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U.

SIDDIQUI 1

Determining the Rydberg Constant by Direct


Measurement of the Spectral Lines in the Balmer
Series
Blackett Laboratory, Imperial College London

Abstract—In this experiment, we attempt to determine the of the gas[2] , giving vital clues for analysis of the sample.
Rydberg constant by direct measurement of the wavelengths This technique can be used to confirm the presence of certain
of photons emitted from the de-excitation of hydrogen atoms atoms, for example in a drug sample, or can be used to verify
in the Balmer series using a spectrometer with diffraction
gratings of line densities N = 300mm−1 (grating 1) and the purity of water[5] .
N = 78.8mm−1 (grating 2). We then use the Rydberg equa-
tion to make an estimate of the Rydberg constant from the A. Applications of Rydberg Constant
gradient and y-intercept of the plot. We estimate the Rydberg
constant within a tolerance of 2.7% or less. Using grating The Rydberg constant is fundamental to physics and is
1, we calculated R∞ = (1.11 ± 0.03) × 107 m−1 and R∞ = related to a number of physical quantities. Primarily, the Ryd-
(1.10 ± 0.01) × 107 m−1 from the gradient and y-intercept re- berg constant is the constant of proportionality in the Rydberg
spectively. For grating 2, we have R∞ = (1.10 ± 0.01) × 107 m−1 equation, which relates the wavelength of light emitted by
and R∞ = (1.09 ± 0.01) × 107 m−1 from the gradient and y-
intercept respectively. excited electrons when they transition between the energy
levels of a hydrogen atom. The value of the Rydberg constant,
denoted R∞ , is approximately[6]
I. I NTRODUCTION
R∞ = 1.09737 × 107 m−1
PECTROMETER devices are used to observe the emis-
S sion or absorption spectra of a light source or gaseous
atoms. Spectrometers typically offer measurements to an accu-
However, the Rydberg constant also has other applications.
For example, it can be defined in terms of the fine structure
racy of ±10 or 1 arc-minute[1] . When propagated through, this constant α = 7.29735 × 10−3 , which is a dimensionless
is equivalent to an error in the wavelength of approximately quantity that characterises the ratio of the strength of the elec-
σλ = 0.03% given sufficient repeat measurements are made[2] , tromagnetic interaction between two electrons to the strength
making it one of the most accurate experimental equipment of the gravitational interaction between two Planck masses[7] .
available. Then, the Rydberg constant can be expressed as
A spectrometer is usually configured along with a refractive α
R∞ = (1)
prism or a diffraction grating. By using the prism, it is possible 4πa0
to analyse the amount of refraction undergone by each incident where a0 = 5.29177 × 10−11 m is the Bohr radius. The
wavelength of light and therefore determine the refractive wavelength of light needed to ionise a hydrogen atom is
index of the prism as a function of wavelength[3] . By using a λ = 9.12 × 10−8 m and can be calculated by equating Eq.
diffraction grating, it is possible to use the diffraction angle 1 to 1/λ. From the Planck-Einstein relation, the ionisation
to determine the wavelength of the incident light. In our energy of the hydrogen atom is then E = 2.176 × 10−18 J.
experiment, we will be using the latter technique to analyse The Rydberg constant is also related to the Compton wave-
the emission spectra of a hydrogen lamp. length of an electron λe by
The grating spectrometer has a range of applications. For
example, the grating spectrometer was used by Fraunhofer α2
R∞ =
in 1814 to see the 574 dark lines of the solar absorption 2λe
spectrum[4] , which was subsequently used to determine the Therefore, the Compton wavelength of an electron is λe =
atomic composition of the sun. Similarly, the light from 2.426 × 10−12 m.
distant stars has been analysed by highly sensitive grating Note that the relationship of the Rydberg constant to other
spectrometers and this has been used to determine their atomic physical constants provides an indirect method of determining
composition, which subsequently allows astrophysicists to these constants. For example, if we are able to determine the
infer the temperature and age of these stars. Rydberg constant through a grating spectrometer experiment,
Spectrometry can also be used with gas chromatography in then we are subsequently able to determine other related quan-
forensics to analyse the composition of a sample of material. tities, such as the fine structure constant, the Bohr radius or the
As discussed by Knight, the ratio of the intensity of these Compton wavelength of an electron (which can then be used
spectral lines is related to the temperature of the gaseous to determine Planck’s constant or the mass of an electron).
sample, while the width of the lines is related to the density The ability to measure the Rydberg constant accurately also
U. SIDDIQUI 2

limits the error in these related quantities, that may be more n 3 4 5 6


λ(nm) 656 486 434 410
difficult to measure experimentally. Colour Red Blue Violet Dark Violet

II. T HEORY TABLE I: The Balmer series — these are the wavelengths
of photons emitted when an electron in a hydrogen atom de-
A. Spectrometry excites from the nth energy level to the second energy level.
Spectrometry is the process of analysing the emission spec- Note that n could take any value up to ∞, but these values
tra of a light source, or the absorption spectra of a sample of n are the only ones that produce photons in the visible
material. To understand the principles of spectroscopy, the spectrum, which ranges from 400-700nm[8] .
Bohr model of the atom is used where electrons exist only
in discrete energy levels which are unique to each atom.
Therefore, the energy level transitions – that is, the energies in its path, such as an aperture or an obstacle[1] . This causes
needed for an electron to transition from a lower energy the wavefront to curve around the obstruction, which creates
state to higher energy states – are generally unique for each a path difference between different rays and therefore causes
atom. When an atom de-excites, its electrons transition from a interference, producing an intensity pattern that depends on the
higher energy state to a lower energy state, releasing energy as geometry of the setup. When the number of slits is increased,
photons. The energy released from each de-excitation event is the intensity pattern becomes more complicated and is shown
equal to the energy difference between the initial energy state for N = {2, 10} slits in Fig. 1.
and the final energy state. As these energy differences are
discrete and unique for each atom, the energy of the photons
emitted and hence the wavelength of the photons emitted are
also discrete and unique for each atom.
When an atom is excited by heating, its electrons move to
higher energy levels, but are unstable in these energy levels
and will spontaneously de-excite, emitting photons of discrete
wavelengths. If these emitted photons are analysed, they will
produce an emission spectrum. Conversely, if an atom in its
ground state is exposed to white light containing photons
with energies that coincide with the transition energies of the
atom, the ground state electrons will absorb these photons
and transition to the higher energy levels. This will produce
absorption spectra of dark lines, where certain wavelengths of
white light are absorbed by the electrons of gaseous atoms.
In this experiment, we will consider the emission spectrum
of the hydrogen atom. Hydrogen has a number of spectral
series. For example, the Lyman series is the set of spectral lines
when excited electrons from energy levels n = {2, 3, 4, . . .}
de-excite to the ground state. We will focus on the Balmer
series, which refers to the spectral line emissions when elec-
trons in energy levels n = {3, 4, 5, . . .} de-excite to the second
energy level. This is because the Balmer series is the only
spectral series for hydrogen that results in the emission of
lines in the visible region of the electromagnetic spectrum.
The defining equation for this behaviour is the Rydberg Fig. 1: Plots showing the intensity pattern produced by
equation diffraction through N slits for a fixed slit width and slit
1

1 1
 separation (solid line). Note that each of the intensity patterns
= R∞ − (2) is modulated by the intensity pattern of single slit diffraction
λ p2 n2
(dashed line), since each slit has a finite width and therefore
where λ is the wavelength of the photon emitted when an light also undergoes single slit diffraction through these slits.
electron de-excites from the nth energy level to the pth energy
level (p < n). As before, R∞ is the Rydberg constant, p = 2 The equation for the intensity pattern produced by a wave
for the Balmer series and n = {3, 4, 5, . . . }. Then, the values of wavelength λ diffracting through a diffraction grating of
of λ for different values of n are given in Table I. line density N is[9]
sin2 α sin2 N β
B. Diffraction I = I0 (3)
α2 sin2 β
The diffraction grating of the grating spectrometer behaves
according to the principles of diffraction and interference. where

Diffraction occurs when a wavefront encounters an obstruction α= sin θ
λ
U. SIDDIQUI 3

for slit width a and III. M ETHOD


bπ A. Apparatus
β= sin θ
λ We use a grating spectrometer with an engraved vernier
for slit separation b. For all values N 6= 0, it can be shown that scale on a rotating diffraction table. The spectrometer includes
the mth principle maxima of intensity occurs when β = mπ a collimator with a slit which ensures that the incident rays
(see Appendix A). Since are parallel, and an eyepiece which allows the intensity pattern
bπ to be observed. As the light source, we use a hydrogen lamp,
β= sin θ
λ which excites gaseous hydrogen atoms by passing a current
we have through the gas. The emitted light is a mixture of wavelengths,
b sin θ = mλ (4) but we will only be able to observe the visible photons with
wavelengths as specified in Table I. We also have diffraction
which is the well-known diffraction grating equation. Note that gratings of slit densities N = 78.8mm−1 and N = 300mm−1
b = 1/N since the grating space is the inverse of the grating provided to us. Fig. 2 shows the set-up of the apparatus as
line density. viewed from above.
C. Aim
In this experiment, we aim to use a grating spectrometer
to make an estimate of the Rydberg constant. Firstly, we
will use the grating spectrometer to measure the diffraction
angle and hence the wavelengths of light emitted by a light
source containing gaseous hydrogen atoms. We will compare
these wavelengths to those suggested by the Rydberg equation
according to the Balmer series, allowing us to make an
estimate of the Rydberg constant.

D. Predictions & Models


We can now use our derived equations to make predictions Fig. 2: A plan view of the apparatus used to measure the
about the experiment. Firstly, from the Rydberg equation wavelength of light emitted by de-excitation of hydrogen
(Eq. 2), we predict that we will observe principle maxima atoms. The light emitted by a hydrogen lamp is collimated
corresponding to the wavelengths and colours specified in before being diffracted through the diffraction grating. The
Table I. It is possible that the maxima corresponding to rotating eyepiece can then be used to record the order m and
λ = 410nm will not be visible as it is almost outside of the angle θm of the spectral lines.
the visible light spectrum. Nevertheless, we should be able to
make measurements of at least three of the wavelengths in
Table I. B. Procedure
We can make the measurements of the wavelength, λ, by
First, we configure the eyepiece by adjusting the focus until
recording the order, m, of the maxima observed and the
it produces a clear pattern of the crosshairs. We also rotate the
diffraction angle, θ, at which the maxima occurs using the
crosshairs until they form an × instead of a +. This makes
spectrometer. Then, with sufficient repeat measurements, we
it easier to find the centre of the spectral lines (see Fig. 7 in
plot the graph of sin θ against m corresponding to the relation
Appendix B).
given in Eq. 4. Hence, the slope of this plot should be
To complete the experiment successfully, it is crucial that
λ the light from the hydrogen lamp is perpendicular to the
S = = Nλ (5)
b diffraction grating to prevent oblique incidence patterns, which
and therefore we can determine the wavelength, λ. complicates the analysis[10] . To do this, we first lock the
Once we have recorded the wavelengths for corresponding diffraction table and align the eyepiece parallel to the colli-
values of n from Table I, we then use the relationship in Eq. mator while ensuring no diffraction grating is used. A source
2 to plot a graph of 1/λ against 1/n2 . This plot should have of light (e.g. desk lamp) is used to illuminate the slit covering
slope given by the opening of the collimator. The slit is then closed until the
S = −R∞ (6) central line is viewed as a clear, vertical line from the eyepiece.
If the line is not vertical, the angle of the slit is adjusted until
and y-intercept
this requirement is met.
R∞ Once the crosshairs are centred on the line of light from
Y =
p2 the desk lamp, the eyepiece is fixed in position and an initial
R∞ reading of the angle is taken from the vernier scale on the
= (7)
4 diffraction table. From this reading, we subtract 90◦ and then
since p = 2 for the Balmer series. We can determine the rotate the eyepiece to the calculated angle. This ensures that
Rydberg constant from these relationships. the eyepiece is exactly perpendicular to the collimator.
U. SIDDIQUI 4

From this angle, we lock the eyepiece and unlock the IV. R ESULTS
diffraction table. We place a reflective mirror in the slit holder A. Results
and rotate the diffraction table until the reflected light from
As expected, the fourth spectral line corresponding to the
the desk lamp is incident on the centre of the crosshairs
wavelength λ = 410nm was too dark to measure accurately.
in the eyepiece. This ensures that the grating holder is now
Therefore, the final data consisted of only three visible spectral
positioned at an angle of 45◦ to the collimator. We take a note
lines. The complete dataset is included in Appendix C for your
of this reading and add 45◦ before rotating the diffraction table
inspection.
until it is at the required angle. Now the diffraction holder is
To be able to plot the data we have collected, we first convert
aligned perpendicular to the rays from the collimator. For the
each angle from arc-minutes to its radian equivalent using the
remainder of the experiment, the diffraction table will remain
formula
locked in this position. This alignment procedure is shown in π

d

Fig. 3. θ= α+ (8)
180 60
where α is the degree element of the angle and d is the arc-
minute element. Subsequently, we normalise the angles of each
colour by subtracting the average of the m = 0 order maxima
from each of the measured angles, thereby ensuring that the
central fringe occurs at θ = 0rad.
Plotting each of the values of sin θ for normalised θ against
order of maxima m produces a linear graph for each of the
visible wavelengths of the Balmer series, as shown in Fig. 4.

B. Calculations
From the plots in Fig. 4 , we can deduce the wavelength
of each of the spectral lines using Eq. 4. These results are
summarised in Table II.
n Expected λ [nm] Calculated λ [nm] Calculated λ [nm]
N = 300mm−1 N = 78.8mm−1
3 656 655 ± 1 659 ± 1
4 486 486 ± 1 489 ± 1
5 434 428 ± 3 435 ± 1

TABLE II: Using Eq. 5, we calculate the gradient of each plot


and use this to determine the wavelength. These calculated
wavelengths are shown in comparison to the expected values.

Now for each of the values of n and calculated λ, we plot


1/λ against 1/n2 according to the relationship specified in
Eq. 2. These plots are shown in Fig. 5. From these graphs, we
calculate the Rydberg constant as summarised in Table III.

Grating Density Rydberg Constant Rydberg Constant


Fig. 3: Calibrating the spectrometer — it is essential that [mm−1 ] Gradient [107 m−1 ] Y-intercept [107 m−1 ]
the spectrometer is aligned such that the incidence rays are 300 1.11 ± 0.03 1.10 ± 0.01
78.8 1.10 ± 0.01 1.09 ± 0.01
perpendicular to the diffraction grating in order to prevent the
effects of oblique incidence[10] . TABLE III: We calculate the gradient and intercept of each
plot and use Eq. 6 and Eq. 7 to determine the Rydberg constant
from each of these quantities. For comparison, the accepted
Initially, we use grating 1, as this will produce a wider inten- value of the Rydberg constant is R∞ = 1.09737 × 107 m−1 .
sity pattern and will therefore have a smaller percentage error
in the diffraction angle measurement. We turn off external
sources of light and position a hydrogen lamp close to the slit
of the collimator. Then, we place the diffraction grating into C. Error Analysis
the grating holder and rotate the eyepiece until the crosshairs The error calculations in Table II and Table III have been
are centred on the central fringe. For each colour of spectral adjusted to account for the uncertainty due to the resolution
line visible, we record the angle of the spectral lines for each of an instrument as well as the systematic errors discussed
order up to the maximum visible order. Afterwards, we repeat below. For example, the vernier scale offers an accuracy of
the experiment using the 2nd grating to give us additional up to ±10 or ±0.0167◦ , but the actual uncertainty in each
measurements of the wavelengths in the Balmer series. measurement of the angle is greater. This is primarily because
U. SIDDIQUI 5

Fig. 5: A plot of the inverse wavelength 1/λ against 1/n2


Fig. 4: A plot of sin θ against m for both diffraction gratings. where n is the quantum number of the energy levels in the
Note that the red light has the steepest gradient as it has the Balmer series as specified in Table I for the N = 300mm−1
longest wavelength, which confirms the relationship in Eq. 5. grating.
With the 1st grating, the maxima are spread further apart but
their intensity reduces with θ so only the first three orders of
maxima are visible. For the 2nd grating, the percentage error in φ = 640 (see Fig. 6), which would impact the alignment
each measurement of the angle is greater than with the denser throughout the experiment. This error could be minimised by
grating, but more maxima were visible with this grating and using a thinner mirror, using a spectrometer which has a larger
therefore the overall error in the wavelengths was lower. distance between the diffraction grating and the eyepiece or
holding the mirror on the outer side of the grating holder
so that the thickness of the mirror can be neglected. The
of a significant parallax error when reading the vernier scale, systematic error due to the thickness of the mirror cannot be
which gave errors up to ±30 depending on the angle the scale measured by experiment (since all of the measured values are
was being read from. To minimise this, we tried to read the affected by this systematic error and are therefore consistent).
scale from directly above. Additionally, the dark conditions in However, note that the misalignment of the diffraction grating
the room meant that it was difficult for our eyes to determine causes all of the spectral lines to shift by φ, but this should
the exact point at which the engravings of the vernier scale not impact the relative angles between orders and therefore
lined up, sometimes leading to disagreements in the reading should not be accounted for in the error calculation above.
of up to ±60 . Furthermore, there would be an error associated Accounting for these factors, the uncertainty in our measure-
with the measurement of the angle of the central fringe, which ment of the angle is more than the resolution of the vernier
was propagated through each reading when the angles were scale. It is reasonable to assume that this error is likely to
normalised. This central fringe angle was calculated from an be approximately ±60 , which is what has been used for the
average of three readings and therefore is likely to have a measurements in Table II.
smaller error of around ±0.50 . A minor source of error is in the value of the line den-
Another source of error related to the alignment of the sity of each grating. We are told that the line densities
grating is in relation to the use of a mirror. The mirror are N = 300mm−1 and N = 80mm−1 (nominally) and
reflects light upon incidence with its surface but a diffraction these are often accurately produced with errors approximately
grating diffracts light after it passes through the surface. If we σN = ±0.001mm−1 . However, the diffraction gratings were
assume that the thickness of the mirror was approximately used and had scratched surfaces, which would diminish their
2mm, this would cause a shift in the reflection by up to ability to diffract light. Therefore, a conservative estimate of
U. SIDDIQUI 6

of ±10 , but we were unable to take advantage of this accuracy


due to systematic inaccuracies (e.g. parallax error). However,
we were able to collect a significant amount of data in order to
reduce the effects of random error. For each wavelength and
each order, we took up to three measurements and were able
to take the average of these to a good degree of accuracy. This
was a strength of the experiment - the ability to reproduce the
same results with consistency and very small fluctuations due
to random error.
A limitation of this experiment was that it relied on the
Balmer series because it is the only series that produces visible
light for the hydrogen atom. In the Balmer series, we were
only able to observe 3 of the possible 4 visible wavelengths
of light, which meant that while our error in the wavelength
Fig. 6: A possibility of an error arising in the alignment of could be reduced by doing repeat measurements, the error in
the spectrometer due to a finite thickness of the mirror. the Rydberg constant was greater owing to the fact that we
only had three data points for the Rydberg plot. This was the
reason for repeating the experiment with the N = 78.8mm−1
the error in these diffraction gratings is 0.1%. These errors grating to provide additional data points for the Rydberg plot.
have also been accounted for in the error calculations in Table However, a more effective technique would have enabled us to
II. measure the wavelengths of light from the ultraviolet spectrum
Lastly, we consider the error contributions due to external (e.g. by using a UV imaging camera), providing additional data
sources or changing conditions. For example, heating of the points to more accurately determine the Rydberg constant.
hydrogen lamp may cause it to emit additional wavelengths of A weakness of this method of determining the Rydberg
light if the tube is not adequately evacuated. In our experiment, constant is that it assumes the Bohr model perfectly describes
we observed an unexpected yellow spectral line while taking energy level transitions for atoms. However, the Bohr model is
measurements. While we could not determine the source of not completely accurate as it does not account for the effects
the yellow spectral line, we decided to ignore it as erroneous of fine structure[11] – which concerns relativity on an atomic
and focus primarily on those colours we had predicted in our level and electron spins – and hyperfine splitting[12] , which
theory, but this introduces the possibility that there were other takes into consideration the existence of electron clouds rather
erroneous spectral lines in our data. than energy levels. As a result of these effects, the Rydberg
To prevent changing temperature conditions from affecting constant is often not measured directly from observation of
our results, we took the precaution of measuring the results the spectral lines. Instead, emission spectra of hydrogen and
alternately – that is, first red lines, then violet lines, then blue deuterium is used before making adjustments for the fine
lines – to ensure there was no immediate pattern in terms structure, hyperfine splitting and a finite nuclear mass. A more
of the wavelength of the light that could have been impacted accurate method would account for these effects.
by the changing external conditions. The final table of error
contributions in the value of the Rydberg constant is shown
V. C ONCLUSION
in Table IV.
In summary, we used the Balmer series of hydrogen to
Source Error calculate the wavelengths of photons emitted when electrons
[-] %
transition from energy levels n = {3, 4, 5} to p = 2 using a
θ ≤ 0.42%
N ≈ 0.1% spectrometer and gratings of line densities N = 300mm−1
and N = 78.8mm−1 with Eq. 4. We then plotted our
TABLE IV: Error contributions — this table summarises the calculated wavelengths according to the relationship in Eq.
error contributions of the sources in the final value of the 2 and calculated the Rydberg constant from both the gra-
Rydberg constant. The error in the Rydberg constant is mostly dient and the y-intercept quantities using Eq. 6 and Eq. 7.
due to the error in the diffraction angles of σθ = ±60 , which Using the N = 300mm−1 grating, we calculated R∞ =
subsequently impacted upon the error in the wavelength of (1.11 ± 0.03) × 107 m−1 and R∞ = (1.10 ± 0.01) × 107 m−1
light from the Balmer series. However, this error was reduced from the gradient and y-intercept respectively. For the N =
by taking repeat readings. 78.8mm−1 grating, we have R∞ = (1.10 ± 0.01) × 107 m−1
and R∞ = (1.09 ± 0.01) × 107 m−1 from the gradient and
y-intercept respectively.
D. Discussion
In using the spectrometer, we were able to accurately
determine the angle of diffraction for different wavelengths by
measuring the angle at which their spectral lines formed on
an emission spectrum. The spectrometer offered an accuracy
U. SIDDIQUI 7

A PPENDIX A A PPENDIX C
P RINCIPLE M AXIMA F INAL DATA
The intensity pattern of the single slit envelope is governed This is the final dataset for this experiment. Spectral lines
by the expression that could not be seen or distinguished were omitted.
sin2 α
300mm-1 Red Blue Violet
α2
Order Deg Arc-mins Deg Arc-mins Deg Arc-mins
while the principle maxima of the multiple slit intensity pattern [-] [◦ ] [0 ] [◦ ] [0 ] [◦ ] [0 ]
is given by the equation -3 - - 92 1 - -
-3 - - 91 30 - -
sin2 N β -3 - - 91 35 - -
β2 -2 94 22 100 35 102 28
-2 94 10 100 40 102 30
According to Weisstein[13] , the latter expression can be -2 94 29 100 30 102 25
-1 106 3 109 4 110 6
rewritten as -1 106 8 109 11 109 58
2 -1 106 10 109 10 110 6
sin2 N β

sin N β 0 117 31 117 25 117 31
=
β2 β 0 117 31 117 34 117 29
 2 0 117 30 117 30 117 35
(sin β)Uβ−1 (cos β) 1 128 56 125 50 125 0
=
sin β 1 128 50 126 0 125 1
2 1 128 50 125 57 125 0
= (Uβ−1 (cos β)) 2 140 45 134 28 132 10
2 140 43 134 30 132 6
where Un (x) is known as the Chebyshev polynomial of the 2 140 40 134 30 132 10
2nd kind. The polynomial in cos β has principal maxima and 3 153 30 143 29 - -
3 153 30 143 28 - -
minima when β = mπ for integer m. Hence the square of this 3 153 30 143 31 - -
polynomial has its principle maxima at β = mπ as required.

78.8mm-1 Red Blue Violet


A PPENDIX B
Order Deg Arc-mins Deg Arc-mins Deg Arc-mins
A LIGNING THE C ROSSHAIRS [-] [◦ ] [0 ] [◦ ] [0 ] [◦ ] [0 ]
Fig. 7 below should serve as a guide to how the crosshairs -8 - - 35 24 37 29
of the eyepiece should be aligned for accurate measurements. -7 32 0 37 38 39 29
-6 35 9 40 0 41 24
-6 - - 40 2 41 29
-5 38 16 42 16 43 24
-5 - - 42 11 43 29
-4 41 18 44 30 45 25
-4 41 16 44 28 45 29
-3 44 19 46 38 47 24
-3 44 24 46 47 47 29
-2 47 20 48 58 49 20
-2 47 21 49 0 49 19
-1 50 18 51 9 51 20
-1 50 21 51 10 51 18
0 53 18 53 16 53 17
0 53 18 53 20 53 20
1 56 18 55 30 55 20
Fig. 7: Alignment of the crosshairs — the ideal positioning 1 56 18 55 33 55 19
of the crosshairs is that in the × alignment as this makes it 2 59 15 57 44 57 16
2 59 18 57 44 57 12
easier to determine the centre of the spectral line. 3 62 15 59 59 - -
3 62 21 60 2 - -
4 65 16 62 12 61 12
4 65 25 62 12 61 13
5 68 20 64 25 63 12
5 - - 64 30 63 15
6 - - - - 65 11
6 - - - - 65 15
U. SIDDIQUI 8

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