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12-2 Vessels and Piping
Page 2 FM Global Property Loss Prevention Data Sheets
List of Figures
Fig. 1. Collateral damage following catastrophic failure of a hot isostatic press ....................................... 11
Fig. 2. Imploded tank caused by inadequate design ................................................................................... 12
Fig. 3. Failure to anticipate internal pressure in tank design and no provision of system
overpressure protection resulted in liberation of process tank head .............................................. 13
Fig. 4. A dip tank is an example of an open vessel; the salvage and the separator tanks are
examples of vented vessels ............................................................................................................ 14
Fig. 5. A water supply suction tank is an example of a vented vessel ...................................................... 15
Fig. 6. Plastic ducts of an emission-control facility, copper refinery .......................................................... 16
Fig. 7. Manifolded tanks ............................................................................................................................. 16
Fig. 8. Combination pressure-vacuum relief device using weighted pallet valves ..................................... 17
Fig. 9. Eighteen in. (400 mm) diameter, weighted pallet vacuum relief valve ........................................... 17
Fig. 10. Utility reheat steam lead failure in welded joint ............................................................................ 18
Fig. 11. Erosion-corrosion or FAC likely led to failure of this power boiler feedwater pipe ....................... 20
1.0 SCOPE
General recommendations and supporting information are provided for vessels and piping used in the storage
or processing of solids (powders, granules, etc.) liquids, and gases.
The term “system” as used in this data sheet refers to the combination of a vessel or vessels and the
connected piping and piping components.
Note that the hazards of explosion, detonation, deflagration, and fire are beyond the scope of this data sheet.
See Section 4.0, References, for resources regarding these hazards.
1.1 Changes
July 2018. Interim revision. Minor editorial changes were made for this revision.
2.1.1 Introduction
The scope of this data sheet is very broad. As a result, recommendations are usually also very broad. In
the cases of a few vessel and piping types, more specific advice is provided, but not in great detail. For more
information, see the data sheets applicable to the specific service of the vessel or piping system.
The following recommendations are, in general, for the vessel and associated piping “system.”
Recommendations applicable to specific vessels are also usually applicable to the associated piping. Note
that in some specific systems, there may be relatively large diameter piping of comparatively thin wall used
for collecting vapor or dust. This piping is commonly known as ducting.
Use FM Approved equipment, materials, and services whenever they are applicable and available. For a
list of products and services that are FM Approved, see the Approval Guide, an online resource of FM
Approvals (www.approvalguide.com)
2.1.3 Occupancy
For occupancy recommendations, see the data sheets associated with the specific service of the vessel or
piping system.
2.1.4 Protection
For general fire protection and natural hazard recommendations, see the data sheets associated with the
specific service of the vessel or piping system.
2.1.4.1 Develop and implement procedures to prevent corrosion or freeze damage during idle or shutdown
periods. Some actions to be addressed are passivation, filling with inert gas, dehumidification, venting
corrosive gases from high points, and draining from low points.
The analysis should include provision for external loads on the vessel due to natural hazards or other location
specific concerns (wind, earthquake, precipitation, flood, surface water, freeze, etc.).
2.1.5.2 Specify a corrosion or thinning allowance or use of resistant materials to ensure system thickness
will not be reduced below the minimum required for continued operation of the system components during the
expected operating life (internal and external thinning).
2.1.5.3 Use materials and construction processes that are less susceptible to known failure mechanisms
for the intended service, such as chloride stress corrosion cracking of stainless steels or caustic stress
corrosion cracking of carbon steels (internal and external cracking).
2.1.5.4 Specify system fabrication processes known to minimize in-service failure mechanisms, such as stress
relief of welds in carbon steel vessels, even if such processes are not required by jurisdictional code or
construction code.
2.1.5.5 Retain all design, material specification, inspection, and repair records for critical piping. These records
will be needed to evaluate the condition of the piping, determine if corrective action is needed, determine
appropriate repair methods, and document any repair activity. These records will also be useful in determining
remaining service life.
2.1.5.6 For sytems intended for operation at atmospheric pressure, provide the greater relief vent capacity
required for overpressure relief during filling or required for relief during fire exposure. Also provide sufficient
relief vent capacity to prevent implosion during use (contents extraction, draining or collapse of vapor in the
system) unless the system is designed for full vacuum service.
2.1.5.7 Provide overpressure protection for sytems intended for pressure operation set at or less than the
MAWP of the weakest system component with sufficient capacity to prevent exceeding the MAWP. This
includes vacuum relief for systems not designed for full vacuum that may be subjected to vacuum. Locate
these relief devices such that plugging by system contents is avoided.
2.1.5.8 Provide instrumentation, controls, and safety devices to ensure critical piping does not experience
pressure, temperature, or flow in excess of design.
2.1.5.9 Provide appropriate external corrosion protection for critical piping. If not insulated, select a coating
material that will resist the expected ambient environment. If insulated, select an insulation material that does
not contain elements that could damage the pipe if moisture is present. Provide a weather-tight covering for
the insulation. To avoid corrosion under insulation, it is vital that no moisture enter the insulation system from
pipe system leaks or external sources.
2.1.5.10 Installing and properly maintaining insulation is critical to preventing corrosion under the insulation.
Insulation should be selected and installed to prevent moisture from entering the system. Install insulation
as follows:
A. Face all seams downward so water will be shed rather than providing a path for moisture to enter the
system.
B. Install only dry insulation. If insulation becomes wet while in storage, dry it out thoroughly before
installing.
C. Install insulation only during dry conditions to prevent water from becoming trapped inside during
installation.
D. If installation is halted, seal off all openings to prevent wetting of the partially exposed insulation.
E. If insulation is removed, cover the exposed surfaces to prevent wetting, and keep the insulation dry if
it is to be reused.
F. Reinstall insulation as soon as possible, being sure to dry previously exposed surfaces.
2.1.5.11 Apply a protective coating to exterior surfaces of piping before installing insulation. This is the best
way to prevent corrosion. Effective coatings for prevention of corrosion are those that are suitable for
immersion in water. Technical organizations, such as the National Association of Corrosion Engineers (NACE),
can be of assistance in determining the right type of coating to use for a specific application.
It is not uncommon for a contractor to clean component surfaces in preparation for insulation and follow up
with a primer, assuming that this will provide adequate corrosion protection. Primers are not designed to
be protective coatings. Only coatings designated for immersion under water provide adequate corrosion
protection. Use of such coatings will also be beneficial during periods when insulation must be removed.
2.1.9 Utilities
For general utilities recommendations, see the data sheets associated with the specific service of the vessel
or piping system.
2.1.12 Electrical
For general electrical recommendations, see the data sheets associated with the specific service of the vessel
or piping system.
2.1.12.1 Establish a program of electrical maintenance in accordance with the manufacturer’s instructions
and Data Sheet 5-20, Electrical Testing.
2.2.1 Introduction
The following recommendations are in addition to the preceding recommendations. For general
recommendations, see the data sheets associated with the specific service of the vessel or piping system.
Concrete is commonly used for construction of silos, bins, hoppers, and tanks primarily for holding solid
materials. While piping associated with these vessels may be concrete, it is more likely to be metallic, with
some being plastic.
2.3.1.1 Introduction
The following recommendations are in addition to the preceding recommendations. These systems may be
comprised of vessels or piping having square, rectangular, or circular cross sections. System elements may
be formed by from stamping, welding, bolting, or some combination. For general recommendations, see the
data sheets associated with the specific service of the vessel or piping system.
2.3.2.1 Introduction
The following recommendations are in addition to the preceding recommendations. These systems may be
comprised of vessels or piping having square, rectangular, or circular cross sections. System elements may
be formed by stamping, welding, bolting or some combination. For general recommendations, see the data
sheets associated with the specific service of the vessel or piping system.
2.3.3.1 Introduction
Adhere to the following recommendations in addition to the preceding ones. These systems may be comprised
of vessels or piping having square, rectangular, or circular cross sections. System elements may be formed
by stamping, welding, bolting or some combination. Quick-actuating closures may be provided on these
vessels, particularly if operated in a batch mode. For general recommendations, see the FM Global data
sheets associated with the specific service of the vessel or piping system.
head and evidence of undue stress in line with the pin holes. Check threads of the operating screw for
wear and fit in the nut or hand wheel hub.
H. Check closures of the swing-bolt type for missing bolts. If any are missing, replace at once. Check
bolts for soundness, particularly at the eye, and check the threads for evidence of stripping or excessive
wear. The bolt washers should be flat. Washers that are distorted to a dish shape tend to allow bolt
movement out of the slot when the nuts are improperly torqued. Also inspect the closure when closed
to be sure the nuts are fully engaged. Examine the pins for distortion and for secure fit.
I. At each inspection of the vessel, check the closure safety-locking appliances and tested to be sure that
they are operating properly and are in good repair.
J. Anytime a locking ring binds or catches at some point during its movement, the point becomes a fulcrum
and the entire ring tries to rotate around it. This may result in shifting of the ring position and cause unequal
overlap on the lugs. Therefore, it is important that any safety device that determines the positioning of
the ring, such as micro switches, manually operated pins with two-way valves connected to steam signals,
or any other type of device, be located at four equal quadrants of the ring. One safety device at one point
is not sufficient to properly indicate the position of the ring. Test these four devices.
K. Check the closure and the locking mechanism both in a closed and in an open position. Observe the
position of the locking ring, the amount of overlap, and any shift in the ring position.
L. Check the opening to the vessel for out-of-roundness at the outer edge. This is the difference between
the maximum and minimum inside diameter at any cross section. Under no conditions should it exceed
1% of the nominal diameter of the cross section under consideration. Preferably, it should be zero.
2.3.4 Pressure Vessels ≥3000 psig (≥20.7 MPa) and Vacuum up to 10,000 psig (68.7 MPa)
2.3.4.1 Introduction
Adhere to the following recommendations in addition to the preceding ones. These systems are typically
comprised of vessels or piping having a circular cross section. System elements are typically fabricated by
forging or welding. A system may incorporate bolted joints. Vessels in batch process applications typically
incorporate quick-actuating closures. Fore more recommendations, see the FM Global data sheets associated
with the specific service or application.
2.3.5.1 Introduction
Adhere to the following recommendations in addition to the preceding ones. These systems are typically
comprised of vessels or piping having a circular cross section. System elements are typically fabricated by
forging or welding. A system may incorporate bolted joints. Vessels in batch process applications typically
incorporate quick-actuating closures. For more recommendations, refer to the FM Global data sheets
associated with the specific service or application.
2.4.1 Introduction
Wood vessels and piping (penstocks) for liquid service are uncommon. Construction is typically wood stave
with external metal hoops, bands, or cables.
2.4.2.2 Examine hoops or bands encircling wood vessels and piping at least annually for evidence of
deterioration. This is particularly important when the vessel or pipe is subject to a corrosive atmosphere or
when any protective coating has outlived its useful life. When appreciable deterioration is discovered, replace
the hoops or bands. If corrosion has already begun, remove the corrosion and coat the metal with
corrosion-resistant paint.
2.4.2.3 Periodically examine staves of older wood vessels and piping for signs of deterioration and replace
them as necessary.
3.1.1.1 Pressure Vessels and Piping (+15 psig [+100 kPa] Minimum)
Critical systems must be designed, fabricated and installed in accordance with established industry-
recognized codes and standards. However, even with these prerequisites, there is the potential for
unanticipated failures. Faulty layout and support design, poor welding practices, erosion or corrosion thinning
due to poor material choice and system design limits not consistent with process operating limits are a few
of the more common root causes of loss. When released, pressurized fluid is likely to cause collateral
damage to nearby systems and equipment.
Fig. 3. Failure to anticipate internal pressure in tank design and no provision of system overpressure protection resulted
in liberation of process tank head
Conveyor
Splash
6 in. guard
Weir (150 mm)
Drain board Overflow Vent with
drain flame arrester
OS&Y Trap
Dip tank valve
locked
open
Trap
Or to safe
Quick opening
dump valve location
Ground line
Note: The distance “A” Note: Trap may be omitted
times the specific Or to safe
when dump line terminates Pump out line
gravity of the liquid location
in salvage or separator tank
must be greater than A
the distance “B” Dump line
B
Salvage tank
To fusible link (125% of dip tank capacity)
and manual release
Level of bottom
Weight of dip tank
Vent with
flame arrester
Side view of quick opening dump valve
(in closed position) Ground line
Overflow same
Note: The distance “C” times Pump out size as dump line
the specific gravity line
of the liquid must be C
greater than the Dump line
distance “D”.
Key
Carbon dioxide or Separator tank D
Automatic sprinklers foam nozzle (125% of dip tank capacity)
Heat detector Cable release hook
Sewer
Fig. 4. A dip tank is an example of an open vessel; the salvage and the separator tanks are examples of vented vessels
Note that many “vented” vessels are equipped with dust or vapor collection systems. These collection systems
typically operate under a slight vacuum. For the collection system piping (ductwork) overpressure protection
see Data Sheet 7-78, Industrial Exhaust Systems, or other specific service data sheet.
3.1.2.1.3 Low-Pressure Vessels (±15 psig [±100 kPa] Maximum)
Low-pressure vessels are typically in liquid service with some solids applications. Note that liquids may include
sub-cooled liquids (liquefied flammable gas). For very low system pressure, typical relief devices are
weighted-pallet or weighted-lever valves for positive or negative pressures. When both positive and negative
pressure protection are provided by a single device, the device may be called a pressure-vacuum relief valve
or conservation vent.
As system pressures increase, direct acting spring-loaded valves become viable choices. Pin devices
(buckling or breaking) also become an option if reclosing is not necessary or desired.
Rupture disks may be used for all positive or negative pressures, but are non-reclosing devices.
Fig. 9. Eighteen in. (400 mm) diameter, weighted pallet vacuum relief valve. Set pressure on order of inches of water
(mm of water) with relief capacity on order of 20,000 scfm (566 m2/min) air.
metallurgical changes over time (resulting from operation in or near the creep regime). Operating and
environmental factors may accelerate internal corrosion or erosion. The accumulation of creep (intergranular
cracking due to high stresses and elevated temperatures), fatigue, and corrosion damage can lead to
initiation and propagation of cracks. If not detected by appropriate inspection and addressed by appropriate
repair, the result may be catastrophic failure.
Fig. 10. Utility reheat steam lead failure in welded joint; timely inspection could have provided opportunity for corrective
action prior to failure
Periodic inspection of a critical system and its supports assures the design bases are maintained, and
equipment nozzle loads (forces and moments transferred to equipment by the piping system as a result of
operation dynamics) are within limits, as well as forming a basis for remaining-life evaluations. Inspection
techniques are selected to assure an acceptable probability of flaw detection. The success of any necessary
repairs is ensured by employing experienced and qualified personnel who follow appropriate repair
procedures.
Piping support systems must be inspected and maintained to ensure stresses on critical equipment do not
exceed the design limits. Systems normally are designed with low-point drains to permit the elimination of
condensation. Long term operation of high temperature steam piping may lead to pipe creep and sag. When
sag occurs, condensation can accumulate in these new low points. Internal corrosion and ″steam hammer″
during startup are common when sag has occurred.
The high impact stress from steam hammer may cause cracking or rupture of system components. A piping
system typically moves during steam hammer, placing unplanned stress on the piping support system
(hangers and snubbers). The supports, which may include major structural steel members, may be damaged
and the pipe may be cracked at welded attachments for the supports. Common causes of this phenomenon
in piping are rapid stoppage of flow, such as closure of steam turbine emergency stop valves, or the
introduction of a large quantity of water into a hot steam line. In the former case, the energy in the momentum
of the flowing steam must be absorbed by the piping system. In the latter case, the water flashes to steam,
causing shock waves in the pipe. Pipe systems are provided with snubbers at changes in direction to reduce
the amount of displacement, but resultant forces are transmitted to the structure. Water hammer is similar
to steam hammer except water is incompressible, which can increase shock forces. Proper vent, fill, drain,
and pressurization can mitigate steam or water hammer in piping systems.
Inadvertent entry of water into a hot steam pipe is a common cause of steam hammer in power generating
facilities that incorporate reheat cycles. This typically results from leakage through a block valve. Leak-tight
block valve integrity can be extended by operating practice (i.e., terminating flow using a control valve, which
is designed for throttling service) before closing the block valve. Again, regular inspection and maintenance
of these piping system components can mitigate this hazard.
Effective inspection of in-service systems, with appropriate repair or replacement of damaged components,
can mitigate critical system failures. This is a lesson some electric generating companies learned the hard
way, after suffering catastrophic failures of seam-welded hot reheat piping in 1985 and 1986. Subsequent
investigations revealed that in some plants, seam-welded pipe had been substituted for the specified
seamless pipe, and experience demonstrated seam-welded pipe was likely to develop cracks in the heat-
affected zone of pipe material at the seam weld. Inspection programs for seam-welded pipe were initiated and
reliable examination techniques have been developed. Many electric generating companies have replaced
extensive seam-welded piping systems to avoid disastrous failures due to creep.
Fig. 11. Erosion-corrosion or FAC likely led to failure of this power boiler feedwater pipe
4.0 REFERENCES
4.1 FM Global
Data Sheet 1-40, Flood
Data Sheet 3-1, Tanks and Reservoirs for Interconnected Fire Service and Public Mains
Data Sheet 3-2, Water Tanks for Fire Protection
Data Sheet 5-8, Static Electricity
Data Sheet 6-9, Industrial Ovens and Dryers
Data Sheet 7-0, Causes and Effects of Fires and Explosions
Data Sheet 7-6, Plastic and Plastic-Lined Tanks
Data Sheet 7-9, Dip Tanks, Flow Coater and Roll Coaters
Data Sheet 7-12, Mining and Ore Processing Facilities
Data Sheet 7-13, Mechanical Refrigeration
Data Sheet 7-14, Fire Protection for Chemical Plants
Data Sheet 7-17, Explosion Protection Systems
Data Sheet 7-20, Oil Cookers
Data Sheet 7-21, Rolling Mills
Data Sheet 7-22, Hydrazine and Its Derivatives
Data Sheet 7-25, Molten Steel Production
Data Sheet 7-26, Glass Plants
Data Sheet 7-27, Spray Application of Flammable and Combustible Materials
Data Sheet 7-28, Energetic Materials
Data Sheet 7-30N, Solvent Extraction Plants
Data Sheet 7-32, Ignitable Liquid Operation
Data Sheet 7-33, High-Temperature Molten Materials
Data Sheet 7-34, Explosion Prevention in Electrolytic Chlorine Processes
Data Sheet 7-35, Air Separation Processes
Data Sheet 7-36, Pharmaceutical Operations
• Section XII, Rules for Construction and Continued Service of Transport Tanks
4.2.1.4 ASME
• PVHO-1, Safety Standard for Pressure Vessels for Human Occupancy
4.2.2.2 ASME
• PCC-1, Guidelines for Pressure Boundary Bolted Flange Joint Assembly
• PCC-2, Repair of Pressure Equipment and Piping
4.2.1.3 ASME
• PVHO-2, Safety Standard for Pressure Vessels for Human Occupancy: In-Service PVHO Acrylic
Windows Guidelines
4.2.2.5 ASNT
• SNT-TC-1A, Personnel Qualification and Certification in Nondestructive Testing
• CP-189, Standard for Qualification and Certification of Nondestructive Testing Personnel
4.2.2.6 MIT
• 129 4, A Practical Guide to Field Inspection of FRP Equipment and Piping
• Project 129-99 4, Self-help Guide for In-service Inspection of FRP Equipment and Piping
• Project 160-04, Guide for Design, Manufacture, Installation & Operation of FRP Flanges and Gaskets
4.2.2.7 NACE
• SP0590, Prevention, Detection, and Correction of Deaerator Cracking
• RP 0169 5, Control of External Corrosion on Underground or Submerged Metallic Piping Systems
• RP 0170, Protection of Austenitic Stainless Steels and Other Austenitic Alloys from Polythionic Acid
Stress
• Corrosion Cracking During Shutdown of Refinery Equipment
• RP 0274, High-voltage Electrical Inspection of Pipeline Coatings Prior to Installation
• RP 0275, Application of Organic Coatings to the External Surface of Steel Pipe for Underground
Service
• ACI 313, Standard Practice for Design and Construction of Concrete Silos and Stacking Tubes for
Storing Granular Material
4.2.3.5 ASME
• RTP-1, Reinforced Thermoset Plastic Corrosion-Resistant Equipment
4.2.4 Tanks and Silos Inspection and Repair Guides and Codes
• Erosion-corrosion (EC): Thinning from combined mechanical and electro- chemical process. The
rate of thinning is more rapid than for either erosion or corrosion alone.
• Flow accelerated (or assisted) corrosion (FAC): A specific type of erosion-corrosion affecting carbon
or low-alloy carbon steels. The normally protective oxide coating is dissolved by the combination
of flow velocity and fluid chemistry. The fluid may be a liquid or liquid- vapor combination. The rate
of thinning for a particular carbon steel is dependent on chromium content, fluid velocity, fluid
temperature, fluid pH, and two-phase flow.
FM Approved: References to “FM Approved” in this data sheet mean the product or service has satisfied
the criteria for FM Approval. Refer to the Approval Guide, an online resource of FM Approvals, for a complete
listing of products and services that are FM Approved (www.approvalguide.com).
Fracture toughness: A material property that indicates its ability to resist propagation of a crack and fracture
from a flaw, such as a void, inclusion, or preexisting crack.
Isostatic processing: Batch processes completed at a constant pressure. May include heating of the
processed material. Typically performed at high pressure in vessels having quick-actuating closures.
Processing fluid may be liquid or gas. Examples are supercritical carbon dioxide extraction, diamond or quartz
crystal growing, food and drink processing, ceramic processing, and metal processing. Vessels may be called
extractors, autoclaves, reactors, or presses.
Listed: Equipment or materials included in a list published by an organization that maintains periodic
inspection of production of listed equipment or materials and whose listing states that either the equipment
or material meets appropriate designated standards or has been tested and found suitable for a specified
purpose.
Low alloy steels: Those steel alloys with more alloying additions than carbon steels, and less than stainless
steels. When compared with the less expensive carbon steels, some have higher strength, some better
corrosion resistance, and some better high temperature properties.
Nondestructive examination (NDE): The application of analysis methods to determine the condition of
materials without causing damage to the materials. Following are some types of NDE that may be applied
to vessels and piping.
• Liquid penetrant test (PT): A penetrating liquid is applied to the material surface to detect corrosion-
related cracking. Can only detect indications open on the surface.
• Magnetic particle test (MT): A magnetic powder is applied to the material surface and a magnetic
field is then generated in the material to detect corrosion-related cracking in magnetic materials.
Wet fluorescent magnetic particle (WFMT) is the preferred method in most instances. Can only detect
indication open on or very near the surface.
• Pulsed eddy current test (pulsed ET): Pulsed eddy currents are induced in electrically conductive
materials to detect indications in the material. Can be applied without removal of insulation. The
cost is approximately US$3,000 to US$4,000 per day, but this method avoids the cost of removing
insulation (possibly asbestos). This test method, sometimes called ″Incotest″ (for insulated
component test), can detect both CUI and FAC.
• Radiographic test (RT): A radiation source is placed on one side of the vessel or pipe wall and a
sheet of film is placed on the other side. Variation in wall thickness affects exposure of the film. Best
results require the film to be in contact with the examined surface. RT can be done through insulation,
but the results are blurry and thus not conclusive. RT is more time-consuming and costly than UT.
• Ultrasonic test (UT): A transducer transmits and receives an ultrasonic signal, revealing wall
thickness, delamination, and cracks. A flaw detector-type instrument provides much more information
than does a digital thickness gauge. UT requires access to a bare metal surface over the entire area
to be inspected.
Overpressure: A pressure increase (either positive or negative) beyond a vessel design pressure or MAWP,
or beyond the set pressure of a pressure relief device.
Plastic deformation: Deformation, such as stretching, bending, or bulging, that is permanent; is not recovered
when the stress is removed. As opposed to elastic deformation, which is fully recovered when stress is
removed.
Quick-actuating closure: A vessel closure designed to reduce the time to open and close the vessel,
particularly for batch processing.
Ultimate tensile strength: The stress level at which a material fractures under tensile (axial) loading.
Vent, atmospheric: Pressure relief opening on a system to permit the intake and discharge of air during
emptying and filling operations and to permit expansion and contraction of vapor due to temperature changes.
Sometimes called breather vent.
Vent, emergency relief: Pressure relief opening on a system to prevent over pressurizing the system in the
event of upset in system operation, fire exposure or other adverse condition.
Vent, conservation: Pressure relief device typically of the weighted-valve type, minimizing release of system
contents due to evaporation. Relief is provided for both vacuum and pressure. Vents usually open when
the positive or negative pressure in the system reaches ± 0.75 to 1.00 in. water column (185 to 250 Pa) and
are normally closed.
Vessel: Generic term used in this data sheet for containers used for storage or processing of solids, liquids
or gases. The general category of ‘vessel’ is divided into subcategories of pressure vessel, silo and tank.
Vessels may be constructed of a wide variety of materials.
• Vessel, aboveground: A vessel installed above grade, at grade or below grade having access to all
external vessel surfaces.
• Vessel, underground: A vessel installed above grade, at grade or below grade not having access
to entire external vessel surface due to earth mounding or backfill.
• Pressure vessel: Generic term for vessel containing solids, liquid or gas at a pressure significantly
exceeding ambient pressure. Pressure vessels addressed in this data sheet are limited to those
constructed of metals and some plastics. Pressure vessels are typically designed for a minimum
pressure of 15 psi (100 kPa) and up to full vacuum.
• Silo: Generic term for vessels containing solids. Silos addressed in this data sheet are expected to
operate at ambient pressure only, not subject to application of either positive or negative (vacuum)
pressure.
• Tank: Generic term for vessels containing solids, liquids or gases at essentially ambient pressure.
Tanks addressed in this data sheet are primarily constructed of metals with some being plastic, wood
or concrete construction. Tanks are typically designed for a maximum pressure of 15 psi (100 kPa)
and up to full vacuum.
• Aboveground tank: A tank that is installed above grade, at grade, or below grade without backfill.
• Atmospheric tank: A storage tank that has been designed to operate at pressures from
atmospheric through a gauge pressure of 1.0 psig (6.9 kPa) measured at the top of the tank.
• Double-skinned tank: See “secondary containment tank,” a term used in European Union (EN)
standards.
• Floating roof tank: An atmospheric tank intended for storage of high vapor pressure liquids such
as crude oil and gasoline with vapor pressure exceeding 15 psig (103 kPa or 1 bar gauge) with
a roof floating on the liquid surface. (Floating roof tanks are not covered by this standard.) Design
according to the criteria in API 650, Appendix C or H, or other recognized equivalent standard.
• External floating roof: A roof that sits directly on the liquid surface, usually on pontoons with a
seal attached to the roof perimeter to cover the annular space between the roof and the shell.
Design criteria are in API 650, Appendix C. This type has inherent buoyancy and are difficult,
though not impossible, to sink.
• Internal floating roof: A roof similar to the external floater but with a fixed roof above, intended
for weather protection or quality assurance. The internal floater is often a simple pan or plastic
membrane floating directly on the liquid surface with little or no inherent buoyancy and is
subject to sinking. Design criteria are in API 650, Appendix H. Pontoon type roofs similar or
identical to external floaters are possible but not common. Unless the internal floater has the
inherent buoyancy of a pontoon type, treat the tank as a cone roof tank.
• Low-pressure tank: A storage tank designed to withstand an internal pressure of more than 1
psig (7 kPa) but not more than 15 psig (100 kPa or 1 bar gauge) measured at the top of the tank.
• Portable tank: Any closed vessel having a liquid capacity over 60 gal (230 L) and not intended
for fixed installation. This includes intermediate bulk containers (IBCs) as defined and regulated
by the U.S. Department of Transportation in CFR Title 49, Part 178, subpart N, and the United
Nations Recommendations on the Transport of Dangerous Goods, chapter 6.5.
• Protected aboveground tank: An aboveground storage tank that is listed in accordance with UL
2085, Standard for Protected Aboveground Tanks for Flammable and Combustible Liquids, or
an equivalent test procedure that consists of a primary tank provided with protection from physical
damage and fire-resistive protection from exposure to a high-intensity liquid pool fire.
• Secondary containment tank: A tank that has an inner and outer wall with an interstitial space
(annulus) between the walls and that has a means for monitoring the interstitial space for a leak.
• Storage tank: Any vessel having a liquid capacity that exceeds 60 gal (230 L), is intended for fixed
installation, and is not used for processing.
Weak seam roof (weak shell-to-roof joint construction): The attachment of the roof to the shell forms a frangible
joint that, in the case of excessive internal pressure, will rupture before rupture occurs in the tank shell joints
or the shell-to-bottom joint. Design criteria can be found in UL 142 or API 650.
Yield strength: The stress level at which a material begins to plastically deform (stretching under tensile
loading).
APPENDIX C BIBLIOGRAPHY
AD Merkblätter: German standard, harmonized with the Pressure Equipment Directive.
AIAA S-080-1998: AIAA Standard for Space Systems - Metallic Pressure Vessels, Pressurized Structures,
and Pressure Components.
AIAA S-081A-2006: AIAA Standard for Space Systems - Composite Overwrapped Pressure Vessels (COPVs).
American Insurance Services Group, Inc. Fossil-Fired Utility/Industrial Boiler Life Assessment/Extension.
Boiler and Machinery Engineering Report. New York: American Insurance Services Group, Inc. 1991.
American Petroleum Institute (API)
• 910, Digest of State Boiler, Pressure Vessel, Piping & Aboveground Storage Tank Rules and
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American Society for Nondestructive Testing (ASNT)
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SNT-TC-1A. Columbus, OH: ASNT, 2001. www.asnt.org
• CP-189-2001, ASNT Standard for Qualification and Certification of Nondestructive Testing Personnel.
ASNT CP-189-2001. Columbus, OH: ASNT, 2001.
AS/NZS 1200: Pressure equipment.
Autoclave Engineers. Bulletin No. 320. United States Patent 3,104,583.
B51-09 Canadian Boiler, pressure vessel, and pressure piping code.
BS 4994: Specification for design and construction of vessels and tanks in reinforced plastics.
BS 5500: Former British Standard, replaced in the UK by BS EN 13445 but retained under the name PD
5500 for the design and construction of export equipment.
Cohen, P., ed. The ASME Handbook on Water Technology for Thermal Power Systems. New York: ASME,
1989.
EN 13445: The current European Standard, harmonized with the Pressure Equipment Directive (97/23/EC).
Extensively used in Europe.
EN 286 (Parts 1 to 4): European standard for simple pressure vessels (air tanks), harmonized with Council
Directive 87/404/EEC.
Feedwater Quality Task Group for Industrial Boiler Subcommittee of the ASME Research Committee on Water
in Thermal Power Systems. Consensus of Operating Practices for the Control of Feedwater and Boiler Water
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Ford, Sir H., E. H. Watson, and B. Crossland. “Thoughts on a Code of Practice for Forged High-Pressure
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French Code for Construction of Unfired Pressure Vessel CODAP).
HSE guidelines for pressure systems: Pressure Equipment Directive (Directive 97/23/EC) (PED); Pressure
Equipment Regulations 1999 (SI 1999/2001) (PER); The Pressure Systems Safety Regulations 2000.
ISO 11439: Compressed natural gas (CNG) cylinders
IS 2825: Indian Standard, Code for Unfired Pressure Vessels, Bureau of Indian Standards.
James, P. J. Isostatic Pressing Technology. Applied Science Publishers Ltd., 1983.
Mineral Products Association (MPA). Guidance to prevent over-pressurisation of storage silos during the
delivery of (non-expolsive) powder in the cement, concrete and quarrying industries.
Mraz, G. J., and E. G. Nisbett. “Design, Manufacture and Safety Aspects of Forged Vessels for High-Pressure
Services.” ASME Paper No. 78-PVP-72, Journal of Pressure Vessel Technology, p. 98/Vol. 102, February,
1980.
Muvdi, B. B., and J. W. McNabb. Engineering Mechanics of Materials. Macmillan Publishing Co. Inc., p. 610,
1980.
National Board of Boiler and Pressure Vessel Inspectors. National Board Inspection Code. ANSI/NB-23.
Columbus, Ohio: National Board of Boiler and Pressure Vessel Inspectors, 2004. www.nationalboard.org
Pohto, H. A. “Energy Release from Rupturing High-Pressure Vessels: A Possible Code Consideration.”
Journal of Pressure Vessel Technology, Vol. 101, p. 165, May, 1979.
Rauschenplat, H. C., and A. F. Fino. “Design, Fabrication, Inspection and Testing of Multiwall Pressure
Vessels.” ASME Paper No. 71-PYP-57, Quintus Press Dpt., ASEA Vasteras, Sweden.
Singer, Joseph G., ed. Combustion Fossil Power. 4th Edition. Windsor, Conn.: Combustion Engineering,
Inc., 1991.
Stulz, S. C. and J. B. Kitto, ed. Steam: Its Generation and Use. 40th Edition. Barberton, Ohio: The Babcock
and Wilcox Company, 1992.
Witkin, Donald E. United States Patent 3,669,301.
Zander, Kurt. “Some Safety Aspects of Wire-Wound Pressure Vessels and Press Frames for Isostatic
Pressing in Particular Application in General.” Reprinted from Second International Conference on Pressure
Vessel Technology, published by ASME.