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LVDC Microgrid Perspective For A High Efficiency Distribution System

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DOI: 10.1109/TDC-LA.2014.6955283

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 LVDC Microgrid Perspective For A High Efficiency
Distribution System
Andres F. Moreno
Department of Electrical and
Electronics Engineering
National University of Colombia
Carrera 30 No. 45-03
Bogota, Colombia
Email: afmorenop@unal.edu.co
Abstract—A direct current distribution microgrid represents a
practical solution to efficiency problems of existing AC electrical
grid. It can integrate more effectively different forms of renewable
energy sources such as photovoltaic cells, wind generators and
fuel cells. This scheme has specific issues given its DC nature
in regards to efficient operation and protection systems. Addi-
tionally, control methods commonly used to integrate distributed
generation and loads into a microgrid with energy storage ele-
ments must be adapted accordingly to the DC own requirements.
Main topics of this scheme are currently being developed and
researched, whereby a survey on the principal research projects
and prospective on DC distribution microgrids is presented.
I. I NTRODUCTION
The integration of renewable energy to the modern electri-
cal system as a sustainable way to supply the energy demand
has many issues to solve. The main problem is to convert the
existing infrastructure to a smart grid which improves the use
of non-dispatchable sources such as photovoltaic energy (PV),
wind generation (WG), and fuel cells (FC) [1]. The electrical
grid is a system of generation, transmission and distribution of
energy in form of alternating current (AC) [2]. The reason of
such system is the ease of voltage level transformation and the
inherent AC nature of the rotating machine driven by fossil or
hydro energy, thus it is not conceived for the renewable energy
sources (RES).
RES have characteristics that make them more difficult to
use: PV highly depends on atmospheric conditions to produce
useful energy and even with ideal conditions this energy needs
to be stored. It is an inherent direct current (DC) source
of energy due to its DC response and the common use of
batteries. Wind power generators have an alternating response
but it is inconstant depending on the wind speed which is
an uncontrollable and unpredictable variable, then the more
practical form of using its energy is converting the AC into
DC power. Other RES such as FC has similar characteristics.
They are naturally DC forms of producing energy. In addition,
there is a limitation on the concentration of renewable energy,
given that those resources are distributed in wide areas, then
the energy production must also be in distributed manner.
This paper shows the main advances and projects on DC
microgrids as a key technology for practical integration of
distributed and renewable energy sources into the present
Eduardo Mojica-Nava
Department of Electrical and
Electronics Engineering
National University of Colombia
Carrera 30 No. 45-03
Bogota, Colombia
Email: eamojican@unal.edu.co
evolving electrical grid. The main focus is on control strategies
of the DC bus voltage and power management. The remainder
of the paper is organized as follows: An analysis result on
efficiency of DC distribution system compared with current
AC system is provided in Section 2. Section 3 makes a review
about concepts, topologies, control and protection aspects of
DC microgrids. In Section 4 further analysis of the control
methods developed for DC MG is performed. Finally, Section
5 draws a conclusion and point out research opportunities and
future trends.
II. M OTIVATION
A. AC system versus DC system
Edison and Westinghouse struggle defined the predominant
technology for use electric energy [3]. AC became the standard
because it has several advantages over DC at generation,
transmission and distribution level [4]:
• Voltage transformation: easier to elevate and lower the
AC voltage even near to the load
• Circuit breaker protection: periodic zero voltage cross-
ings facilitate the extinction of fault currents.
• Voltage stability: AC voltage decoupled from active
power allows controlling it by means of reactive
power.
• Bulk generation characteristics: the alternating inher-
ent rotating machine driven by fossil energy.
However, at present some of the DC advantages over
AC become more relevant, specially at the distribution and
consumption level [4], such as:
• Incorporation of renewable energy resources and en-
ergy storage: such as PV, FC, batteries provides na-
tively DC power, which means avoiding one conver-
sion step to AC on each device.
• Modern lighting and electronics: eliminating rectifier
step to provide power to devices which use DC.
• Power quality: the reduction of power electronic con-
verters decreases the distortion caused to the voltage
signal in the point of common coupling (PCC).

Fig. 1. DC System with PV. Adpated from [8]
For those reasons, several DC or hybrid AC-DC distribution
systems are being proposed, for example as high availability
solutions in data centers [5] [6].
B. Efficiency in DC System
Power efficiency in transmission and distribution is defined
as the ratio between total power delivered to the consumers and
the total power produced by the generators. This is a measure
of losses caused by lines and transformation stages in the grid.
AC system has in addition a few more variables involved in the
total efficiency such as total harmonic distortion (THD) caused
by the characteristics of loads or the effect of inductance of
lines and loads causing reactive power flow [7]. In DC system,
there is only active power, voltage and current involved in
efficiency. Several case study papers have performed efficiency
analysis regarding to the DC distribution microgrid in a local
facility [4] [8].
In [4], the authors compare a distribution system avoiding
line impedance effects and modeling the efficiency of conver-
sion stages in several conditions for residential use of energy
(heating, ventilation, lighting, home electronics, laundry, etc.),
and having the possibility to integrate a distributed generation
device (such as fuel cell) into the bus bar of a microgrid. They
consider four different cases: 1- AC distribution without DG;
2- DC distribution without DG; 3- DC distribution with fuel
cell; 4- AC distribution with fuel cell. This study shows that
residential DC distribution by itself is disadvantageous due
to the inefficient bulk rectification at the entrance of the DC
bus (first conversion step from utility AC to DC showed in
Figure 1 as grid converter) when only loads are connected to
the MG. However, if local DG as a fuel cell is connected to
the distribution bus, the efficiency is worst in the AC case due
to the conversion from DC to AC required to connect the fuel
cell to the bus. They conclude that when using DC distribution
the efficiency improves only in case of the presence of a DG
in the Microgrid.
A simulation for a system with 20 residencies and a 30 kW
PV system is compared with an AC and a DC Mictrogrid in [8].
The authors consider data for electric consumption measured
by Osaka University, as well as output power from PV and
different capacities and efficiencies for PV converter, grid
converter and load converters. The total energy consumption
is 84.4 MWh per year, and a PV generation of 27.6 MWh
per year, the simulation shows that the overall power losses
in the DC microgrid are about 7.1% lower than in the AC
microgrid. The sensitivity analysis indicates that the effect of
efficiency of load converters has a large effect on total losses
(1% less efficiency causes more than 10% more losses). The
grid converter has also an important effect on losses, with a
slope of about 9%. The most interesting result is regarding the
capacity of the PV system, the authors define a lower limit to
improve the efficiency of the distribution system at about 11
kW. More DG contributing power over this limit is expected
to improve the results on efficiency.
A significant data processing simulation is presented in [9].
The model includes real data of house consumption in the
UK, PV and WG models comprising atmospheric conditions, a
storage model of lead-acid batteries and a charging/discharging
controller. The main objective is to optimize the percentage of
use of PV and WG to reduce the total energy consumption and
peak-hour power variation. The result is an optimal microgrid
constituted by 12 x 12 houses with one renewable unit per
household (83% PV and 17% WG), which reduces power peak
fluctuation in 12% and further 4.6% if include storage batteries.
The total energy consumption was reduced by 16%.
Those results show clearly the impact on the losses reduc-
tion when a DC distribution system is applied, basically due
to the feasibility to integrate RES and ESS in the microgrid.
C. Distributed Generation in Microgrids
A good strategy to improve energy efficiency is to produce
it as close as possible to the consumers in a distributed form.
This reduces energy losses in transportation and conversion
and is highly compatible with RES, due to the fact that many
renewable energies are distributed in wide areas. Commonly
used renewable energy sources (PV and WG) heavily depend
on environmental variables, thus it is practical dispose them in
distributed manner having more stable average conditions and
pursuing a more effective energy catchment [10].
The problem in a distributed scheme of generation is
coordination: every part of the grid should contribute in the
total energy consumption and be managed in order to maintain
quality in the PCC. As shown in Figure 2, each source of
energy is connected to a common point, and their interface is
power electronics which adapt the signal produced by the DG
to electrical conditions in the PCC. This is done by managing
active and reactive power, frequency, and voltage to work
properly in parallel [11].
1) AC Microgrid: The integration of DG into an AC bus
has been widely studied as a microgrid based on parallel
connected inverters (represented by DGs, loads, and ESS in
Figure 2). Main characteristics of this approach are:
• Every DG is connected to the bus via an inverter,
synchronized in frequency and phase to maintain the
bus voltage in the PCC.
• Control of active power and reactive power in inverters
is managed by power electronics.

Fig. 2. AC Microgrid with DG and ESS
• Depending on the type of DG, it may need more
converters (e.g. AC-DC-AC in a WG)
The principal control method used in AC microgrids to
control the parallel connected inverters is droop method [12].
This method emulates a traditional high voltage AC (HVAC)
power system with parallel synchronous generator, assuming
predominantly inductive line impedance (neglecting the re-
sistive component). Thus, active power can be controlled by
variations in frequency, while reactive power can be controlled
by variations in voltage magnitude [13]. The droop method is
resumed by the following equations:
ω − ωref = −kp (Pmax − Pref ) (1)
E − Eref = −kq (Qmax − Qref ) (2)
where ω and E are frequency and voltage magnitude
respectively; Pref and Qref are active and reactive power set-
points settled based on technical and/or economical require-
ments; Pmax and Qmax are the maximum power outputs of
the DG; ωref and Eref are the desired microgrid frequency
and the PCC voltage magnitude respectively; and kp and kq
are the droop slopes (both positive quantities).
Nonetheless, the above mentioned assumption is not so
valid for low voltage (LV) systems, because of the significant
effect of RI voltage droop. Thus, complementary levels of
control need to be applied in order to achieve voltage regula-
tion and load sharing [14].
The fully decentralized control of an AC microgrid is
complex because it is necessary to coordinate inverters and
to control P , Q, f , E simultaneously. Those are inherent
conditions in an AC system which makes difficult the practical
integration of distributed generation units into the existing
electrical grid.
Fig. 3. DC Microgrid with DG and ESS
2) DC Microgrid: The advantages of a DC microgrid were
posed in [15], as a way to throw off the many problems
associated with the AC based distributed generation system.
Some of the main characteristics stated are:
• Each power supply connected with the DCMG can be
operated autonomously because they control only the
DC-grid voltage.
• When the AC utility grid falls abnormal or fault con-
ditions, the DC-grid system is switched to stand-alone
operation in which the generated power is supplied to
the loads connected to the DC bus.
• Changes in the generated power and the load con-
sumed power can be compensated as a lump of power
in DC grid.
• The system cost and loss can be reduced because only
one AC grid connected inverter is needed(AC Grid
connected inverter unit in Figure 3).
The DC nature of the renewable energies can be comple-
mented with the also DC nature of almost all energy storage
technologies (batteries, flywheels, supercapacitors) to create
a more efficient microgrid using the advantages of a DC
distribution bus. These concepts will be further developed in
section III.
III. DC M ICROGRIDS
This section presents the most significant concepts about
general microgrids adopted by a DC perspective.
A. The CERTS Microgrid
The Consortium for Electric Reliability Technology So-
lutions (CERTS), defines a microgrid concept specifically
designed for the integration of distributed energy resources
into the electrical system [16]. The CERTS microgrid is an
aggregation of microsources and loads operating as a single
system, each one of them based on power electronics to
provide flexibility and controlled operation. Its key features
are presented as follows.
1) Presentation to the grid: The MG appears to the utility
grid as a single controlled unit which behaves as a model
citizen of the grid. This means it can benefit the grid by
reducing congestion with energy storage systems or load
shedding. The power electronics of the MG interface to the
grid should be designed so it behaves as a constant impedance
load, a modulated load, or a dispatchable load.
2) Microsource control: Each DG or EES connected to
the MG has a controller which controls power flow, regulates
voltage at the PCC, and achieves load sharing. This controller
has a fast response to self-adapt when load changes and
must use only local voltage and current measurements to
achieve its control objectives. These requirements establish a
fully decentralized scheme of control without communication
between controllers.
3) Grid connected and islanded modes of operation:
In normal operation, the grid shares the load with the DG
present in microgrid. When an event occurs on the utility
grid, the MG disconnects itself and operates in islanded mode.
Then microsources must adapt to share de load and maintain
the power quality to the loads. A load shedding capability
should be implemented to give priority to critic loads and
suspend non-essential loads in islanded mode. There must be
implemented a transition scheme to reconnect the MG when
the utility grid is back to normal.
4) Plug and play capability: Decentralized control implies
that no central process is needed for the operation of the
microgrid. The design must consider the capability of adding
microsources or loads without changing control and protection
Fig. 4. DC-link types: (a) monopolar, (b) bipolar, (c) homopolar
units already present in the MG.

B. DC Bus IV. O PERATION AND CONTROL OF DC MICROGRIDS

There are three basic types of DC-links, as in the HVDC
transmission systems [17], adapted to LV distribution levels.
The adoption of one of them implies considerations of costs,
regulations, and practicality.
• Monopolar DC-Link: Uses one single conductor and
ground-return. It is used for its simplicity and low
cost, but with the drawback of the undesirable ground
return current (Figure 4a).
• Bipolar DC-Link: Two conductors operating at a
positive and negative polarity. The ground-return is
also used but in normal conditions the current flows
through the two conductors, thus the earth current is
null. It is the most common configuration of DC-link
(Figure 4b).
• Homopolar DC-Link: Two or more conductors oper-
ating at the same polarity. The ground-return is used
to close the circuit. The inconvenience of the ground
current is its problem, but with the advantage of less
insulation requirement (Figure 4c).
Further characteristics of these topologies can be found in
[11].
The operation of a DC microgrid consist of the coordinated
running of distributed generators, energy storage systems, and
grid connection interface to provide power to loads in the bus.
This operation implies power quality assurance, stability to
connection or disconnection of loads or microsources, and the
correct transition between modes of operation of the microgrid.
Unlike the AC system, in the DC microgrid there is no need
to control frequency or angle, which improves controllability
and reliability by reducing variables to control [18]. The main
control variable is the DC voltage in the PCC, adjusting
dynamically the set points of voltage or current to compensate
load variation. However, the DC bus voltage is not a global
variable due to the impedance of the lines, which creates
differences in voltage between the sources (DGs) and thus,
induces circular currents which need to be avoided. In addition,
the uncertain position of loads with respect to generators
makes difficult to compensate losses caused by uncertain line
impedances, and consequently ensuring the correct voltage at
the load connection point.
Coordination between ESS and grid connection interface is
crucial, since in the islanded mode of operation the weakness
of DG units can cause voltage flicker or collapse. Then, ESS
must be utilized to maintain power quality and also the control
Fig. 5. Equivalent circuit of two parallel-connected DC power supplies

scheme must ensure the proper coordination of ESS and DGs

to provide power to critical loads.
The above mentioned control strategy on a decentralized
scheme must be executed by the local controllers on each
microsource connected to the MG. There may be communi-
cations between controllers or not, but must be satisfied the
main restriction: the absence of a central unit essential to the
correct operation of the microgrid. To get a reliable and flexible
operation and plug and play capability, is convenient to avoid
a central unit, such that the microgrid can be set with any
combination of elements always ensuring a correct operation.
A. Control Strategies
1) Droop control architecture: DC droop control is an
adaptation from AC droop exposed in chapter II. It has been
developed in recent years and is highly used in decentralized
controllers to achieve load sharing and reduce the circular
current in paralleled converters.
Figure 5 shows the representative connection of two DG
units and one load. The droop control method consists on
linearly increasing the voltage reference as the output current
increases [19].
vo∗ = vref − RD ∗ io (3)
where io is the output current, vref is the ouput voltage
reference at no load, and RD is the virtual output impedance,
which is designed to limit the maximum voltage drop, such
that
∆VDCmax
RD ≤ (4)
iDCf ullload
∆VDCmax is the maximum allowed voltage drop. When the
load iDC increases, so does ∆VDC = vref − vo∗ , then the
controller must increase vref to compensate the drop over vo∗ .
Although droop control is widely used as decentralized
load sharing method, it has two inherent problems. As the
conception of load sharing is made by the assumption of negli-
gible line impedances, the real situation means a degraded load
sharing capability. Also, the method cannot control the voltage
deviation at the load due to the fact that those impedances are
uncertain [20].
Figure 6 shows voltages and currents of a circuit config-
uration as in Figure 5 with a voltage reference on each DG
of 100V and a switched load resistance of 15 Ω. From 0 to
0.5 s the load resistance is disconnected, so there is no power
Fig. 6. Currents, voltage references, and output voltages on a two DG droop
controlled DC microgrid. At 0.5 s the load increases from 0 to 666,7 W
causing voltage drop
consumption; then at 0.5 s a load of 15 Ω is connected, causing
a current through the load resistance of near 6,7 A. Then
the voltage drop occurs even when the reference correction
is performed. The reason is the line impedance not considered
in the formulation of droop control.
The efects caused by considering line impedances different
to zero, such as voltage deviation and current sharing degra-
dation are noticed and the limitations of this method become
evident since it is not capable of assuring power quality to the
load.
Several solutions have been proposed to this problem. In
[20], it is proposed a low bandwidth communication system to
share information between controllers and adjust the voltage
deviation. In [21], it is analyzed the effect of changing the
proportional compensation of droop control by a PI scheme,
showing a modest improvement in the load sharing accuracy.
Finally, a very interesting unification of droop method for
AC and DC microgrids is presented in [22], where is shown
the power flow between an AC bus and a DC bus through a
converter.
Droop control method is usually complemented with higher
levels of control to improve the results. Those conceptions are
called hierarchical and are discussed in the next section.
2) Hierarchical control architecture: In [19], it is proposed
a hierarchical scheme, in which three levels are defined:
• Level 1 comprises local microsource control of DC
bus based on droop strategy.
 • Level 2 requires a central controller, which measures
the electrical variables in the load and compares it
with the voltage reference, then send the error to all
the DG units to compensate for the voltage deviation
caused by Level 1.
• Level 3 is in charge of managing the power flow, often
considering cost of dispatch and priority on use of
DGs.
This approach is similar to the AC MG case of imple-
menting several levels of control [13]. The problem is that
centralized component is required defying the requirement for
flexibility.
3) DC bus signal control architecture: DBS is a name for
a scheme of control of using charge/discharge thresholds to
schedule individual sources in a distributed way, which induces
DC bus voltage level changes to realize the communications
between difference source/storage interface converters [23].
This control method is used to connect ESS and DGs, the
coordination is made only by the DC bus voltage variations
caused by the operation curves of the devices.
In [24], it is presented an improved method called adaptive
DBS. It considers three types of devices connected to the
DC microgrid: DC-source converter (connection to the utility
grid), ESS (a battery) and DG (PV connected by power
electronics converter). The function of control is made in the
ESS converter, which works in droop control mode between
the normal variations of DC bus voltage when the MG is
islanded. The DC-source is in charge of regulating the bus
voltage when the MG is in grid-connected mode. The DG is
always functioning as a current source in maximum power
point tracking (MPPT).
The above mentioned method is effective to achieve stabil-
ity in the interaction of the DGs, ESS, and a load. Although
it is not considered the required charging/discharging regime
of the ESS, nor another DG technology, it fulfills the decen-
tralized requirement and is suitable to make a standard for DC
microgrid commercial solutions.
V. C ONCLUSION AND OPEN RESEARCH QUESTIONS
Studies show that inclusion of distributed generation into a
DC Microgrid can improve the energy distribution efficiency.
There is the need of creating dispatching models to determine
the optimum size of the DC microgrid for a specific applica-
tion. Since the number of converters, load power consumption,
and the capacity of DG affect de global efficiency of the MG,
case studies could be run to offer the advantages of making a
change from the AC system to DC. Also, innovative protection
schemes for DC microgrids are crucial for this technology, due
to electrical difficulties such as a lower short-circuit current
capacity of the power converters and the permanent non-zero
current, which is a challenge of design of circuit breakers.
The control scheme tho achieve a fully decentralized DC
microgrid, with all the technical capabilities mentioned in
chapter III has not been fully developed. The droop method
explored by most authors try to solve the degraded voltage
regulation problem by adding higher levels of control or
establishing communication systems between the elements.
This goes against modularity and simplicity and creates some
centralization in the control task. Additionally, there has not
been studied the effect of complex topologies in which the
uncertain impedances become variable in time (e.g in the event
of a fault clearance) and how the droop control responds to
those changes.
Other schemes mentioned before, such as DBS have lack in
theoretical deepness and have not considered other elements
of distributed generation. At the same time, they have been
limited to simplistic cases of two DGs, and have not introduced
complex topologies to test the method in an scenario of more
realistic distribution microgrid.
Solving these challenges could have a great impact in
distribution technology and may produce practical results to
help solving urgent needs such as reducing waste of energy in
cities, or the problem of isolated populations with many power
outages. This could be an important contribution to smart
building and smart grid implementations in Latin America and
the rest of the globe.
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