CHAPTER 11

Rate of Consolidation
QUESTIONS AND PRACTICE PROBLEMS

Section 11.1 Terzaghi’s Theory of Consolidation

11.1 A 12.0-m thick clay stratum with double drainage is to be subjected to a Δσz of 75 kPa.
The coefficient of consolidation in this soil in 3.5 x 10-3 m2/d. Using Equation 11.17,
compute the hydrostatic, excess, and total pure water pressure at a point 2.7 m above the
bottom of this stratum 10 years after placement of the load.

Solution
Since the layer is doubly drained, the maximum drainage path is

H dr = 6.0 m

The time factor is computed using Equation 11.18

Tv =
cv t
=
( )
3.5 × 10 −3 m 2 /d (10 yr )(365 d/yr )
= 0.3549
H dr2 (6.0 m )2
And, at the point of interest

z dr = 2.7 m
z dr 2 .7
= = 0.45
H dr 6 .0

Using Equation 11.17 to compute the excess pore water pressure at the point of interest

N ue/Δσz ue (kPa)
0 0.3445
1 0.0001
Σ= 0.3446 × 75 = 25.8

The computed excess pore water pressure at this point is 25.8 kPa

11-1

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 11-2 Rate of Consolidation Chap. 11

11.2 Solve Question 11.1 using figure 11.4.

Solution

z dr 2.7 m
= = 0.45
H dr 6.0 m

Per Figure 11.4, ue/Δσz = 0.34

u e = (0.34)(75 kPa ) = 25.5 kPa

11.3 For the soil profile and loading conditions described in Problem 11.1, how long will it
take for the excess pore pressure to reach one half the initial excess pore pressure. Will
the average degree of consolidation for the entire clay layer be less than, equal to, or
greater than 50% at this time? Explain.

Solution
At a point 2.7 m above the bottom of the stratum

zdr 2.7
=
H dr 6.0
= 0.45

When the excess pore pressure at this point is 50% of the initial excess pore pressure

ue
= 50%
Δσ z

ue z
From Figure 11.4, with = 50% and dr = 0.45
Δσ z H dr

Tv = 0.20

The time to reach 50% consolidation at this point is then computed by solving for t in
Equation 11.18

T (H ) 0.20(6 )
2 2
t = v dr =
cv 3.5 × 10-3
= 2,060 day
= 5.6 years

The average degree of consolidation for the entire layer is determined Equation 11.254

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 Chap. 11 Rate of Consolidation 11-3

4Tv
U = × 100%
π
4(0.2)
= × 100%
π
U = 50%

In this case, the average degree of consolidation for the entire clay layer is equal to the
degree of consolidation at a depth of 2.7 m above the base of the clay layer.

11.4 Repeat Problem 11.1 but assume the clay stratum is drained only at the top. Compare the
pore pressures computed for this case of single drainage with the pore pressures
computed for the case of double drainage in Problem 11.1.

Solution

cv t
Tv = 2 =
( )
3.5 × 10 −3 m 2 /d (10 yr )(365 d/yr )
= 0.0887
H dr (12.0 m )2
z dr = 2.7 m
H dr = 12.0 m
z dr 2.7
= = 0.225
H dr 12

Using Equation 11.17

N ue/Δσz ue (kPa)
0 0.3541
1 0.0517
2 0.0011
Σ= 0.4068 × 75 = 30.5

The computed excess pore water pressure at this point is 30.5 kPa

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 11-4 Rate of Consolidation Chap. 11

11.5 A 20-ft thick fill with a unit weight of 120lb/ft3 is to be placed on the soil profile shown
in Figure 11.29. Assuming the fill is placed instantaneously, use the curves in Figure 11.4
to develop a plot of ue versus depth at t=1.5 years. Plot depth on the vertical axis,
increasing downward, and consider depths from the original ground surface to the bottom
of the CL stratum.

Figure 11.29 Soil profile for Problems 11.5–11.7 and 11.10.

Solution

Δσ z = γ fill H fill = (120)(20) = 2400 lb/ft 2

cv t (0.17 )(1.5 × 365)

Tv = = = 0.149
H dr2 25 2

Depth From ue/Δσz

Top of Clay (ft) zdr/Hdr Figure 12.4 ue (lb/ft2)
0 0.00 0 0
5 0.20 0.28 672
10 0.40 0.55 1320
15 0.60 0.72 1728
20 0.80 0.83 1992
25 1.00 0.86 2064

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 Chap. 11 Rate of Consolidation 11-5

11.6 Use equation 11.17 to compute the hydrostatic, excess, and total pore water pressures at
Point F in Figure 11.29 at t = 1, 2, 4, 8, and 16 years after placement of the fill. Then use
this data to develop a plot of uh, ue, and u at this point versus time. All three curves
should be on the same diagram, with time on the horizontal axis.

Solution

z dr 10
= = 0.40
H dr 25
Δσ z = γ fill H fill = (120)(20) = 2400 lb/ft 2

t Σ From Equation 11.17 ue uh u

(yrs) Tv N=0 N=1 N=2 Σ (lb/ft2) (lb/ft2) (lb/ft2)
1 0.099 0.586 0.045 0 0.631 1514 998 2512
2 0.199 0.458 0.005 0 0.463 1111 998 2109
4 0.391 0.285 0 0 0.285 684 998 1682
8 0.795 0.105 0 0 0.105 252 998 1250
16 1.59 0.015 0 0 0.015 36 998 1034

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 11-6 Rate of Consolidation Chap. 11

11.7 Using the soil profile in Figure 11.29, develop a spreadsheet that solves Equation 11.17 at
1.0 ft depth intervals through the entire soft clay stratum. Use summations for N. Then
use this spreadsheet to develop a curve of excess pore water pressure versus depth at t = 6
years after construction. Submit a printout of the spreadsheet, and a plot of the excess
pore water pressure curve.

Note for those who may wish to develop spreadsheet or other software for more
general solutions: the natural exponent term in Equation 11.17 may cause difficulties for
some programming languages when they attempt to take e to a large negative power.
However, these difficulties appear to occur only when N has risen to values beyond those
necessary for the summation. Therefore, avoid such difficulties by terminating the
summation whenever the exponent term generates an error, or when the increment of N
produces a negligible change in the summation.

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 Chap. 11 Rate of Consolidation 11-7

Solution
See the spreadsheet Problem_11-07.xlsx for one solution.

ue (lb/ft2)
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
0

10
Depth (ft)

15

20

25

Section 11.2 Consolidation Settlement versus Time Computations

11.8 Consider the proposed fill and soil profile shown in Figure 11.5, except replace the sandy
silt strata with an impervious bedrock. Using the simplified solution, compute the
consolidation settlement at t = 15 years after placement of the fill. The ultimate
consolidation settlement is 0.50 m. Do not apply any correction for the construction
period.

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 11-8 Rate of Consolidation Chap. 11

Figure 11.5 Soil profile

Solution

cv t
Tv = 2 =
(
3 × 10 −3 (15 × 365) )
= 0.164
H dr 10.0 2

4Tv 4(0.164)
U= × 100% = × 100% = 45.7%
π π

δ c = Uδ c ,ult = (0.457 )(0.50 ) = 0.23 m

11.9 For the situation described in Problem 11.8, how long will it take to reach 95%, 98%, and
99% of the ultimate consolidation settlement? Use the simplified method. The owner has
asked you “How long will the settlement take?” How would you reply?

Solution
From Table 11.2 for U = 95%, Tv = 1.13 and from Equation 11.18

Tv =
cv t
→ 1 . 13 =
(
3 × 10 −3 t )
→ t = 37,700 days ≈ 100 yrs
H dr2 10.0 2

From Table 11.2 for U = 98%, Tv = 1.50 and from Equation 11.18

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 Chap. 11 Rate of Consolidation 11-9

Tv =
cv t
→ 1 . 50 =
(
3 × 10 −3 t )
→ t = 50,000 days ≈ 140 yrs
H dr2 10.0 2

From Table 11.2 for U = 99%, Tv = 1.78 and from Equation 11.18

Tv =
cv t
→ 1 . 78 =
(
3 × 10 −3 t )
→ t = 59,300 days ≈ 160 yrs
H dr2 10.0 2

Theoretically we will never reach 100% consolidation using Terzaghi’s theory. As this
problem shows, there is a significant difference between the time for 95% and 99%
consolidation settlement. In general it is acceptable to choose 95% as full consolidation
and report this time as the time for complete settlement.

11.10 For the proposed fill shown in figure 11.29, assume the ultimate consolidation settlement
is 1.6 ft. The owner wants to build a structure on top of the fill. The structure can
withstand a total settlement of 4 in. How long must the owner wait after placement of the
fill before building the structure on top of the fill? Use the simplified method.

Solution
According to the problem statement, building construction may begin when

δc = 1.6 ft – 4/12 ft = 1.27 ft.

δc 1.27
U= = ×100% = 79%
δ c ,ult 1.6

Using equation 11.25 with U = 79% - Tv = 0.547

cv t
Tv = 2 → 0.547 =
0.17 ft 2 /day t( ) → t = 2011 days ≈ 5.5 yrs
H dr (25 ft )2
11.11 A fill is to be placed on the soil profile shown in Figure 11.30. The groundwater table is
level with the original ground surface. Use the simplified method to develop a plot of
consolidation settlement versus time. Continue the plot until U > 99%. Do not apply any
correction for the construction period.

Note: As consolidation settlement occurs, some of the fill will become submerged
beneath the groundwater table. The resulting buoyant force will reduce σ´zf and thus
reduce the consolidation settlement. However, this effect is small for this problem and
may be ignored.

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 11-10 Rate of Consolidation Chap. 11

Figure 11.30 Soil profile for Problems 11.11 and 11.12.

Solution
Calculate ultimate consolidation using Equation 11.22

Δσz Cr Cc
z H σ'z0 σ'c σ'z
(ft) (ft) (lb/ft ) (lb/ft2)
2
(lb/ft2) (lb/ft2) (1 + e0 ) (1 + e0 ) CASE δ (ft)
1 2 38 5038 1180 1218 0.070 0.180 OC-I 0.211
3 2 113 5113 1180 1293 0.070 0.180 OC-I 0.148
5 2 188 5188 1180 1368 0.070 0.180 OC-I 0.121
7 2 263 5263 1180 1443 0.070 0.180 OC-I 0.103
9 2 338 5338 1180 1518 0.070 0.180 OC-I 0.091
11 2 414 5414 1180 1594 0.070 0.180 OC-I 0.082
12.5 1 470 5470 1180 1650 0.070 0.180 OC-I 0.038
Σ= 0.795

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 Chap. 11 Rate of Consolidation 11-11

Calculate consolidation settlement using the simplified method

t (yrs) Tv U δc (ft)
0.25 0.054 26% 0.209
0.50 0.108 37% 0.295
0.75 0.162 45% 0.361
1.00 0.216 52% 0.417
2.00 0.432 72% 0.573
5.00 1.080 94% 0.750
10.00 2.160 >99% 0.792

0 2 4 6 8 10
0.00

0.50

1.00

11.12 A shopping center is to be built on the fill described in Problem 11.11. The proposed
buildings and other facilities can tolerate a settlement due to the weight of the fill of no
more than 2 in. Therefore, once the fill has been placed, it will be necessary to wait until
enough settlement has occurred that the remaining settlement will be less than 2 in. Only
then may the building construction begin.

Assuming the fill will be placed at a uniform rate from May 1 to June 1,
determine the earliest start date for the building construction. Apply a correction for the
construction period. For this problem, consider only settlement due to the weight of the
fill. Do not consider settlement due to the weight of the buildings.

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 11-12 Rate of Consolidation Chap. 11

Solution
Calculate ultimate consolidation using Equation 11.22

z H σ'z0 σ'c Δσz σ'z Cr Cc

(ft) (ft) (lb/ft2) (lb/ft2) (lb/ft2) (lb/ft2) (1 + e0 ) (1 + e0 ) CASE δ (ft)
1 2 38 5038 1180 1218 0.070 0.180 OC-I 0.211
3 2 113 5113 1180 1293 0.070 0.180 OC-I 0.148
5 2 188 5188 1180 1368 0.070 0.180 OC-I 0.121
7 2 263 5263 1180 1443 0.070 0.180 OC-I 0.103
9 2 338 5338 1180 1518 0.070 0.180 OC-I 0.091
11 2 414 5414 1180 1594 0.070 0.180 OC-I 0.082
12.5 1 470 5470 1180 1650 0.070 0.180 OC-I 0.038
Σ= 0.795

Per settlement analyses, δc,ult = 0.795 ft. According to the problem statement, building
construction may begin when δc = 0.795 – 2/12 = 0.628 ft.

δc 0.628
U= = × 100% = 79%
δ c ,ult 0.795

Using equation 11.25 with U = 79% - Tv = 0.547

Tv =
cv t
=
(
0.10 ft 2 /d t )
H dr2 (13 ft )2
t = 924 day = 30.5 months

Section 11.3 The Coefficient of Consolidation

11.13 The data shown in the table below were obtained from a laboratory consolidation test on
a normally consolidated undisturbed MH soil with a liquid limit of 65. The sample was
62 mm in diameter, 25 mm tall and was tested under a double drainage condition.
Compute cv using the log-time fitting method. Then, compare your result with a typical
value of cv for this soil and determine if your value seems reasonable.

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 Chap. 11 Rate of Consolidation 11-13

Time Since Loading Dial Reading

(HH:MM:SS) (mm)
00:01:01 7.21
00:03:16 7.74
00:08:35 8.40
00:16:39 9.01
00:30:15 9.60
00:59:17 10.11
01:54:29 10.35
04:02:30 10.45
08:20:00 10.52

Solution

According to the plot, t50 = 9 min = 0.00625 day

cv t
Tv =
H dr2

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 11-14 Rate of Consolidation Chap. 11

cv (9 min )
0.196 = 2
⎛ 2.5 cm ⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠
cv = 0.034 cm 2 /min
= 4.9 × 10 −3 m 2 /day

According to Figure 11.14, this answer is reasonable for soils that have a liquid limit of
65.

11.14 Repeat Problem 11.13 using the square root of time fitting method. Compare the results
to those found using log-time method.

Solution

According to the plot, t50 = 2.8 → t50 = 7.84 min

cv t
Tv =
H dr2

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 Chap. 11 Rate of Consolidation 11-15

cv (7.84 min )
0.196 = 2
⎛ 2.5 cm ⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠
cv = 0.039 cm 2 /min
= 5.6 × 10 −3 m 2 /day

The both methods produced essentially the same results. According to Figure 11.14, this
answer is reasonable for soils that have a liquid limit of 65.

11.15 The data shown in the table below were obtained from a laboratory consolidation test on
a normally consolidation undisturbed CL soil with a liquid limit of 38. The sample was
2.50 in. in diameter, 0.75 in. tall and was tested under a double drainage condition.
Compute cv using the log-time fitting method. Then, compare your result with a typical
value of cv for this oil and determine if your value seems reasonable.

Time Since Loading Dial Reading

(HH:MM:SS) (inches)
0:00:03 0.0755
0:00:08 0.0764
0:00:15 0.0774
0:00:30 0.0789
0:01:00 0.0812
0:02:00 0.0841
0:04:00 0.0872
0:09:00 0.0899
0:25:30 0.0918
0:49:00 0.0923
2:52:00 0.0930

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 11-16 Rate of Consolidation Chap. 11

Solution

According to the plot, t50 = 2.0 min

cv t
Tv =
H dr2

cv t
Tv =
H dr2
cv (2.0 min )
0.196 = 2
⎛ 0.75 in ⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠
cv = 0.014 in 2 /min
= 0.14 ft 2 /day

According to Figure 11.14, this answer is reasonable for soils that have a liquid limit of
38.

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 Chap. 11 Rate of Consolidation 11-17

11.16 Repeat Problem 11.15 using the square root of time fitting method. Compare the results
to those found using log-time method.

Solution

According to the plot t50 = 1.2 → t50 = 1.44 min

cv t
Tv =
H dr2

cv (1.44 min )
0.196 = 2
⎛ 0.75 in ⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠
cv = 0.019 in 2 /min
= 0.19 ft 2 /day

The both methods produced similar results and, according to Figure 11.14, this answer is
reasonable for soils that have a liquid limit of 38.

Section 11.5 Consolidation Monitoring

11.17 A proposed fill is to be placed on the soil profile shown in Figure 11.31.

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 11-18 Rate of Consolidation Chap. 11

(a) Using the laboratory test results shown in this figure, develop a time-settlement plot.
Do not apply any correction for the construction period. The medium clay is normally
consolidated.
(b) A piezometer has been installed at Point A and a remote-reading settlement plate at
Point B. Measurements from these instruments made 2580 days after placement of
the fill indicated a pore water pressure of 1975 lb/ft2 and a settlement of 1.20 ft. using
the technique described in example 11.5, back-calculate the values of Cc/(1+e0) and cv,
and compare then to the laboratory values.

Figure 11.31 Soil profile for Problems 11.17, 11.18 and 11.31.

Solution
(a) The sand stratum will consolidate immediately upon placement of the fill. Its ultimate
consolidation settlement is computed as follows:

Cc
= 0.004 per table10.4
(1 + e0 )
σ ′z 0 = ∑ γH − u = (120)(4) − 0 = 480 lb/ft 2

σ ′zf = σ ′z 0 + γ fill H fill = 480 + (124)(12) = 1968 lb/ft 2

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 Chap. 11 Rate of Consolidation 11-19

⎛ σ ′zf ⎞
δc =
Cc
H log⎜ ⎟ = (0.004 )(8) log⎛⎜ 1968 ⎞⎟ = 0.020 ft
1 + e0 ⎜σ ′ ⎟ ⎝ 480 ⎠
⎝ z0 ⎠

Calculate ultimate consolidation using equation 11.20

z H σ'z0 Δσz σ'z Cc
(ft) (ft) (lb/ft2) (lb/ft2) (lb/ft2) (1 + e0 ) Case δ (ft)
2.5 5 935 1240 2175 0.180 NC 0.330
7.5 5 1123 1240 2363 0.180 NC 0.291
12.5 5 1311 1240 2551 0.180 NC 0.260
17.5 5 1499 1240 2739 0.180 NC 0.236
22.5 5 1687 1240 2927 0.180 NC 0.215
27.5 5 1875 1240 3115 0.180 NC 0.198
32.5 5 2063 1240 3303 0.180 NC 0.184
37.5 5 2251 1240 3491 0.180 NC 0.172
Σ= 1.886

Calculate consolidation settlement using the simplified solution

δc in sand δc in clay
t (yrs) Tv U (ft) (ft) δc (ft)
5 0.055 26% 0.020 0.569 0.589
10 0.110 37% 0.020 0.804 0.824
15 0.164 46% 0.020 0.985 1.005
20 0.219 53% 0.020 1.137 1.157
30 0.329 64% 0.020 1.378 1.398
40 0.438 72% 0.020 1.561 1.581
50 0.548 79% 0.020 1.702 1.722
75 0.821 89% 0.020 1.924 1.944
100 1.095 95% 0.020 2.037 2.057
150 1.643 99% 0.020 2.124 2.144
Ultimate 2.714 100% 0.020 1.884 2.154

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 11-20 Rate of Consolidation Chap. 11

t (yr)
0 50 100 150
0.0

0.5

1.0
δ (ft)

1.5

2.0

2.5
b.

Δσ z = γ fill H fill = (124)(12) = 1488 lb/ft 2

At point A:

u e = u − u h = 1975 − (62.4 )(13) = 1164 lb/ft 2

Using Equation 12.17 with:

u e = 1164 lb/ft 2
z dr = 11 ft
H dr = 20 ft
Δσ z = 1488 lb/ft 2

gives Tv = 0.099

cv t
Tv =
H dr2
c v (2580 )
0.099 =
20 2
c v = 0.0015 ft 2 /day

Using the Equation 11.20 with cv=0.015 ft2/day and δ = 1.20 ft gives:

Cc
= 0.240
1 + e0

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 Chap. 11 Rate of Consolidation 11-21

The back calculated value of cv = 0.015 is very close to the laboratory value of 0.012, so
the time required for the settlement will about as anticipated. However, the back
calculated value of Cc/(1+e0) = 0.240 is 50% greater than the laboratory value of 0.118.
Therefore, the ultimate settlement will be 50% greater than anticipated.

Calculate ultimate consolidation settlement using Equation 11.20

Δσz Cc
z H σ'z0 σ'z
(ft) (ft) (lb/ft2) (lb/ft2) (lb/ft2) (1 + e0 ) CASE δ (ft)
2.5 5 935 1488 2423 0.240 NC 0.496
7.5 5 1123 1488 2611 0.240 NC 0.440
12.5 5 1311 1488 2799 0.240 NC 0.395
17.5 5 1499 1488 2987 0.240 NC 0.359
22.5 5 1687 1488 3175 0.240 NC 0.330
27.5 5 1875 1488 3363 0.240 NC 0.304
32.5 5 2063 1488 3551 0.240 NC 0.283
37.5 5 2251 1488 3739 0.240 NC 0.264
Σ= 2.872

Calculate consolidation settlement using the simplified solution

δc δc
in sand in clay
t (yrs) Tv U (ft) (ft) δc (ft)
5 0.068 30% 0.020 0.636 0.656
10 0.137 42% 0.020 0.899 0.919
15 0.205 51% 0.020 1.101 1.121
20 0.274 59% 0.020 1.272 1.292
30 0.411 71% 0.020 1.520 1.540
40 0.548 79% 0.020 1.702 1.722
50 0.684 85% 0.020 1.831 1.851
75 1.027 94% 0.020 2.015 2.035
100 1.369 97% 0.020 2.094 2.114
150 2.053 99% 0.020 2.143 2.163
Ultimate 3.726 100% 0.020 2.154 2.174

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 11-22 Rate of Consolidation Chap. 11

t (yr)
0 25 50 75 100 125 150
0.0

0.5

1.0 Initial prediction

δ (ft)

1.5

2.0

Revised prediction
2.5

3.0

Comprehensive

11.18 The clay stratum in Figure 11.31 has Cc/(1+e0) = 0.16, cv = 0.022, and Cα/(1+ep) = 0.017.
Develop a time-settlement plot for t = 0 to 75 years considering both consolidation and
secondary compression. Do not apply any correction for the construction period.

Solution
The sand stratum will consolidate immediately upon placement of the fill. Its ultimate
consolidation settlement is computed as follows:

Cc
= 0.004 per table10.4
(1 + e0 )
σ ′z 0 = ∑ γH − u = (120)(4) − 0 = 480 lb/ft 2

⎛ σ ′zf ⎞
δc =
Cc
H log⎜ ⎟ = (0.004 )(8) log⎛⎜ 1968 ⎞⎟ = 0.020 ft
1 + e0 ⎜σ ′ ⎟ ⎝ 480 ⎠
⎝ z0 ⎠

Calculate ultimate consolidation using equation 11.20

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 Chap. 11 Rate of Consolidation 11-23

δc δc δs
in sand in clay in clay
t (yrs) Tv U (ft) (ft) (ft) δc (ft)
0 0.000 0% 0.000 0.000 0.000
5 0.100 36% 0.020 0.684 0.704
10 0.201 51% 0.020 0.968 0.988
15 0.301 61% 0.020 1.176 1.196
20 0.402 70% 0.020 1.338 1.358
30 0.602 82% 0.020 1.563 1.583
40 0.803 89% 0.020 1.701 1.721
50 1.004 93% 0.020 1.784 1.804
56 1.131 95% 0.020 1.819 0.000 1.839
75 1.506 98% 0.020 1.877 0.084 1.981

Take end of primary to be at 95% consolidation.

t (yr)
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
0.0

0.5

1.0
δ (ft)

tp
1.5

2.0

2.5

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 11-24 Rate of Consolidation Chap. 11

11.19 The CL/ML stratum in Figure 11.7 contains thin horizontal sand seams spaced about 1 m
apart. Using this new information, reevaluate the computation in Example 11.3 and
develop a revised time-settlement plot. Compare this plot with the ones in Figure 11.8
and explain why they are different

Figure 11.7 Soil profile for Example 11.3.

Solution
Based on Equation 11.18, decreasing Hdr from 5 to 0.5 m (i.e. by a factor of 10) has the
same effect as increasing cv by a factor of 100. Therefore, reanalyze this problem with
cv = 0.21 m2/d.
Time Settlement (mm)
(days) (years) Sand Strata Clay Strata Total
2 14 82 96
5 14 128 142
10 14 178 192
20 14 247 261
50 14 361 375
100 14 434 448
200 14 467 481
500 1.4 14 472 486

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 Chap. 11 Rate of Consolidation 11-25

The sand seams dramatically accelerate the rate of settlement because they provide
avenues for the excess pore water escape. In this case, the rate of settlement is 100 times
faster than before

11.20 Most of the international airport is San Francisco, California, is built on fill placed in San
Francisco Bay. A cross-section through one portion of the airport is shown in Figure
11.32.

Figure 11.32 Cross-section at San Francisco Airport. (Roberts and Darragh, 1962.) The
groundwater table is indicated by the dashed line.

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 11-26 Rate of Consolidation Chap. 11

The engineering properties of these soils are approximately as follows:

Fill Bay Sands

and Mud Bay and Old Bay
Levee Crust Mud Clays Deposits
Dry unit weight, γd (lb/ft3) 108 49 40 80 61
Moisture content, w (%) 20 82 118 29 68
Compression index, Cc 0 1.0 1.3 0.5 1.2
Recompression, Cr 0 0.09 0.17 0.09 0.14
Initial void ratio, e0 2.40 3.25 1.10 1.70
2
Overconsolidation margin, σ'm (lb/ft ) 3500 0 2800 2800
2
Coefficient of consolidation, cv (ft /yr) 130 7 300 5

(a) Compute the ultimate consolidation settlement at various points along the cross-
section. Then develop a plot of ultimate consolidation settlement versus horizontal
position. When performing these computations, ignore the presence of the levee and
any consolidation that may have already occurred due to its weight (in reality, these
earlier settlements would increase the amount of differential settlement in this area,
which could be worse than if the levee was never there).
(b) Develop plots of settlement versus time for the left and right ends of the cross-section.
Assume all of the settlement in the crust and in the “sands and clays” strata will occur
during construction, and assume both the bay mud and old bay deposits have double
drainage.
Hint: Perform separate time-settlement computations for the bay mud and old bay
deposits strata, then add the ultimate settlements from the other strata.

Solution
Using Equations 11.20, 11.21, and 11.22:

Location δc,ult (ft)

A 2.34
B 3.31
C 4.59
D 9.52

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 Chap. 11 Rate of Consolidation 11-27

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 11-28 Rate of Consolidation Chap. 11

(c) Per consolidation analysis, the vast majority of the settlement occurs in the bay mud
stratum. Therefore, for time-settlement computations, assume the settlement in all the
other strata occurs immediately after the fill is placed.

δc at left side of cross section δc at right side of cross section

(ft) (ft)
Bay Bay
t (yrs) Mud Other Strata Total Mud Other Strata Total
1 1.04 0.85 1.89 2.32 0.60 2.92
2 1.29 0.85 2.14 2.97 0.60 3.57
3 1.39 0.85 2.24 3.42 0.60 4.02
4 1.44 0.85 2.29 3.79 0.60 4.39
5 1.47 0.85 2.32 4.10 0.60 4.70
7 1.48 0.85 2.33 4.62 0.60 5.22
10 1.49 0.85 2.34 5.24 0.60 5.84
15 1.49 0.85 2.34 6.01 0.60 6.61
20 1.49 0.85 2.34 6.58 0.60 7.18
30 1.49 0.85 2.34 7.37 0.60 7.97
40 1.49 0.85 2.34 7.88 0.60 8.48
60 1.49 0.85 2.34 8.47 0.60 9.07
80 1.49 0.85 2.34 8.76 0.60 9.36
100 1.49 0.85 2.34 8.92 0.60 9.52
Ultimate 1.49 0.85 2.34 9.10 0.60 9.70

The settlement at the right side of the cross-section has a greater magnitude and requires
much more time to reach U = 100%. This is because the bay mud stratum is much thicker
on this side.

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 Chap. 11 Rate of Consolidation 11-29

11.21 The information presented in Figure 11.31 has the following uncertainties:

Depth to bottom of proposed fill ±1 ft

Depth to bottom of SW stratum ±1 ft
Depth to bottom of CH stratum ±2ft
Unit weights ±10%
Relative density ±15% (i.e., Dr = 68-92%)
Cc/(1+e0) ±20%
cv ±35%
Considering these tolerances, compute the lower bound solution and upper bound
solution for δc at t = 10 yr and δc,ult. The lower bound solution is that which uses the best
possible combination of factors, while the upper bound uses the worst possible
combination.

Solution

Lower Upper
Parameter Bound Average Bound
Depth to bottom of fill (ft) 11 12 13
Depth to bottom of SW (ft) 21 20 19
Depth to bottom of CH (ft) 59 60 61
γ Fill (lb/ft3) 111.6 124.0 136.4
γ sand above GWT (lb/ft3) 132.0 120.0 108.0
γ sand below GWT (lb/ft3) 135.3 123.0 110.7
γ Clay (lb/ft3) 110.0 100.0 99.0
Dr Sand 92% 80% 68%
Cc/(1+e0) Sand 0.0035 0.004 0.005
Cc/(1+e0) Clay 0.144 0.18 0.216
cv Clay (ft2/d) 0.0078 0.012 0.0162
δc @ t = 10 yr Sand (ft) 0.016 0.020 0.022
δc @ t = 10 yr Clay (ft) 0.413 0.953 1.845
δc @ t = 10 yr Total (ft) 0.429 0.973 1.867
δc,ult Sand (ft) 0.016 0.020 0.022
δc,ult Clay (ft) 1.139 2.156 3.612
δc,ult Total (ft) 1.155 2.176 3.634

The computed settlement at t = 10 yr varies from 0.429 to 1.867 ft, while the computed
ultimate settlement varies from 1.155 to 3.634 ft.

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 11-30 Rate of Consolidation Chap. 11

11.22 The soil profile at a certain site includes an 8.5-m thick stratum of saturated normally
consolidated medium silty clay. This soil has a unit weight of 16.4 kN/m3. A remote
reading settlement plate has been installed a short distance below the natural ground
surface and a remote reading piezometer has been installed at the midpoint of the silty
clay. The initial readings from these instruments indicate a ground surface elevation of
7.32 m and a pore water pressure of 52 kPa. The initial vertical effective stress at the top
of the silty clay stratum was 50 kPa.

Then a 2.1-m deep fill with a unit weight of 18.7 kN/m3 was placed on this site. A
second set of readings made 220 days after placement of this fill indicate an elevation of
6.78 m and a pore water pressure of 77 kPa. Assuming all of the other soil strata are
incompressible, and single drainage conditions exist in the silty clay, compute the values
of Cc/(1+e0) and cv, then develop a plot of consolidation settlement versus time. This plot
should extend form U = 0% to U = 95%. Finally, mark the point on this plot that
represents the conditions present when the second set of readings was made.

Solution
Using Equation 11.17 with:

u e = 77 − 52 = 25 kPa
z dr = 8.5 / 2 = 4.25 m
H dr = 8.5 m
Δσ z = γ fill H fill = (18.7 )(2.1) = 39.3 kPa

Gives Tv = 0.15

cv t
Tv =
H dr2
cv (220)
0.15 =
8.5 2
cv = 0.0493 m 2 /day

Using Equation 11.20 with cv = 0.0493 m2/day and δ = 7.32 - 6.78 = 0.54 m gives:

Cc
= 0.67
1 + e0

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 Chap. 11 Rate of Consolidation 11-31

t (yrs) δc (m) U
0.2 0.342 33%
0.4 0.458 44%
0.6 0.541 52%
1 0.663 64%
2 0.845 81%
4 0.985 95%

11.23 The analysis in Example 11.5 did not explicitly consider the possibility that the drainage
distance Hdr used in the original analysis was not correct. Does the adjustment of cv based
on piezometer data, as described in this example, implicitly consider Hdr? Explain.

Solution
Although the analysis in Example 11.5 did not explicitly consider Hdr, it is implicitly
reflected in the computed cv value. Therefore, this cv includes a correction for any error in
the Hdr value. Any subsequent analyses should be performed with these two values.

11.24 An engineer in your office is planning a drilling and sampling program at a site that has a
thick stratum of soft to medium clay. The information gathered from this program, along
with the associated laboratory test results, will be used in various geotechnical analyses,
including evaluations of consolidation rates. This engineer has submitted the plan to you
for your review and approval.

The engineer expects the clay stratum will be very uniform, and therefore is
planning to obtain only a few samples. These samples will then be used to conduct
laboratory consolidation tests. Although this plan will probably be sufficient to
characterize the consolidation properties of the clay, you are concerned that thin sandy
layers might be present in the clay, and that they might not be detected unless more
samples are obtained. Write a 200-300 word memo to the engineer explaining the need to
search for possible sandy layers, and the importance of these layers in consolidation rate
analyses.

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 11-32 Rate of Consolidation Chap. 11

Solution
Memorandum
To: Staff Engineer
From: Project manager
Re: Exploration program for the _____ project
Thank you for submitting the subsurface exploration plan for the _____ project.
Upon reviewing this plan, I see that you intend to drill few borings, and plan to obtain
only few samples, which then will be used to conduct consolidation tests. Since the soft
medium clay at this site is probably very uniform, this proposed exploration program will
probably be sufficient to characterize Cc, Cr, σ´m, and thus should produce sufficiently
accurate estimates of the ultimate consolidation settlement.
As you know, the clay stratum at this site is very thick, so consolidation will
occur very slowly. I performed a preliminary analysis based on a ____ m thick stratum,
two-way drainage, and cv = ____. According to this analysis, about 40 years will be
required to attain 90 percent consolidation. Therefore, the consolidation settlement will
continue long after the proposed buildings are constructed, and thus is a critical factor in
the feasibility of this project. We will need to assess this behavior by conducting time-
settlement analysis, and develop appropriate design recommendations.
Borings drilled for other projects in this region have encountered horizontal sand
seams in the clay stratum. As you know, such seams can have a dramatic impact on the
rate of consolidation, because they provide a path for water to escape more easily. Since
the rate of consolidation is proportional to the square of the drainage distance, even
occasional sand seams can be important.
Therefore, we need to conduct a more intensive site investigation that will help us
detect any potential sand seams. This work should include additional undisturbed samples,
which can be examined in the laboratory, and might include cone penetration tests. Please
revise the exploration plan accordingly.

11.25 A piezometer has been installed near the center of a 20-m thick stratum of saturated clay.
A fill was then placed over the clay and the measured pore water pressure in the
piezometer increased accordingly. However, 6 months after the fill was placed, the
piezometer reading has not changed. Does this behavior make sense?

Solution
Yes, this behavior is reasonable. For a 20 m thick clay stratum with cv = 0.005 m2/day (a
typical value per Figure11.14), essentially none of the excess pore pressure at the middle
of the clay layer will have dissipated in 6 months. This is because the excess pore water
pressures begin to dissipate only at the drainage boundaries. Dissipation occurs inside the
stratum only after a hydraulic gradient has developed in the soil.
This problem could be answered using Equation 11.17 with reasonable values of
the various parameters. This equation will demonstrate that the excess pore water
pressure in the center of this stratum at t = 6 months is virtually unchanged from its initial
value.

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 Chap. 11 Rate of Consolidation 11-33

11.26 Explain how a time-settlement analysis could be used to estimate how long a surcharge
fill must remain in place.

Solution
For a given loading event, the time to reach a given degree of consolidation is not
dependant on the magnitude of the load. This might lead one to believe that a surcharge
preload will not increase consolidation rate. However, consider the following scenario.
The total expected consolidation settlement for the design load is 1 m and the time to 95%
consolidation is 18 months. If a much larger surcharge with total consolidation
settlement of 3 m is placed, it will still take 18 months to reach 95% consolidation.
However, the expected settlement for our design load is only 1 m. Therefore the
surcharge load must be in place until the consolidation reaches only 33% (33% of 3 m is
1 m). The time for 33% is substantially less than the time for 95% consolidation.
Therefore the surcharge load speeds up the consolidation time for the final design load.

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