Complex Fractions

Complex Fractions (page 1 of 2)
I sometimes refer to complex fractions as "stacked" fractions, because they tend to

have fractions stacked on top of each other, like this:
• Simplify the following expression:
This fraction is formed of two fractional expressions, one on top of the other.
There are two methods for simplifying complex fractions. The first method is fairly
obvious: find common denominators for the complex numerator and complex
denominator, convert the complex numerator and complex denominator to their
respective common denominators, combine everything in the complex numerator
and in the complex denominator into single fractions, and then, once you've got
one fraction (in the complex numerator) divided by another fraction (in the
complex denominator), you flip-n-multiply. (Remember that, when you are
dividing by a fraction, you flip the fraction and turn the division into multiplication.)
This method looks like

this:
Nothing cancels at this point, so this is the final answer.

(The "for x not equal to zero" part is because, in the original expression, "x = 0"
would have caused division by zero in the complex fraction. Depending on your
book and instructor, you may not need to account for this technicality. If you're
not sure, ask now, before the test.)
The other method is to find one common denominator for all the fractions in the
expression, and then multiply both the complex numerator and complex
denominator by this expression. Then simplify.
This method looks like this:
Then the final answer is:
By multiplying through, top and bottom, by the same thing, I was really just multiplying
by 1. This is similar to multiplying the fraction 1/2 by 2/2 to convert it to 2/4. In my
experience, books and teachers often use the first method, but students generally prefer
the second method. When I was in school, I was taught the first method. As soon as I
encountered the second method, I switched to it. In the remaining examples, I will
demonstrate this second method, but you can use either method you prefer.
(If your text or instructor requires that you find the restrictions on the domains [the "x not
equal to zero" part in the above example], you might find it helpful to use the "flip-n-
multiply" method covered first, since this will give you the full fraction form of the
denominator at some point in the computations.)

Copyright © Elizabeth Stapel 1999-2009 All Rights Reserved
Can I start by hacking off the x's? Or lopping off the 3's? (Hint: No!) I can only
cancel off factors, not terms, so I can't do any canceling yet. The first thing I'll do
is find the LCM for this expression.
The LCM (Least Common

Multiple, or, for us older
types, the LCD, Lowest
Common Denominator) of
the given denominators
within this complex fraction
is (x – 1)(x + 4), so I'll
multiply through, top and
bottom, by this expression:
(If you're not sure how I

multiplied those factors to
get the cubic results, review
this lesson on multiplying
polynomials.)
Can I now cancel off the x3's? Or cancel the 6's into the 12? Can I go inside the
adding and rip out parts of some of the terms? (Hint: No!) Nothing cancels, so
this is the final answer:
Complex Fractions: More Examples (page 2 of 2)
Can I start by hacking off the x – 3's? Can I cancel the 4 with the 12? Or the 3
with the 9 or the 12? (Hint: No!)
The common denominator for this

complex fraction would be x – 3,
so I'll multiply through, top and
bottom, by that.
Clearly, nothing cancels, so my final answer is:
(Why the restrictions?)
It is highly unusual for a complex fraction to simplify this much, but it can happen. In this
case, the "except for x equal to 3" part is rather important, since the original fraction is
not always equal to 3/4. Indeed, it is not even defined for x equal to 3 (since this would
cause division by zero).

DON'T DO THIS!
Can I start off by canceling like

this:
I can only cancel factors, not terms, so the above cancellations are not proper.
The first thing I need to do is

multiply through, top and
bottom, by the common
denominator of xy.
Then my final answer is: Copyright © Elizabeth Stapel 1999-2009 All Rights
Reserved
Can I start by canceling off the 1's or the 1/t's? (Hint: No!)
I'll multiply through, top and

bottom, by the common
denominator of t.
Can I cancel off the t's now? Or cancel off the 1's? (Hint: No!) I can only cancel
off factors, not terms, and nothing factors here, so this is as simplified as it gets.
The final answer is:
When working with complex fractions, be careful to show each step completely. Don't
try to skip steps or do everything in your head. And don't get careless with cancellation;
remember that you can only cancel factors, not terms. If you remember this, and do
your work clearly, you should be fairly successful with these problems.
Tutorial
Imaginary Unit
where
This is the definition of an imaginary number.
From here on out, anytime that you have the square root of -1 you can simplify
it as i and anytime you have you can simplify it as -1.
Standard Form
of
Complex Numbers
Complex numbers are made up of a real number part and an imaginary

number part.
In this form, a is the real number part and b is the imaginary number part.
Note that either one of these parts can be 0.
An example of a complex number written in standard form is
Equality
of
Complex Numbers
if and only if a = c AND b = d.
In other words, two complex numbers are equal to each other if their real
numbers match AND their imaginary numbers match.
Addition and Subtraction of

Complex Numbers
In other words, when you add or subtract two complex numbers together, you
add or subtract the real number parts together, then add or subtract their
imaginary parts together and write it as a complex number in standard form.
Example 1: Add .
View a video of this example
*Add the real num. together and the imaginary

num. together
*Complex num. in stand. form
Example 2: Subtract .
*Subtract the real num. together and the

imaginary num. together
Multiplying
Complex Numbers
Step 1: Multiply the complex numbers in the same manner as polynomials.
If you need a review on multiplying polynomials, go to Tutorial 6:

Polynomials.
Step 2: Simplify the expression.

Add real numbers together and imaginary numbers together.
Whenever you have an , use the definition and replace it with -1.
Step 3: Write the final answer in standard form.
Example 3: Multiply .
Step 1: Multiply the complex numbers in the same manner as polynomials
AND
*Use dist. prop. to multiply
*i squared = -1
Example 4: Multiply .
Step 1: Multiply the complex numbers in the same manner as polynomials

AND
*Use FOIL method to multiply
*Combine imaginary numbers

*i squared = -1
Dividing
Complex Numbers
Step 1: Find the conjugate of the denominator.
You find the conjugate of a binomial by changing the sign that is

between the two terms, but keep the same order of the terms.
a + bi and a - bi are conjugates of each other.
Step 2: Multiply the numerator and the denominator of the fraction by the
conjugate found in Step 1.
Keep in mind that as long as you multiply the numerator and
denominator by the exact same thing, the fractions will be equivalent.
When you multiply complex conjugates together you get:
Add real numbers together and imaginary numbers together.
Whenever you have an , use the definition and replace it with -1.
Example 5: Divide .

In general the conjugate of a + bi is a - bi and vice versa.
So what would the conjugate of our denominator be?
It looks like the conjugate is .
conjugate found in Step 1
AND
*Multiply top and bottom by conj. of den.
*i squared = -1

*Divide each term of num. by 5
Example 6: Divide .
In general the conjugate of a + bi is a - bi and vice versa.
So what would the conjugate of our denominator be?
It looks like the conjugate is .
conjugate found in Step 1
AND

*Multiply top and bottom by conj. of den.
*i squared = -1
Principal Square Root

of a Negative Number
For any positive real number b, the

principal square root of the
negative number, -b, is defined by
Example 7: Simplify .
*Principal square root of -100
*Complex num. in stand. form (note real num. part

is 0)
Working problems with square

roots of
negative numbers.
Step 1: Express the square root of any negative number in terms of i.
In other words use the definition of principal square roots of negative

numbers before performing any operations.
Step 2: Perform the indicated operation.

Example 8: Perform the indicated operation. Write answer in
standard form.
*Square root of a negative is i
Step 2: Perform the indicated operation
AND

*Rewrite 12 as (4)(3)
*The square root of 4 is 2

*Subtract like radicals: 2i- i = i
*Complex num. in stand. form (note real num. part
is 0)
standard form.
AND
*Square the binomial
*i squared = -1
standard form.

AND
standard form.

AND
*i squared = -1
*Complex num. in stand. form (note that the
imaginary part is 0)
Practice Problems
These are practice problems to help bring you to the next level. It will allow
you to check and see if you have an understanding of these types of problems.
Math works just like anything else, if you want to get good at it, then you need
to practice it. Even the best athletes and musicians had help along the way
and lots of practice, practice, practice, to get good at their sport or instrument.
In fact there is no such thing as too much practice.
To get the most out of these, you should work the problem out on your own
and then check your answer by clicking on the link for the answer/discussion
for that problem. At the link you will find the answer as well as any steps that
went into finding that answer.
Practice Problems 1a - 1i: Perform the indicated operation. Write the answer in standard
form.
1a.
1b. 1c.
(answer/discussion to(answer/discussion to
(answer/discussion to
1b) 1c)
1a)
1d. 1f.
1e.
(answer/discussion to(answer/discussion to
1d) 1f)
1e)
1g. 1i.
1h.
(answer/discussion to (answer/discussion to
1g) 1i)
1h)
Calculat
Grapher
or
Complex Numbers Return
Scatter
Help
Plot
Contents: This page corresponds to § 2.3 (p.191) of the text.

Suggested Problems from Text:
p. 198 #7, 8, 11, 19, 22, 23, 31, 32, 33, 37, 43, 45, 53, 55, 56, 61
Why Complex Numbers
The Number i
The Complex Plane
Complex Arithmetic
Why Complex Numbers
Why do we need new numbers?
The hardest thing about working with complex numbers is understanding why you might
want to. Before introducing complex numbers, let's backup and look at simpler
examples of the need to deal with new numbers.
If you are like most people, initially number meant whole number, 0,1,2,3,... Whole
numbers make sense. They provide a way to answer questions of the form "How many
... ?" You also learned about the operations of addition and subtraction, and you found
that while subtraction is a perfectly good operation, some subtraction problems, like 3 -
5, don't have answers if we only work with whole numbers. Then you find that if you are
willing to work with integers, ...,-2, -1, 0, 1, 2, ..., then all subtraction problems do have
answers! Furthermore, by considering examples such as temperature scales, you see
that negative numbers often make sense.
Now we have fixed subtraction we will deal with division. Some, in fact most, division
problems do not have answers that are integers. For example, 3 ÷ 2 is not an integer.
We need new numbers! Now we have rational numbers (fractions).
There is more to this story. There are problems with square roots and other operations,
but we will not get into that here. The point is that you have had to expand your idea of
number on several occasions, and now we are going to do that again.
The "problem" that leads to complex numbers concerns solutions of equations.
Equation 1: x2 - 1 = 0.
Equation 1 has two solutions, x = -1 and x = 1. We know that solving an equation in x is
equivalent to finding the x-intercepts of a graph; and, the graph of y = x 2 - 1 crosses the
x-axis at (-1,0) and (1,0).
Equation 2: x2 + 1 = 0
Equation 2 has no solutions, and we can see this by looking at the graph of y = x2 + 1.
Since the graph has no x-intercepts, the equation has no solutions. When we define
complex numbers, equation 2 will have two solutions.
Return to Contents
The Number i
Consider Equations 1 and 2 again.

Equation 1 Equation 2
x2 - 1 = 0. x2 + 1 = 0.
x2 = 1. x2 = -1.
Equation 1 has solutions because the number 1 has two square roots, 1 and -1.
Equation 2 has no solutions because -1 does not have a square root. In other words,
there is no number such that if we multiply it by itself we get -1. If Equation 2 is to be
given solutions, then we must create a square root of -1.
Definition: The imaginary unit i is defined by
The definition of i tells us that i2 = -1. We can use this fact to find other powers of i.
Example 1.
i3 = i2 * i = -1*i = -i.
i4 = i2 * i2 = (-1) * (-1) = 1.
Exercise 1:
Simplify i8 and i11. Answer.
We treat i like other numbers in that we can multiply it by numbers, we can add it to
other numbers, etc. The difference is that many of these quantities cannot be simplified
to a pure real number.
For example, 3i just means 3 times i, but we cannot rewrite this product in a simpler
form, because it is not a real number. The quantity 5 + 3i also cannot be simplified to a
real number.
However, (-i)2 can be simplified. (-i)2 = (-1*i)2 = (-1)2 * i2 = 1 * (-1) = -1.
Because i2 and (-i)2 are both equal to -1, they are both solutions for Equation 2 above.
Return to Contents
The Complex Plane

Definition: A complex number is one of the form a + bi, where a and b are real numbers.
a is called the real part of the complex number, and b is called the imaginary part.
Two complex numbers are equal if and only if their real parts are equal and their
imaginary parts are equal. I.e., a+bi = c+di if and only if a = c, and b = d.
Example 2.
2 - 5i.
6 + 4i.
0 + 2i = 2i.
4 + 0i = 4.
The last example above illustrates the fact that every real number is a complex number
(with imaginary part 0). Another example: the real number -3.87 is equal to the complex
number -3.87 + 0i.
It is often useful to think of real numbers as points on a number line. For example, you
can define the order relation c < d, where c and d are real numbers, by saying that it
means c is to the left of d on the number line.
We can visualize complex numbers by associating them with points in the plane. We do
this by letting the number a + bi correspond to the point (a,b).
Return to Contents
Complex Arithmetic
When a number system is extended the arithmetic operations must be defined for the
new numbers, and the important properties of the operations should still hold. For
example, addition of whole numbers is commutative. This means that we can change
the order in which two whole numbers are added and the sum is the same: 3 + 5 = 8
and 5 + 3 = 8.
We need to define the four arithmetic operations on complex numbers.
Addition and Subtraction
To add or subtract two complex numbers, you add or subtract the real parts and the
imaginary parts.
(a + bi) + (c + di) = (a + c) + (b + d)i.

(a + bi) - (c + di) = (a - c) + (b - d)i.
Example 3.
(3 - 5i) + (6 + 7i) = (3 + 6) + (-5 + 7)i = 9 + 2i.
(3 - 5i) - (6 + 7i) = (3 - 6) + (-5 - 7)i = -3 - 12i.
Note
These operations are the same as combining similar terms in expressions that have a
variable. For example, if we were to simplify the expression (3 - 5x) + (6 + 7x) by
combining similar terms, then the constants 3 and 6 would be combined, and the terms
-5x and 7x would be combined to yield 9 + 2x.
The Complex Arithmetic applet below demonstrates complex addition in the plane. You
can also select the other arithmetic operations from the pull down list. The applet
displays two complex numbers U and V, and shows their sum. You can drag either U or
V to see the result of adding other complex numbers. As with other graphs in these
pages, dragging a point other than U or V changes the viewing rectangle.
Complex Arithmetic
Multiplication
The formula for multiplying two complex numbers is
(a + bi) * (c + di) = (ac - bd) + (ad + bc)i.

You do not have to memorize this formula, because you can arrive at the same result by
treating the complex numbers like expressions with a variable, multiply them as usual,
then simplify. The only difference is that powers of i do simplify, while powers of x do
not.
Example 4.
(2 + 3i)(4 + 7i) = 2*4 + 2*7i + 4*3i + 3*7*i2

= 8 + 14i + 12i + 21*(-1)
= (8 - 21) + (14 + 12)i
= -13 + 26i.
Notice that in the second line of the example, the i2 has been replaced by -1.
Using the formula for multiplication, we would have gone directly to the third line.
Exercise 2:
Perform the following operations.
(a) (-3 + 4i) + (2 - 5i).
(b) 3i - (2 - 4i).
(c) (2 - 7i)(3 + 4i).
(d) (1 + i)(2 - 3i).
Answer
Division
Definition: The conjugate (or complex conjugate) of the complex number a + bi is a - bi.
Conjugates are important because of the fact that a complex number times its conjugate
is real; i.e., its imaginary part is zero.
(a + bi)(a - bi) = (a2 + b2) + 0i = a2 + b2.
Example 5
Number Conjugate Product

2 + 3i 2 - 3i 4 + 9 = 13
3 - 5i 3 + 5i 9 + 25 = 34
4i -4i 16
Suppose we want to do the division problem (3 + 2i) ÷ (2 + 5i). First, we want to rewrite
this as a fractional expression .
Even though we have not defined division, it must satisfy the properties of ordinary
division. So, a number divided by itself will be 1, where 1 is the multiplicative identity;
i.e., 1 times any number is that number.
So, when we multiply by , we are multiplying by 1 and the number is not

changed.
Notice that the quotient on the right consists of the conjugate of the denominator over
itself. This choice was made so that when we multiply the two denominators, the result
is a real number. Here is the complete division problem, with the result written in
standard form.
Exercise 3:
Write (2 - i) ÷ (3 + 2i) in standard form. Answer
We began this section by claiming that we were defining complex numbers so that
some equations would have solutions. So far we have shown only one equation that
has no real solutions but two complex solutions. In the next section we will see that
complex numbers provide solutions for many equations. In fact, all polynomial equations
have solutions in the set of complex numbers. This is an important fact that is used in
many mathematical applications. Unfortunately, most of these applications are beyond
the scope of this course. See your text (p. 195) for a discussion of the use of complex
numbers in fractal geometry.
RATIONAL AND IRRATIONAL NUMBERS
What is a rational number?
Which numbers have rational square roots?
The decimal representation of irrationals
What is a real number?
LET US BEGIN by recalling that a variable is a symbol that takes on values. A value is
a number.
Thus, if x is a variable, then x might have the value 2, or −3, or 5.2, and so on.
Next, the following numbers of arithmetic are called the natural numbers:
1, 2, 3, 4, and so on.
If we include 0, we have the whole numbers:
0, 1, 2, 3, and so on.
And if we include their algebraic negatives, we have the integers:
0, ±1, ±2, ±3, and so on.
± ("plus or minus") is called the double sign.
These are the square numbers, or the perfect squares:
1 4 9 16 25 49 64 . . .
They are the numbers 1· 1, 2· 2, 3· 3, 4· 4, and so on.
Rational and irrational numbers
1. What is a rational number?

Any ordinary number of arithmetic: Any whole number, fraction, mixed number or
decimal; together with its negative image.
A rational number is a nameable number, in the sense that we can name it according to
the standard way of naming whole numbers, fractions, and mixed numbers. "Five,"
"Six thousand eight hundred nine," "Nine hundred twelve millionths," "Three and one-
quarter," and so on.
2. Which of the following numbers are rational?
2 5.
1 −6 3½ − 0 3.1415926535897932384626433
3 8
To see the answer, pass your mouse over the colored area.
To cover the answer again, click "Refresh" ("Reload").
All of them! All decimals are rational. That long one is an

approximation to π; see Topic 11 of Trigonometry.
3. A rational number can always be written in what form?
a
As a fraction , where a and b are integers (b
b0).
An integer itself can be written as a fraction: b = 1. And from arithmetic, we know that
we can write a decimal as a fraction.
When a and b are positive, that is, when they are natural numbers, then we can always
name their ratio. Hence the term, rational number.
At this point, the student might wonder, What is a number that is not rational?
An example of such a number is ("Square root of 2"). It is not possible to name any
whole number, any fraction or any decimal whose
square is 2.7 is close,

5because
7· 7 =4
5 5 9
2
5
-- which is almost 2.
To prove that there is no rational number whose square is 2, suppose
m
there were. Then we could express it as a in lowest
fraction terms.
n
That is, suppose
m m m·
· =m = 2.
n n n· n
m
But that is impossible. is in lowest terms, then m and n
Since have
n
no common divisors except 1. Therefore, m· m and n· n also have no common divisors
-- they are relatively prime -- and it will be impossible to divide n· n into m· m and get 2
There is no rational number -- no number of arithmetic -- whose square is 2. Therefore
we call an irrational number.
By recalling the Pythagorean theorem, we can see that irrational numbers

are necessary. For if the sides of an isosceles right triangle are called 1,
then we will have 1² + 1² = 2, so that the hypotenuse is . There really is
a length that logically deserves the name, " ." Inasmuch as numbers name the
lengths of lines, then is a number.
4. Which natural numbers have rational square roots?

Only the square roots of the square numbers.
We call those square numbers perfect squares.
= 1 Rational
Irrational
Irrational
= 2 Rational
, , , Irrational
= 3 Rational
And so on.
Only the square roots of square numbers are rational.
The existence of these irrationals was first realized by Pythagoras in the 6th
century B.C. In the isosceles right triangle, he called the ratio of the
hypotenuse to the side "unnameable" or "speechless." Because if we ask,
"What ratio has the hypotenuse to the side?" -- we cannot say. We can
express it only as "Square root of 2."
5. Say the name of each number.
a) "Square root of 3." b) "Square root of 5."
c) "2." This is a rational -- nameable -- number.
d) "Square root of 3/5." e) "2/3."
In the same way that we saw that only the square roots of square numbers are rational,
we could prove that the only nth roots that are rational, are the nth roots of perfect nth
powers. Thus, the 5th root of 32 is rational because 32 is a 5th power, namely the 5th
power of 2. But the 5th root of 33 is irrational. 33 is not a perfect 5th power.
The decimal representation of irrationals
When we express a rational number as a decimal, then either the decimal will
a predictable pattern of digits. But if we attempted to express an irrational number as

an exact decimal, then, clearly, we could not, because if we could then the number
would be rational
Moreover, there will not be a predictable pattern of digits. For example,
1.4142135623730950488016887242097
Now, with rational numbers you sometimes see
= .090909. . .
1
1
1
By writing three dots (ellipsis) we mean, "It is not possible to
express 1
1
exactly as a decimal. However we can approximate it with as many decimal digits as
we please according to the indicated pattern; and the more decimal
1
digits we write, the closer we will be
."
to 1
1
1
We say that any decimal is inexact. But the decimal for
for 1 ¼,
1
which is .25, is exact.
The decimal for any irrational number, however, is always inexact. An example is the
decimal for above.
If we write ellipsis --
= 1.41421356237. . .
-- we mean, "It is not possible to express exactly as a decimal. What you see is a
rational approximation. We could continue the approximation for as many decimal digits
as we please by means of the algorithm, or method, for calculating each next digit (not
the subject of these Topics); and again, the more decimal digits we calculate, the closer
we will be to ."
It is important to understand that no one has ever beheld the value of any irrational
number. (π? What is its value? 3.14159? Not quite.) Our knowledge of any irrational
number is only as a rational approximation. And if we choose a decimal approximation,
then the more decimal digits we calculate, the closer we will be to the value.
To sum up, we could say that an irrational number is a number that we can never know
exactly. While a rational number we can know exactly, either as a whole number or a
fraction, but not always exactly as a decimal.
One sometimes hears that a real number, such as , "is"

an infinite decimal:
= 1.41421356237. . .
But anything we imagine to be actually infinite is never complete, never
whole. And can something that is never whole ever be equal to anything?
In calculus, the student will see that when we approximate an irrational

number, then it is the limit, the boundary, of the sequence of its rational
approximations.
In fact, when we write
1.41421356237. . .,
we mean the limit of the sequence
1.4, 1.41, 1.414, 1.4142, 1.41421, . . .,
which is .
See The mathematical existence of numbers.
Real numbers
5. What is a real number?
Any number that you would expect to find on the number line. It is a number whose
name will be the "address" of a point on the number line. Its absolute value will name
the distance of that point from 0. The real numbers therefore are the numbers we need
for measuring.
6. What are the two main categories of real numbers?
Rational and irrational.
(An actual measurement can result only in a rational number.

An irrational number can result only from a theoretical calculation.
Any serious theory of measurement must address the question: Which irrational
numbers are theoretically possible? Which ones could be actually predictive of a
measurement?)
Problem 1. We have categorized numbers as real, rational, irrational, and integer.

Name all the categories to which each of the following belongs.
3 Real, rational, integer. −3 Real, rational, integer.
−½ Real, rational. Real, irrational.
&nbsp5¾ Real, rational. − 11/2 Real, rational.
1.732 Real, rational. 6.920920920. . . Real, rational.
6.9205729744. . . Real. And let us assume that it is irrational, that is, that the digits do
not repeat. Moreover, we must assume that there is an effective procedure for
computing each next digit. For if there were not, then that symbol would not refer to any
"number"!
6.9205729744 Real, rational. Every exact decimal is rational.

7. What is a real variable?
A variable whose values are real numbers.
Calculus is the study of functions of a real variable.
Problem 2. Let x be a real variable, and let 3 < x < 4. Name five values that x might
have.
To learn about the evolution of the real numbers starting with the natural numbers, click
here.
Terminating and Repeating Decimals
Decimal numbers are numbers written in our base ten system: the value of a digit in
each place is 10 times the value the same digit would have one place to its right.
Students have been studying the base ten system for years, but spend a little time
reviewing place value and multiplying by powers of 10. Then, students can tie place
value and mental math concepts into their study of the connections between fractions
and decimals.
Materials: Chart paper
Preparation: None
Prerequisite Skills and Concepts: Students should be quite familiar with the base ten
system, including the value of a digit in any given place. Assure yourself that students
are quite comfortable with how multiplying by powers of ten moves the decimal point in
the product. The concept of equivalent fractions is also important for this lesson.
Approach this topic through the need to write fractions as decimals and decimals as
fractions.
• Ask: What is the decimal notation for the fraction ?

Most students will know, without computing, that this is 0.25. Point out that the
proper way to say 0.25 is twenty-five hundredths and that this automatically gives
an equivalent fraction for .
• Ask: How can you show that = ?

Students should describe finding an equivalent fraction by multiplying numerator
and denominator by the same number, in this case, 25. Reinforce the fact that
multiplying or dividing the numerator and denominator by the same number has
the same effect as multiplying or dividing by one: it does not change the value of
the fraction, just its appearance. Be sure students conclude, after trying a
number of examples, that if a fraction has an equivalent with a denominator that's
a power of 10, then the fraction can be written as a terminating decimal.
• Ask: How can you write as a decimal?
It's unlikely that students have memorized the decimal equivalent for , so you
should discuss dividing the numerator by the denominator to find a decimal
equivalent for any fraction. Have a student show the work on the chalkboard and
show that can also be written as a terminating decimal (0.3125).

• Say: Now, show how to write as a decimal.
Have a student show the work on the chalkboard. When the student realizes that
the same remainder keeps recurring, stop and discuss the definition of repeating
decimal: a decimal with a digit or digits that repeat in an identical pattern
indefinitely.
• Say: Let's make a table of terminating and repeating decimals that are equivalent
to fractions with denominators 2 through 9.
You can complete this table as a class project, or split up the task among several
groups. Be sure to spend plenty of time looking for patterns:
-all thirds, sevenths, ninths are repeating decimals.
-the ninths have a really easy pattern to remember. = 0.111..., = 0.222..., = 0.333...,
etc.
-in the sevenths, the same digits repeat in a different order for each numerator.
Natural number
zh-cn:自然数 zh-tw:自然數
A natural number is a non-negative integer: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, ... These are the first numbers
learned by children, and the easiest to understand. Natural numbers have two main
purposes: they can be used for counting ("there are 3 apples on the table), or they can
be used for ordering ("this is the 3rd largest city in the state"). The deeper properties of
the natural numbers, such as the distribution of prime numbers, are studied in number
theory.
Table of contents
1 History of natural numbers and the status of zero
2 Notation
3 Formal definitons
4 Properties
5 Generalizations
History of natural numbers and the status of zero
Natural numbers were originally invented to count physical objects. Their first
systematic study as things in themselves (separated from physical objects) is usually
credited to the Greek philosophers Pythagoras and Archimedes. However, independent
studies occurred at around the same time in India, China, and Mesoamerica.
Zero is relatively newborn. A zero digit was used in place-value notation as early as 400
BC by the Babylonians. The Olmec and Maya civilization used zero as a separate
number as early as 1st century BC, apparently developed independently, but they did
not pass it along to anyone outside of Mesoamerica. The modern concept dates to the
Indian mathematician Brahmagupta in 628 AD. It took more than five centuries for
European mathematicians to accept zero as a number, and even when they did, it was
not counted as a natural number.
In the nineteenth century, a set-theoretical definition of the natural numbers was

developed. With this definition, it was more convenient to include zero (corresponding to
the empty set) in the naturals. Wikipedia follows this convention, as do set theorists,
logicians, and computer scientists. Some other mathematicians, mainly number
theorists, prefer to follow the old tradition and exclude zero from the natural numbers.
The term whole number is used by different authors for the set of integers, the set of
non-negative integers, or the set of positive integers. It is best avoided in Wikipedia.
Notation
Mathematicians use N or (an N in blackboard bold) to refer to the set of all natural
numbers. This set is infinite but countable by definition.
W or is sometimes used to refer to the set of whole numbers, by authors who do not
identify it with the integers.
Formal definitons
The precise mathematical definition of the natural numbers has not been easy. The
Peano postulates state conditions that any successful definition must satisfy:
• There is a natural number 0.
• Every natural number a has a successor, denoted by a + 1.
• There is no natural number whose successor is 0.

• Distinct natural numbers have distinct successors: if a ≠ b, then a + 1 ≠ b + 1
• If a property is possessed by 0 and also by the successor of every natural

number which possesses it, then it is possessed by all natural numbers. (This
postulate ensures that the proof technique of mathematical induction is valid.)
If zero is excluded from the natural numbers, every 0 in the Peano postulates should be
replaced by a 1.
A standard construction in set theory is to define each natural number as the set of
natural numbers less than it, so that 0 = {}, 1 = {0}, 2 = {0,1}, 3 = {0,1,2}... When you see
a natural number used as a set, this is typically what is meant. Under this definition,
there are exactly n elements in the set n and if m is bigger than n, then n is a subset of
m.
Properties
One can inductively define an addition on the natural numbers by requiring a + 0 = a

and a + (b + 1) = (a + b) + 1. This turns the natural numbers (N, +) into a commutative
monoid with neutral element 0, the so-called free monoid with one generator. This
monoid satisfies the cancellation property and can therefore be embedded in a group.
The smallest group containing the natural numbers is the integers.
Analogously, a multiplication * can be defined via a * 0 = 0 and a * (b + 1) = ab + a. This

turns (N, *) into a commutative monoid; addition and multiplication are compatible which
is expressed in the distribution law: a * (b + c) = ab + ac.
Furthermore, one defines a total order on the natural numbers by writing a ≤ b if and
only if there exists another natural number c with a + c = b. This order is compatible with
the arithmetical operations in the following sense: if a, b and c are natural numbers and
a <= b, then a + c ≤ b + c and ac ≤ bc. An important property of the natural numbers is
that they are well-ordered: every non-empty set of natural numbers has a smallest
element.
While it is in general not possible to divide one natural number by another and get a
natural number as result, the procedure of division with remainder is available as a
substitute: For any two natural numbers a and b with \b ≠ 0 we can find natural numbers
q and r such that
a = bq + r and r < b
The number q is called the quotient and r is called the remainder of division of a by b.
The numbers q and r are uniquely determined by a and b. This, the quotient-remainder
theorem, is key to several other properties (divisibility), algorithms (such as the
Euclidean algorithm), and ideas in number theory.
Generalizations
Two generalizations of natural numbers arise from the two uses: ordinal numbers are
used to describe the position of an element in a ordered sequence and cardinal
numbers are used to specify the size of a given set.
For finite sequences or finite sets, both of these are of course the same as the natural
numbers.
Modulus and Argument
Thinking in terms of the Argand diagram we can specify the position of the complex
number z = x + jy on the plane by giving the polar coordinates of the point (x, y).
Figure 10.3: The modulus - argument representation of z.

The polar coordinate r is the distance from O to P and is called the modulus of the
complex number z and written as | z|.
r = | z| = =
The polar coordinate is called an argument of z. If we take in the range - <

then we call it the (principal) argument of z and we denote it by arg(z). Note that any
argument of z differs from arg(z) by an integer multiple of 2 (working in radians) or of

360o (working in degrees)10.2.
Since x = r cos and y = r sin we can write z in terms of its modulus and argument as
This is called writing z in polar form or modulus - argument form. Any non-zero complex
number can be written in this form. The point 0 is a slightly special case, it has r = 0 but
the angle is not defined.

Example 10..7 Give the real and imaginary parts, complex conjugate and the modulus
and argument of each of the complex numbers z = 1 + j, z = 1 - j, z = - 4j, z = - 3, z = - 1
- 3j.
Solution The given complex numbers are plotted in the complex plane in Fig 10.4.
z = 1 + j has real part 1, imaginary part 1, complex conjugate = 1 - j and modulus | z| =
= . The argument of z is /4.
z= (cos + j sin ).
z = 1 - j has real part 1, imaginary part -1, complex conjugate = 1 + j and modulus | z|
= . The argument of z is, according to our conventions, - /4.
z= (cos - j sin ).
Figure 10.4: Plotting points: Example 10.7.
Clearly z = - 4j has real part 0, imaginary part -4, complex conjugate = 4j and modulus
| z| = = 4. The argument of z is - /2, and
z=4 cos - + j sin - .
z = - 3 has real part -3, imaginary part 0, complex conjugate = - 3 = z and modulus | z|
= 3. The argument of z is, according to our conventions, so z = 3(cos + j sin ).
z = - 1 - 3j has real part -1, imaginary part -3, complex conjugate = - 1 + 3j and
modulus | z| = = . The argument of z has to be found with the aid of a
calculator. It lies in the range - < <- /2 (third quadrant) and has value
= arctan - = - 1.8925.
It is perhaps of interest that this problem with arctan is quite common; so common that
many computer languages, starting with Fortran, have two version of the function,
typically called atan and atan2. The first one genuinely computes the inverse tangent
function, and returns an angle between - /2 and /2; the second function is the
``proper'' one in our context andit takes the two arguments need to compute the angle
to within 2 .

Complex Fractions

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Complex Fractions

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Complex Fractions (page 1 of 2)

I sometimes refer to complex fractions as "stacked" fractions, because they tend to

• Simplify the following expression:

This method looks like

Nothing cancels at this point, so this is the final answer.

This method looks like this:

Then the final answer is:

• Simplify the following expression:

The LCM (Least Common

(If you're not sure how I

• Simplify the following expression:

The common denominator for this

Clearly, nothing cancels, so my final answer is:

(Why the restrictions?)

• Simplify the following expression:

Can I start off by canceling like

The first thing I need to do is

• Simplify the following expression:

I'll multiply through, top and

(Why the restrictions?)

This is the definition of an imaginary number.

it as i and anytime you have you can simplify it as -1.

Complex numbers are made up of a real number part and an imaginary

Note that either one of these parts can be 0.

An example of a complex number written in standard form is

if and only if a = c AND b = d.

Addition and Subtraction of

*Add the real num. together and the imaginary

View a video of this example

*Subtract the real num. together and the

Step 1: Multiply the complex numbers in the same manner as polynomials.

If you need a review on multiplying polynomials, go to Tutorial 6:

Step 2: Simplify the expression.

Step 3: Write the final answer in standard form.

View a video of this example

Step 1: Multiply the complex numbers in the same manner as polynomials

Step 2: Simplify the expression.

*Use dist. prop. to multiply

Step 3: Write the final answer in standard form.

*Complex num. in stand. form

View a video of this example

Step 1: Multiply the complex numbers in the same manner as polynomials

Step 2: Simplify the expression.

*Use FOIL method to multiply

*Combine imaginary numbers

Step 3: Write the final answer in standard form.

*Complex num. in stand. form

Step 1: Find the conjugate of the denominator.

You find the conjugate of a binomial by changing the sign that is

a + bi and a - bi are conjugates of each other.

When you multiply complex conjugates together you get:

Step 3: Simplify the expression.

Add real numbers together and imaginary numbers together.

Step 4: Write the final answer in standard form.

View a video of this example

Step 1: Find the conjugate of the denominator.

So what would the conjugate of our denominator be?

It looks like the conjugate is .

Step 3: Simplify the expression.

*Multiply top and bottom by conj. of den.

Step 4: Write the final answer in standard form.

*Complex num. in stand. form

View a video of this example

However, (-i)2 can be simplified. (-i)2 = (-1i)2 = (-1)2 i2 = 1 * (-1) = -1.

(2 + 3i)(4 + 7i) = 24 + 27i + 43i + 37*i2