1.

2 Fractions (1-9) 9

In this 1.2 FRACTIONS

section
● Equivalent Fractions
In this section and the next two, we will discuss operations performed with real
numbers. We begin by reviewing the operations with fractions.
● Multiplying Fractions
● Dividing Fractions Equivalent Fractions
● Adding and Subtracting
Fractions If a pizza is cut into 3 equal pieces and you eat 2, you have eaten 2 of the pizza. If
3
● Fractions, Decimals, and the pizza is cut into 6 equal pieces and you eat 4, you have still eaten 2 out of every
Percents 3 pieces. So the fraction 4 is considered equal or equivalent to 2. See Fig. 1.12.
6 3
● Applications Every fraction can be written in infinitely many equivalent forms. Consider the
following equivalent forms of 2:
3
1 1
1 — — 1 2 4 6 8 10
—
3 6 6 —
3 ···

➝
1 1
3 6 9 12 15
— —
6 6 The three dots
1 1
mean “and so on.”
— —
6 6
Notice that each equivalent form of 2 can be obtained by multiplying the numerator
1
— 3
3
(top number) and denominator (bottom number) of 2 by a nonzero number. For
3
FIGURE 1.12 example,
2 2·5 10
 The raised dot indicates multiplication.
3 3·5 15
Converting a fraction into an equivalent fraction with a larger denominator is called
building up the fraction.

Building Up Fractions
If b  0 and c  0, then
a a·c
  .
b b·c

E X A M P L E 1 Building up fractions
Build up each fraction so that it is equivalent to the fraction with the indicated
denominator.
3 ? 5 ?
a)    b)   
4 28 3 30
Solution
helpful hint
a) Because 4 · 7  28, we multiply both the numerator and denominator by 7:
In algebra it is best to build up
3 3 · 7 21
fractions by multiplying both 
the numerator and denomi- 4 4 · 7 28
nator by the same number as
shown in Example 1. So if you b) Because 3 · 10  30, we multiply both the numerator and denominator by 10:
use an old method, be sure to 5 5 · 10 50
learn this method. 
3 3 · 10 30 ■
10 (1-10) Chapter 1 Real Numbers and Their Properties

Converting a fraction to an equivalent fraction with a smaller denominator is

helpful hint
called reducing the fraction. For example, to reduce 10, we factor 10 as 2 · 5 and
15
In algebra it is best to reduce
15 as 3 · 5, and then divide out the common factor 5:
fractions as shown here. First
factor the numerator and 10 · 5
  2 2

denominator and then divide 15 3 · 5 3
out (or cancel) the common
factors. Be sure to learn this The fraction 2 cannot be reduced further because the numerator 2 and the
3
method. denominator 3 have no factors (other than 1) in common. So we say that 2 is in
3
lowest terms.

Reducing Fractions
If b  0 and c  0, then
a·c a
  .
b·c b

E X A M P L E 2 Reducing fractions
Reduce each fraction to lowest terms.
15 42
calculator a)  b) 
24 30
Solution
close-up For each fraction, factor the numerator and denominator and then divide by the
To reduce a fraction to lowest
common factor:
terms using a graphing calcu- 15 3 · 5 5 42 7 · 6 7
a)      b)     
lator, display the fraction and 24 3 · 8 8 30 5 · 6 5 ■
use the fraction feature.

Strategy for Obtaining Equivalent Fractions

Equivalent fractions can be obtained by multiplying or dividing the numerator

and denominator by the same nonzero number.

Multiplying Fractions
If the fraction is too compli-
cated, the calculator will re- Suppose a pizza is cut into three equal pieces. If you eat 1 of one piece, you have
2
turn a decimal equivalent eaten 1 of the pizza. See Fig. 1.13. You can obtain 1 by multiplying 1 and 1:
6 6 2 3
instead of reducing it.
1 1 1·1 1
·
2 3 2·3 6
This example illustrates the definition of multiplication of fractions. To multiply
two fractions, we multiply their numerators and multiply their denominators.
1 1
— —
6 6
Multiplication of Fractions
1 1
— —
6 6 If b  0 and d  0, then
1 1
— —
6 6 a c a·c
 ·   .
b d b·d
FIGURE 1.13
 1.2 Fractions (1-11) 11

E X A M P L E 3 Multiplying fractions
Find the product, 2 · 5.
3 8

Solution
Multiply the numerators and the denominators:

2 5 10
·
3 8 24
2 · 5
 Factor the numerator and denominator.
2 · 12
5
 Divide out the common factor 2.
12 ■
It is usually easier to reduce before multiplying, as shown in the next example.

E X A M P L E 4 Reducing before multiplying

Find the indicated products.
1 3 4 15
a)  ·  b)  · 
3 4 5 22
Solution
1 3 1 3 1
calculator a)  ·    ·   
3 4 3 4 4
b) Factor the numerators and denominators, and then divide out the common
factors before multiplying:
close-up
A graphing calculator can
4 15
 ·   2· 2 · 3 · 5  
6

multiply fractions and get 5 22 5 2 · 11 11 ■
fractional answers using the
fraction feature. Note how a
mixed number is written on a
Dividing Fractions
graphing calculator. Again consider a pizza that is cut into three equal pieces. If one piece is divided
among two people 1  2, then each person gets 1 of the pizza. Of course 1 of 1 is
3 6 2 3
also 1. So
6

1 1 1 1
  2   ·   .
3 3 2 6
If a  b  c, then b is called the divisor and c is called the quotient of a and b. We
Try these computations on
your calculator. If you have also refer to both a  b and a as the quotient of a and b. To find the quotient for
b
trouble, consult your manual two fractions, we invert the divisor and multiply.
or ask your instructor for help.
Division of Fractions
If b  0, and c  0, and d  0, then
a c a d
     · .
b d b c
12 (1-12) Chapter 1 Real Numbers and Their Properties

E X A M P L E 5 Dividing fractions
Find the indicated quotients.
1 7 2
a)    b)   5
3 6 3

Solution
In each case we invert the divisor (the number on the right) and multiply.
calculator
1 7 1 6
a)      ·  Invert the divisor.
3 6 3 7
close-up 1 2 · 3
  ·  Reduce.
When the divisor is a fraction
3 7
on a graphing calculator, it 2
must be in parentheses. A dif-   Multiply.
7
ferent result is obtained with-
2 2 5 2 1 2
out using parentheses. Note b)   5       ·   
that when the divisor is a 3 3 1 3 5 15 ■
whole number, parentheses
are not necessary.
Adding and Subtracting Fractions 1
—
6
To understand addition and subtraction of fractions, again 1
— 1
—
6 6
consider the pizza that is cut into six equal pieces as shown
1 1
in Fig. 1.14. If you eat 3 and your friend eats 2, together you —
6
—
6
6 6 1
have eaten 5 of the pizza. Similarly, if you remove 1 —
6
6 6
Try these computations on
from 6 you have 5 left. To add or subtract fractions with
6 6 3 +—
— 2 =—
5
6 6 6
your calculator. identical denominators, we add or subtract their numerators
and write the result over the common denominator. FIGURE 1.14

Addition and Subtraction of Fractions

If b  0, then
a c ac a c ac
  and     .
b b b b b b

E X A M P L E 6 Adding and subtracting fractions

Perform the indicated operations.
1 2 7 3
a)    b)   
helpful hint 7 7 10 10
A good way to remember that Solution
you need common denomi-
nators for addition is to think 1 2 3 7 3 4 2 · 2 2
a)      b)         
of a simple example. If you 7 7 7 10 10 10
2 · 5 5 ■
own 13 share of a car wash
and your spouse owns 13, If the fractions have different denominators, we must convert them to equivalent
then together you own 23 of fractions with the same denominator and then add or subtract. For example, to add
the business.
the fractions 1 and 1, we build up each fraction to get a denominator of 6. See
2 3
 1.2 Fractions (1-13) 13

3 =—
1
—
6 2 Fig. 1.15. The denominator 6 is the smallest number that is a multiple of both 2 and
1
3. For this reason, 6 is called the least common denominator (LCD). To find the
—
1
6
1
LCD, use the following strategy.
— —
6 6

1 1
— —
6 6
1 Strategy for Finding the LCD
—
6
2 =—
1
—
6 3 1. Make a list of all multiples of one of the denominators.
1 +—
1 =—
5
—
2 3 6 2. The first number on the list that is evenly divisible by the other denominator
FIGURE 1.15 is the LCD.

For example, for 1 and 1 consider all multiples of 6:

6 8

6, 12, 18, 24, 30, 36, . . .

The first number in this list divisible by 8 is 24. So the LCD is 24. This method
works well if the denominators are not too large. In Chapter 6 we will learn another
method that is better suited for large numbers and algebra.

E X A M P L E 7 Adding fractions
Perform the indicated operations.
1 1 1 1 3 1 1 5
a)    b)    c)    d) 2   
2 3 3 12 4 6 3 9

Solution
a) In the multiples of 2 (2, 4, 6, 8, . . .), the first number divisible by 3 is 6. So 6 is
the LCD.
1 1 1·3 1·2
 The LCD is 6.
2 3 2·3 3·2
3 2
 Build each denominator to a denominator of 6.
6 6
5
 Then add.
6
b) In the multiples of 3 (3, 6, 9, 12, 15, . . .), the first number divisible by 12 is 12.
So the LCD is 12.
1 1 1·4 1
       The LCD is 12.
3 12 3 · 4 12
4 1 1
 Build up  to get a denominator of 12.
3
12 12
3
 Subtract.
12
1
 Reduce to lowest terms.
4
14 (1-14) Chapter 1 Real Numbers and Their Properties

c) In the multiples of 4 (4, 8, 12, 15, . . .), the first number divisible by 6 is 12. So
the 12 is the LCD, the smallest multiple of 4 and 6.
3 1 3·3 1·2
 The LCD is 12.
4 6 4·3 6·2
9 2
study tip  Build up each fraction to a denominator of 12.
12 12
Take notes in class.Write down 7
everything you can. As soon  
as possible after class, rewrite 12
your notes. Fill in details and d) To perform addition with the mixed number 2 1, first convert it into an
make corrections. Make a 3
note of examples and exer- improper fraction: 2 1  2  1  6  1  7.
3 3 3 3 3
cises in the text that are similar
1 5 7 5 1
to examples in your notes. If 2       Write 2  as an improper fraction.
3
your instructor takes the time 3 9 3 9
to work an example in class, it 7·3 5
is a good bet that your instruc-  The LCD is 9.
tor expects you to under-
3·3 9
stand the concepts involved. 21 5 26

9 9 9 ■

Fractions, Decimals, and Percents

In the decimal number system, fractions with a denominator of 10, 100, 1000, and
so on are written as decimal numbers. For example,
3 25 5
  0.3,   0.25, and   0.005.
10 100 1000
Fractions with a denominator of 100 are often written as percents. Think of the per-
cent symbol (%) as representing the denominator of 100. For example,
25 5 300
  25%,   5%, and   300%.
100 100 100
The next example illustrates further how to convert from any one of the forms (frac-
tion, decimal, percent) to the others.

E X A M P L E 8 Changing forms
Convert each given fraction, decimal, or percent into its other two forms.
1
a)  b) 6% c) 0.1
5

Solution
1 1 · 20 20 1 1·2 2
a)       20% and       0.2
5 5 · 20 100 5 5 · 2 10
1
So   0.2  20%.
5
 1.2 Fractions (1-15) 15

6 6 2 · 3 3
b) 6%    0.06 and 
100 100 2 · 50 50
3
So 6%  0.06  .
50
1 1 · 10 10
c) 0.1        10%
10 10 · 10 100
1
So 0.1    10%.
10 ■

calculator close-up
A calculator can convert fractions to decimals and decimals
to fractions. The calculator shown here converts the termi-
nating decimal 0.333333333333 into 13 even though 13 is
a repeating decimal with infinitely many threes after the
decimal point.

Applications
The dimensions for lumber used in construction are usually given in fractions. For
example, a 2 4 stud used for framing a wall is actually 1 1 in. by 3 1 in. by
2 2
3

— Floor 92 5 in. A 2 12 floor joist is actually 1 1 in. by 11 1 in.
4 8 2 2
11—

1
2
1—

E 2 X A M P L E Joist9 Framing a two-story house

Plates
In framing a two-story house, a carpenter uses a 2 4 shoe, a wall stud, two 2 4
plates, then 2 12 floor joists, and a 3-in. plywood floor, before starting the second
4
Stud level. Use the dimensions in Fig. 1.16 to find the total height of the framing shown.
92—

5
8
Solution
We can find the total height using multiplication and addition:
1 5 1 3 1 5 1 3
3 · 1   92   11     4   92   11   
Shoe
2 8 2 4 2 8 2 4
1
1—
4 5 4 6
2 Concrete slab  4   92   11   
8 8 8 8
FIGURE 1.16
19
 107 
8
3
 109 
8
The total height of the framing shown is 109 3 in. ■
8
16 (1-16) Chapter 1 Real Numbers and Their Properties

M A T H A T W O R K

Building a new house can be a complicated and

daunting task. Shirley Zaborowski, project manager
for Court Construction, is responsible for estimat-
ing, pricing, negotiating, subcontracting, and sched-
uling all portions of new house construction.
Ms. Zaborowski works from drawings and first
does a “take off” or estimate for the quantity of ma- BUILDING
terial needed. The quantity of concrete is measured CONTRACTOR
in cubic yards and the amount of wood is measured in board feet. If masonry is
being used, it is measured in bricks or blocks per square foot.
Scheduling is another important part of the project manager’s responsibility and
it is based on the take off. Certain industry standards help Ms. Zaborowski estimate
how many carpenters are needed and how much time it takes to frame the house and
how many electricians and plumbers are needed to wire the house, install the heat-
ing systems, and put in the bathrooms. Of course, common sense says that the foun-
dation is done before the framing and the roof. However, some rough plumbing and
electrical work can be done simultaneously with the framing. Ideally the estimates
of time and cost are accurate and the homeowner can move in on schedule.
In Exercise 103 of this section you will use operations with fractions to find the
volume of concrete needed to construct a rectangular patio.

WARM-UPS
True or false? Explain your answer.
1. Every fraction is equal to infinitely many equivalent fractions. True
2. The fraction 8 is equivalent to the fraction 4. True
12 6
8
3. The fraction  reduced to lowest terms is 4. False
12 6
1 2 1 1 3 3 1 6 6
4.  · True 5.  ·    True 6.  ·    True
2 3 3 2 5 10 2 5 10
1 1 1 1 1 2
7.  3 True 8. 5    10 True 9.      False
2 6 2 2 4 6
1 3
10. 2     True
2 2

1. 2 EXERCISES
Reading and Writing After reading this section write out the
answers to these questions. Use complete sentences.
1. What are equivalent fractions?
If two fractions are identical when reduced to lowest terms,
then they are equivalent fractions.
2. How can you find all fractions that are equivalent to a given
fraction?
Reduce the fraction to lowest terms and then multiply the
numerator and denominator by every counting number.
3. What does it mean to reduce a fraction?
To reduce a fraction means to find an equivalent fraction
that has no factor common to the numerator and denomi-
nator.
 1.2 Fractions (1-17) 17

4. For which operations with fractions are you required to 6 3 4 2 10 7

53.    
5
54.    
5
have common denominators? Why? 10 4 3 21
Common denominators are required for addition and 3 5 1 5
3 2
subtraction, because it makes sense to add 1 of a pie and 1 55.    
40
56.    
5
3 3 16 2 8 16
of a pie and get 2 of a pie.
3 Find each sum or difference. See Examples 6 and 7.
5. How do you convert a fraction to a decimal? 1 1 1 1 5 1
57.    12 58.    15 59.    13
Convert a fraction to a decimal by dividing the denomina- 4 4 10 10 12 12
tor into the numerator. 17 5 1 1 1 1
60.    67 61.    14 62.    12
6. How do you convert a percent to a fraction? 14 14 2 4 3 6
Convert a percent to a fraction by dividing by 100, 1 1 7 1 3 11 3 2 1
63.     64.     65.    
as in 4%  4. 3 4 12 2 5 10 4 3 12
100
4 3 1 1 5 19 3 1 11
Build up each fraction or whole number so that it is equivalent 66.     67.     68.    
5 4 20 6 8 24 4 6 12
to the fraction with the indicated denominator. See Example 1. 5 1 11 3 1 11
3 ? 5 ? 8 ? 69.     70.    
7.    68 8.    15  9.    32  24 18 72 16 20 80
4 8 7 21 21 3 12 12 5 5 3 15
7 ? ? ? 71. 3    199
 72. 5    71 
10.    28 
8
11. 5   10 
2
12. 9   27  6 16 48 8 16 16
2 8 2 3 3 Convert each given fraction, decimal, or percent into its other
3 ? 75 1 ? 50 3 ? 30 two forms. See Example 8.
13.     14.     15.    
4 100 100 2 100 100 10 100 100 3 19
2 ? 40 5 ? 5 ? 73.  60%, 0.6 74.  95%, 0.95
16.     17.    70  18.    70 
5 20
5 100 100 3 42 42 7 98 98 9
75. 9% ,
100
0.09 76. 60% 0.6, 35
Reduce each fraction to lowest terms. See Example 2.
2
3 2 12 30 77. 0.08 8%,  78. 0.4 40%, 25
19.  12 20.  15 21.  23 22.  34 25
6 10 18 40
3 5
15 39 50 5 79.  0.75, 75% 80.  0.625, 62.5%
23.  3 24.  3 25.  12 26.   1 4 8
5 13 100 1000 200
1 6
81. 2% , 0.02 82. 120% , 1.20
200 125 5 18 3 34 1 50 5
27.  2 28.  
4
29.  
8
30.  
3
100 100 48 102 1 1
83. 0.01 , 1% 84. 0.005 , 0.5%
100 200
26 70 84 121 11
31.  13 32.  58 33.  12 34.  
Perform the indicated operations.
42 21 112 91 13 132 12

Find each product. See Examples 3 and 4. 3 1 7 3 49

85.    3 86.    
12
8 8 8 14
2 5 10 1 1 1 1
35.  · 
27
36.  ·   37.  · 15 5 3 28 5 3
3 9 8 8 64 3 87.  ·  1 88.  ·  
3
4 21 16 10 32
1 3 14 7 5 12 3
38.  · 16 4 39.  ·   40.  ·  
4 4 15 10 8 35 14 7 5 71 2 8 18
89.    
96
90.    
35
2 35 7 3 20 1 6 12 32 15 21
41.  · 
13
42.  ·  27 43.  ·  35
5 26 10 21 2 5 5 1 17 9 1 23
91.    
120
92.    
48
1 3 3 1 1 3 1 3 24 15 16 12
44.  ·  45.  ·  16 46.  ·  
2 5 10 2 3 16 7 112 1 15 1 9
93. 3    65
 94. 5    75

Find each quotient. See Example 5. 8 16 16 4 16 16

3 1 2 1 4 2 1 1 7
47.    3 48.    
3 95. 7  · 2  69
 96. 6    13

4 4 3 2 3 4 4 2 2 7
1 1 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
49.   5 
15
50.   3 
5 97.      13
 98.      2

3 5 2 3 4 12 2 3 6 3
5 2 1 1 1 2 2 2
51. 5   4 52. 8   12 99.  ·  ·  1
 100.  ·  ·  
8
4 3 2 2 2 8 3 3 3 27
18 (1-18) Chapter 1 Real Numbers and Their Properties

Solve each problem. See Example 9. b) Find the exact volume of concrete in cubic feet and
101. Stock prices. On Monday, GM stock opened at per 54 3 cubic yards for a patio that is 12 1 feet long, 8 3 feet
4 2 4
share and closed up 3. On Tuesday it closed down 1. wide, and 4 inches thick. 36 11 ft3 or 1 227 yd3
16 8 24 648
5
On Wednesday it gained . On Thursday it fell 1. On
16 4
104. Bundle of studs. A lumber yard receives 2 4 studs in a
Friday there was no change. What was the closing price
bundle that contains 25 rows (or layers) of studs with 20
on Friday? What was the percent change for the week?
studs in each row. A 2 4 stud is actually 1 1 in. by 3 1 in.
54 7 , up 0.2% 2 2
8 by 92 5 in. Find the cross-sectional area of a bundle in
8
102. Diversification. Helen has 1 of her portfolio in U.S. square inches. Find the volume of a bundle in cubic feet.
5
stocks, 1 of her portfolio in European stocks, and 1 of her (The formula V  LWH gives the volume of a rectangu-
8 10
portfolio in Japanese stocks. The remainder is invested in lar solid.) 2625 in.2, 140.7 ft3
municipal bonds. What fraction of her portfolio is in-
vested in municipal bonds? What percent is invested in GET TING MORE INVOLVED
municipal bonds?
23
105. Writing. Find an example of a real-life situation in which
, 57.5% it is necessary to add two fractions.
40
106. Cooperative learning. Write a step-by-step procedure
Helen’s portfolio for adding two fractions with different denominators.
European
Japanese
Give your procedure to a classmate to try out on some
stocks
stocks 1
— addition problems. Refine your procedure as necessary.
1 8
— 1
10 — U.S. 107. Fraction puzzle. A wheat farmer in Manitoba left his
5
stocks L-shaped farm (shown in the diagram) to his four daugh-
Municipal
ters. Divide the property into four pieces so that each
bonds piece is exactly the same size and shape.
Each daughter gets 3 km2  4 or a 3 km2 piece of the
4
FIGURE FOR EXERCISE 102 farm. Divide the farm into 12 equal squares. Give each
daughter an L-shaped piece consisting of 3 of those
12 squares.
103. Concrete patio. A contractor plans to pour a concrete
rectangular patio.
a) Use the table to find the approximate volume of con- 1 km
crete in cubic yards for a 9 ft by 12 ft patio that is
4 inches thick. 1.3 yd3
1 km
Concrete required for 4 in. thick patio

L (ft) W (ft) V (yd3) 1 km

2 km
16 14 2.8

14 10 1.7 1 km

12 9 1.3

10 8 1.0 2 km

FIGURE FOR EXERCISE 103 FIGURE FOR EXERCISE 107