result of criminal behavior, there must be certain degree of harm. It must have
harmful effects on social interests.
 Legal prohibition: Secondly, the harm which results due to criminal behavior should be legally
prohibited. A particular behavior even if it is anti-social is not crime unless it is prohibited by
law.
 Intention: The criminal behavior must be intentional. If anyone is forced to do an act prohibited
by law, does not commit crime.
 Criminal intent: There must be criminal intent. It is different from motivation. According to
Sutherland, “The motions of a crime might be good but the intention itself might be an indication
to affect a harm forbidden by the criminal law; so it falls under criminal intent”. Thus, if a man
decides to kill his starving children because he feels that they will pass on to a better world, his
motive is good, but his intention is wrong.
 Prescribed Punishment: There must be prescribed punishment for criminal behavior. It should
carry a threat of punishment to the violator.
 Fusion of Men’s Rea and Actus Reus: The criminal intent and the conduct do not fuse or concur.
The act is not guilty unless the mind is guilty.
 Depends on time: An act may be a crime in one society at one time and may not be crime at
another time. For e.g. during Middle Ages the custom of Sati was not a crime but today this
practice is a criminal act. This is because the society in which man lives is dynamic.
 Causation: There must be standards of proof of misconduct.

Various conceptions of crime

 Demonological: In primitive society, human conduct and behavior was regulated by customs and
conventions. These were based on certain beliefs and superstitions. Therefore, any breach of
custom or convention was considered an offence against the whole society. This theory explained
criminal conduct to devilish possession and instigation.
 Legal conception: According to Michael and Adler, “Crime is that behavior which is prohibited
by the criminal code”. Mr. Miller observes, “Crime is the commission or omission of an act,
which the law forbids or commands under pain of punishment to be imposed by the state…. and
no act is a crime however wrong it may seem to the individual conscience, unless it is prohibited
by law.”
 Sociological conception: According to this conception, crime is an act which is socially harmful.
The crime here is fundamentally a violation of conduct norms. It is a harmful act, deemed
criminal by the public opinion and not an act which is necessarily in violation of the written code.
 Socio-legal: It is an amalgamation of two conceptions, i.e.; legal and social attempts to overcome
their deficiencies and inadequacies. According to this definition, there are two elements in a
proper definition of crime. Firstly, crime is an act which is believed to be socially harmful. But
this is the belief of the dominant group within the society, which has the power to enforce its
beliefs, through enactment and promulgation of statutes upon that country and any person who
acts contrary to this is subject to positive penalty.
 Psycho-Socio-Legal conception: This is a modern concept which takes into account the intention,
constitutional as well as early established reactive tendencies of the criminal who is affected both
by biological and environmental factors. The criminal law in modern society essentially contains
the conduct norms of the political groups, but it should be recognized that kinship groups,
religious groups, fraternal orders, labour organizations, clubs and special associations in a
socially differentiated society have conduct norms that impose sanctions in order to preserve
certain recognized values. Similarly, biological and environmental factors of the criminals are
now taken into consideration while dealing with these in the courts and correctional and
rehabilitative measures are suggested instead of reparative punishment.

Classification of Crime
Crime is not a homogenous type of behavior in all societies. Therefore efforts have been made to
classify crimes.
 Classification based on atrocities: In respect to atrocity, crimes are classified as felonies and
misdemeanors. The more serious crimes are called felonies. They are usually punishable by death
or by confinement in a state prison. The less serious crimes are called misdemeanor. They are
punishable by prison or by fines.
 Classification based on motives: Bonger has classified crimes on the basis of motives. From this
point of view, crimes are of the following types: economic crimes, sexual crimes, political crimes
and miscellaneous crimes.
 Statistical classification: For statistical purposes crimes are classified as follows: crimes against
the person, crimes against property, crimes against public decency, public order and public
justice, etc.

Causes of Crime
 Environmental factors like immorality in homes, alcoholism at home, broken homes because of
divorce or desertion, disorganized family conditions, lack of parental control etc. which play a
great role in child delinquency.
  Economic factors: like Poverty, bad and low housing conditions on basis of low salary,
unemployment, etc. For example, according to Karl Marx, social consciousness is determined by
the level of existence in society. Crime, vices and moral evils are primarily due to poverty of
masses.
 Cultural factors: like decline of religious control, defective education system in which stress is
given on commercialized education instead of moral or ethical education, bad and dogmatic
customs like dowry, industrialization, celebrity culture or cinema, etc.

Measures to control crime

 Jail system: In this system, a complete division of criminals have been made according to their
offences. For example, those criminals which have shown good behavior during their prison
tenure would be adjusted in an open jail without boundary to give him a human approach.
 Probation: It is a method of treating the convicted offender during a period of suspension of the
sentence. He is given liberty on the condition of good behavior.
 Parole: Parole is the final step of a correction scheme. It is the release of the offender from a
correctional institution when he is found fit to live in a free society without any suspension.
 Post-Care Service: It started in U.P. in 1984 so that criminals can be given a place in his family
and society after he has completed his punishment.
 Other measures like reorganization of family, stress on morality, review of the concept of law
and justice, etc.

Prostitution: An urban social problem

Introduction: The term ‘prostitution’ is generally used to denote an act of sexual intercourse which is
characterized by barter, promiscuity and emotional indifference. According to G.R. Scott, “A prostitute is
an individual (male or female) who for some kind of reward (monetary or otherwise) or for some other
form of personal satisfaction and as a part or full time profession, engages in normal or abnormal sexual
intercourse with various persons who may be of the same sex, or the opposite sex to the prostitute”. As
the world’s oldest profession, prostitution has undoubtedly existed in some form as long as society has
attempted to regulate and control sex relationships through the institutions of marriage and family.
Society has not recognized it because it brings in its train not only the personal disorganization of the
persons concerned, but also affects the life organization of the family and the community at large.

Some definitions:

 “Prostitution is an illicit sex union or a promiscuous and mercenary basis with accompanying
emotion indifference”. – Elliot and Merill
 “Prostitution is sexual intercourse on a promiscuous and mercenary basis with emotional
indifference.”- Clinard
 “Prostitution means the act of a female offering her bodies for promiscuous sexual intercourse for
hire, whether in money, or in kind.”- Suppression of Immoral Traffic in Women and Girls Act,
1956

Forms of Prostitutes
 Common Prostitutes: The old and trained prostitutes generally procure girls and maintain
brothels and dens. The girls are exploited for purpose of prostitution. They are provided fooding
and clothing. The brothel keepers make money out of their earnings. These prostitutes are mostly
poorly paid and socially insulted.
 Hotel prostitutes: The hotel prostitutes are engaged by hotel keepers. They live in private
houses and are mostly luxury loving girls. They take the profession of prostitution as a secondary
job. They are summoned by the hotel keeper when needed to satisfy the customers. They are also
called “call-girls”.
 Decentralized Prostitutes: As a result of Suppression of Immoral Traffic Act the dens and
brothels have been liquidated. Consequently, prostitutes have been decentralized in various parts
of the cities where they independently carry their profession.
 Hereditary Prostitutes: In certain classes of society prostitution is handed down from mother to
daughter without any shame and immorality. In such families, girls are trained in the art of
dancing and singing. In Andhra they are called basvi and koyi; In Bihar and U.P. they are called,
nuts and Berias. They are generally better trained and keep to one man only.
 Religious Prostitutes: Prostitution in our country has also been encouraged by the old religious
customs. The Devdasi system still prevails in certain areas where girls are dedicated to temples.
These temple girls or sacred prostitutes are known by different names viz. Devdasi in Kerala,
Muril in Maharashtra, Basvi in Telangana and Jogathi in Karnataka. The duty of these temple
girls is to dance and sing before the idol on ceremonial occasions.
 Prostitutes belonging to Backward and ex-criminal tribes: Prostitutes are also drawn from the
backward and ex-criminal tribes. They are especially found in Northern India. Amongst these
nomadic tribes, prostitution is prevalent in terms of customs. They prostitute their girls without
any social disgrace.
 Prostitutes who are victims of adverse conditions: Such prostitutes are generally recruited from
poor families. They are those who have adopted the profession due to poverty and
unemployment; young widows who are compelled to feel that they are a burden on their families;
ill-treated wives who lead a miserable and destitute life and young girls who are unprotected and
destitute from their families as they are often abducted by outsiders and exposed to lead an
immoral life.

Causes of Prostitution
 Economic factors: The chief cause for women or young girls accepting this profession is their
poverty. Mr. Bonger has discussed in detail about these economic factors which are responsible
for underprivileged girls entering prostitution, such as immoral environments, early
unemployment and poverty. Most of the prostitutes come from the underprivileged economic
groups. Their parents are unable to provide the proper physical or moral care for their adolescent
daughters. The morality of their children is endangered owing to inadequate housing conditions
where they were forced to sleep in the same room with older persons. Early employment brings
them into contact with immoral influences at an age when they are not equipped to make their
own definitions and decisions. In many cases they are forced to work with men and women who
give them a vicious initiation into the techniques and practices of promiscuous sex relationships
.The League of Nations Advisory Committee on Social Questions also observes poverty,
overcrowding and low wages clearly contributory causes of prostitution.
 Vested interests: Highly profitable nature of the business makes many girls to resort to
prostitution. For the most part, the profit motive is important to the persons who operate the
houses of prostitution. In order to attract fresh recruits in form of young girls, an elaborate
organization is maintained. The specific function of this organization is to interest young girls in
prostitution and to keep them in the business when they have once entered.
 Unhappy marital relations: Unhappy marital relations with the husband/wife cause many
women or few men to resort to prostitution. Loose habits of the husband/wife may also lead to
such an action.
 Social customs: The dogmatic social customs often hamper to the development of personality.
The dowry system, child marriage, prohibition of widow remarriage, the system of polygamy, the
 dual standard of morality and caste system and the bride- price are some of the factors which
create unfavorable atmosphere in the family. As a result of dowry system, Young girls are often
forced to remain as spinsters. Similarly the Devdasi system which was used to prevalent in South
Indian states, often forced the young temple devdasi girls to unmarried and to live as religious
prostitutes.
 Attitude towards sex: In India, there is a peculiar attitude towards sex. Talks regarding sex are
looked down upon. Children and adolescents are kept ignorant from the true knowledge of sex.
Hence, the children cultivate knowledge towards sex from obscene literature, films and
magazines.
 Ill-treatment: In certain families daughter-in-law is not properly treated. She is generally
discarded by mother-in-law, sister-in-law or by the husband himself. In such circumstances,
women very often commit suicide or ran away from the house. When such a woman leaves her
family, she very often falls an easy prey to anti-social elements.
 Physiological factors: Physiological factors are also responsible in the commission of
prostitution. Feeblemindedness, unsatisfied sexual desire and lack of control of sexual impulses
create a rebellious attitude towards social norms.
 Rapid industrialization: Rapid industrialization is responsible for the acute shortage of living
and housing accommodation. The industrial workers are forced to leave their wives in the rural
areas. Consequently, in all industrial and commercial centers we find an inequality of sexes. This
inequality as pointed out by Whitely Commission’s report, leads to an increase of prostitution and
a subsequent spread of vulnerable diseases, first in city and later in village with return of
migratory laborer to his home.
 Unhealthy company and recreation: There are recreational factors which are involved in the
breakdown of woman. Drinking, gambling, dance halls, porn movies, bad company, etc. are also
some of the factors which lead a woman towards moral disintegration.

Evil consequences of prostitution

 Dishonor of women
 Personal demoralization
 Family disorganization
 Decline in moral norms
 Increase in crime
 Community disorganization
Measures to remove prostitution

 Improvement in economic conditions

 Removal of social customary evils like dowry system
 Healthy sex education should be given in the family and in educational centers
 Proper publicity and socialization through mass media
 Legal punishment
 Rehabilitation of prostitutes
 Protective homes: According to the Suppression of Immoral Traffic in Women and Girls Act,
1956, protective home means an institution in which women and girls may be kept. It includes a
shelter where female under trials may be kept just like remand homes; and, a corrective institution
in which women and girls rescued and detained may be imparted training as are likely to conduce
to their reformation.
Alcoholism: A Social Problem

Introduction: The problem of alcoholism, until a few decades ago, was considered a moral problem and
a sign of social irresponsibility. After the introduction of the prohibition policy in some states, it was
viewed as an illegal act. Now, it is considered by some scholars more as a complicated, chronic and
immensely costly disease than a type of deviant behavior. The victim needs not the punitive treatment but
treatment by specialists- psychiatrists, doctors, social workers and others who will help him in his
personality reconstruction. Alcohol is not a stimulant; it is a depressant or inhibitor on the central nervous
system. Alcohol relaxes the customary controls on behavior and the drinker becomes less restrained and
feels freer. But taking alcohol even once in a while leaves the possibility of a habit forming phenomenon
open and the drinker may start taking it frequently and in large quantity which could have tragic and
disastrous effects.

The concept

 Alcoholism is a state of periodic or chronic intoxication, detrimental to the individual and to

society, produced by repeated consumption of a drink, either natural or synthetic”. – W.H.O.
 Alcoholism is a condition in which an individual loses control over his alcohol intake in that he
is constantly unable to refrain from drinking once he begins. – Johnson
 Alcoholism is characterized by the repeated drinking of alcoholic beverages to an extent that
exceeds customary use or compliance with the social customs of the community and that
adversely affects the drinker’s health or interferes with his social or economic functioning. –
Keller and Efron

Broadly speaking, alcoholism has been characterized by four factors:

 Excessive intake of alcoholic beverages
 Individual’s increasing worry over his drinking
 Loss of the drinker’s control over his drinking
 The disturbance in functioning in his social world.

Richard Blum has referred to drinking in two contexts: in the context of prescribed social pattern
where drinking is integrated in the culture of the society and it is perceived as part of everyday
life, for e.g. Italy and U.S.A. and people do not find any psychological potential in it; and, in the
context of perceiving alcohol use as disruptive to culture and society and people find addictive
potential in it (as in India) and view drinking as a means of seeking pleasure and escape.
 Don Cahalan has given a five-fold classification of alcohol drinkers on the basis of the frequency
of drinking (and not the quantity of alcohol taken):
 Rare users, who drink once or twice a year.
 Infrequent users, who drink once or twice in two-three months, that is, less than once a month.
 Light drinkers, who drink once or twice a month.
 Moderate drinkers, who drink three or four times in a month.
 Heavy drinkers or hard-core drinkers, who drink every day or several drinks during the day.

Process of becoming an alcoholic

A drinker has to pass through various stages to become an alcoholic. According to an American
psychiatrist Jellinek, an alcoholic has to pass through the sequence of seven phases:
 Blackouts, in which the individual is not able to find a solution to his individual problems,
 Sneaking drinks, in which he takes alcohol without being observed,
 Increased tolerance, in which he tolerates the increased effects of drinking,
 Loss of control, in which he fails to control the desire of not taking alcohol,
 Development of an alibi system, in which he gradually starts neglecting his social roles,
 Going on periodic benders, in which he keeps on drinking regularly, and
 Regular mutational drinking, in which he regularly starts taking alcohol in the morning.

Jellinek has also explained the process of becoming an alcoholic in the following four stages:
 Pre-alcoholic symptomatic phase: In this phase, taking advantage of social sanction, an
individual starts drinking to reduce tensions and solve his personal problems. Linking drinking
with relief, he keeps on searching for those opportunities in which he may drink. The frequency
of drinking increases as he starts losing his capacity to overcome conflicts in life.
 Prodigal phase: In this phase, along with the increase in the frequency of drinking, there is
increase in the quantity of the drink too. However, he develops a guilt-feeling and knows that
gradually he is becoming an abnormal person.
 Crucial phase: In this phase, his drinking becomes conspicuous. He develops rationalizations to
stand social pleasures and to assure him that he has not lost control over himself. However, he
does not lose his self-respect. Gradually, he starts alienating himself from others as his physical
and social deterioration becomes obvious to them.
 Chronic phase: In this phase, he starts drinking even in the morning. He faces prolonged
intoxication, impaired thinking, indefinable fears, tremors, and loss of certain skills. He is all the
time obsessed with drinking and feels restless without alcohol.

Causes for alcoholism

1. Misery Drinking: Men drink, because they are miserable, because life holds no joy for them
or any other prospect other than an unending round of toil. In such a life scheme, drink is a
blessed palliative medicine.
2. Occupational factor: Men drink because their occupation has completely exhausted them.
They look forward eagerly to the respite which intoxication affords on heat of blast furnace.
3. Environmental pressures and bad housing: Men drink because sometimes the living or
working environment is full of all such moderate or heavy drinkers, or with the presence of so
many wine shops nearby. Even lonely houses with cold, dark, dismal and sordid, cannot
prepare the healthy environment for him to stay for long time. Break- up, quarrels within the
parents, lack of proper emotional healing and congestions in small homes also lead to such
tendencies.
4. Ignorance: Men who do have manual work have long been deluded by the belief that alcohol
added strength and vigor with which they can pursue their labour. This illusory feeling of
physical vitality after the consumption of alcohol is the cause of drunkenness.
5. For peer pressure and fun: Men drink for companionship, for fun and sometimes on
account of peer pressure to try something new and full of challenge.
6. Fashion or dominant sub-culture: The process of westernization and globalization has also
brought a dominant sub culture of fashion and show-off which attracts the teenagers most. So
they start drinking for being in the fashion and status quo race.
7. War conditions: During a war, the practice of alcohol is obligatory. Soldiers have been given
a fixed amount of alcohol so that they can fight in cold places and to increase their strength.
8. Social inadequacy: There are certain persons who are unable to face the hard realities of life
and start drinking to overcome their social inadequacy temporarily which later on takes the
form of habitual drinking. Quarrels between friends and lovers, breaches of conjugal faith,
disappointment in love may all reduce the individual to extreme melancholy.
9. Business reasons: Sudden success or great failure in business often forced a weak will power
person to alcoholism. Business groups often have a drinking culture in their success parties.
10. Guest honor: On the arrival of an important guest it is now, has become a trend to give them
liquor. Otherwise, many people take this as their dishonor.
Consequences of alcoholism

 Impairs the mind and body: Alcoholism impairs the faculty of mind and reduces
the efficiency. It acts as a depressant which brings about reduced speed of reaction.
Thus, there is a decline in the control of learned behavior.
 Affects the health and character: Alcohol diminishes one fourth of the capacity of
blood vessels to take up oxygen. This produces congestion in the membranes of the
cortex of the brain. Chronic gastritis, cirrhosis of the liver, multiple or peripheral
neuritis, etc. are the pathological effects of acute alcoholism. Besides these specific
diseases, the resistance to all disease is appreciably lowered by heavy and periodic
consumption. He is also more subject to violent death from accident and other causes
than is the non-drinker.
 Affects the reproductive capacity: There is a study on the effects of alcoholism on
pregnancy. It is found that in comparison to non-drinkers, drinkers have more
children. It means that there capacity to control pregnancy is low while in case of
women, those who drink excess; they suffered from abortion and their child also born
physically and mentally weak.
 Lowers moral sense, judgment and intelligence: It has been presumed that the
majority of crimes are committed under the influence of alcohol. It often leads to
physical cruelty and abuse.
 Brings social disorganization: Alcoholism contributes towards the causation of
crime, corruption and lawlessness. According to Bacon, “All the crimes on earth do
not destroy so many of the human race, not alienates so much property as
drunkenness.”
 Family disorganization: When husband and wife in an alcoholically stimulated
entertainment pat attention to someone else, it creates tension between the two later
on. It has generally been said that liquor has been a traditional enemy of love and
marriage because of this unfair competition.
 Individual disorganization: A healthy life organization can only be erected upon
basis of normal and healthy social relationships. When used to excess alcohol
modifies these relationships, changes the reality of former social values and brings
about highly individuated attitudes. The excessive drinker may forsake his home, his
family and his business. It may also lead to road accidents in huge numbers.
 Recommendations and steps for alcoholism
 Detoxification in hospitals of alcoholics through tranquilizers
 Family should play a responsible role in his treatment through emotional guidance
and care without condemning or blaming.
 Changing values through education by social workers of NGOs and other agencies.
 Selective prohibition of alcoholic centers from a region and then from the whole area.
 Non-issue of illegal licenses of liquor shops.
 Strict enforcement of motor vehicle act in which alcoholism should be given the strict
rule.
 Discontinuance of advertisements dealing with alcohol on family channels.
 Introduction of dry day on special days as a part of moral teaching.
 Educational teaching and public campaigning through media and NGOs regarding ill
effects of alcoholism.
 Appointment of those committees which can help people for leaving such bad habits.
For example, in U.S.A. there is a committee called “Alcoholics Anonymous” which
have made a remarkable effort in this direction.

Drug- Addiction

Introduction: Drug abuse may be perceived both as aberrant behavior and a social problem. In the former
sense, it is regarded as an evidence of individual’s social maladjustment; in the latter sense, it is viewed as
a widespread condition that has harmful consequences for society. In several western countries, drug
abuse was regarded as an important social problem since long but in India, it is only since last one and a
half decade that it has come to be considered a crucial social problem. It is said that India has become not
only an important transit center for drugs, but the prevalence of drug use is also alarmingly increasing.
According to one estimate, India has about 10 lakh heroin addicts only. The use of illicit drugs is not
confined to the street urchins and the lower classes; more and more middle and upper class youth are
succumbing to drugs. An aberrant person addicted to drugs would conceal his transgression from social
norms of society, violates norms without questioning their legitimacy, and attempts to escape the
penalties for violating norms without proposing changes in them. In the psychological and sociological
contexts, drug is a term for habit forming substance which directly affects the brain or nervous system.
More precisely, it refers to “any chemical substance which affects bodily function, mood, perception, or
consciousness which has potential for misuse, and which may be harmful to the individual or the society.”
(Jullian, 1977)

Basic Characteristics

 An overpowering desire or need(compulsion to continue taking the drug and to obtain it by any
means)
 A tendency to increase the dose
 A psychological and generally a physical dependence on the effects of the drugs; and
 An effect detrimental to the individual and to the society.

‘Drug abuse’ is the use of illicit drug or misuse of legitimate drug resulting into physical or
psychological harm. It includes smoking ganja or hashish, taking heroin or cocaine or LSD,
injecting morphine, drinking alcohol, and so forth. These are sometimes referred to as being ‘high
on speed’ or ‘trip’ or ‘getting kicks’. Drug dependence denotes habitual or frequent use of a drug.
The dependence can either be physical or psychological. Physical dependence occurs with the
repeated use of the drug when the body has adjusted to the presence of a drug and will suffer
pain, discomfort or illness if the use of the drug is discontinued.

Nature and impact of abusable drugs

 Alcohol: alcohol is used by some people as a normal, pleasant and sociable activity, while others
take it as a spur which enables them to work. It also acts as a sedative which calms down nerves
or a kind of an anesthetic which reduces the pain of living. It also impairs judgment and creates
confusion.
 Sedatives or depressants: It relaxes the central nervous system, induce sleep and provide a
calming effect. Tranquilizers and barbiturates fall into this category. Medically, they are used in
high blood pressures, insomnia, and epilepsy and to relax patients before and doing surgery. As
depressants, they depress actions of nerves and muscles. In small quantity, they slow down
breathing and heart-beating and make the user relaxed, but in higher doses, their effects resemble
alcohol intoxication in which the user becomes sluggish, gloomy and sometimes irritable.
 Stimulants: It activates the central nervous system and relieves tensions, treat mild depression,
increase alertness, contract fatigue and expressive drowsiness, and lessen aggressive inhibitions.
 The most widely known stimulants are amphetamines (popularly called pep-pill’s) caffeine, and
cocaine. Heavier doses cause extreme nervousness, headache, diarrhea, and unclear speech.
 Narcotics: Narcotics like sedatives produce a depressant effect on the central nervous system.
They produce feelings of pleasure, strength and superiority, reduce hunger and increase
suggestibility. Included in this category are opium, marijuana, heroin (smack), morphine,
pethidine, cocaine and cannabis (charas, ganja and bhang). Heroin is a white powder made from
morphine; cocaine is made from the leaves of the coca bush and is odourless; cannabis is obtained
from the hemp plant; and marijuana is a particular form of cannabis. Heroin, morphine, pethidine
and cocaine are used either by inhaling the powder, or injecting the liquid form. Opium and
marijuana may be smoked, sniffed or ingested.
 Hallucinogens: It produces distortions of perception and dream-images. Their use is not advised
by medical practitioners. The well-known drug in this group is LSD, which is a man-made
chemical. An amount literally smaller than a grain of salt can produce gross psychotic reactions in
human beings. It may be obtained as a small white pill, as crystalline powder in capsules, or in
liquid form in ampoules.
 Nicotine: It includes cigarettes, bidi, cigars, snuff and tobacco. Nicotine has no medical use. The
risk of physical dependence however, may be there. The frequent and heavy use of nicotine may
cause heart attack, lung cancer, and bronchitis. The law does not classify this as a drug.

Causes for dug-addiction

 Mental deficiency: It has been observed that the drug-addicted persons are generally of an
unstable mind. Generally, in order to hide their weak points of the personality they get addicted to
drugs.
 Treatment: Few people use such type of drugs in order to get relief from physical and mental
illness. But after a few months, they get addicted to it.
 Abnormal personality: Those who have abnormal personality also feel always dissatisfaction. In
order to fulfill the dreams of their utopia, they get addicted to drugs.
 Other causes: Like failure in an exam, love, inferiority complex, lack of family control, for fun,
influence of western culture, etc.
 Social causes: facilitating social experiences, being accepted by friends, and challenging social
values.
 Physiological causes: staying awake, heightening sexual experiences, removing pain and getting
sleep.
Control of Drug Addiction
From the past one decade, the illegal traffic of drugs has increased in India. In 1983, Royal
Commission was set up which studies the control and effects of opium. In 1948, Excise
Minister’s conference was organized by the GOI at New Delhi, wherein it was decided to
abandon the present excise policy in favour of physical control on the supply of opium with the
object of prohibiting oral consumption of the drugs by March 1959. A central organization-
Narcotic Intelligence Bureau was set up by the GOI in 1936 under Article 11 and 12 of the
Geneva Convention of 1936 which coordinates the preventive activities of central and state
governments in respect of drug addiction. During the past few years, this has brought out history
sheet records of 398 persons as traffickers in narcotics. These history sheets which contain all
available information on the identity and criminal records of traffickers are supplemented by
periodical investigations, the result of which are circulated to state excise and police authorities.
These efforts have several big seizures and in smashing some of the powerful ring of drug
traffickers in India. There is also “The Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic substances Act, 1985”
which maintained that illegal traders of drugs will be given 10 years punishment and one lakh
fine. The repetition of such crime would cause 1.5 to 3 lakh fine. The court has been given
freedom to leave such criminals in hospitals, camps and medical programmes for participation
under special conditions. Welfare department of GOI gave economic and other help to such
NGOs which work to develop general awareness among people against the ill-effects of drug
addiction. National Institute of Social Defense gives training to such governmental and non-
governmental organizations. In addition, for the proper treatment and rehabilitation of affected
persons the NGOs have established 26centres, 91 advising centers and rehabilitative centers. 76
hospitals and other institutions gave proper medical treatment to such persons. Government can
help in the education and socialization of people for this concern through mass media. In
additions, the doctors and physician must change their attitude regarding too much dependency
on medical drugs. They should adopt and prescribe to alternative traditional methods, say yoga
and meditation for patients.