CHAPTER SUMMARY – CHAPTER 16

What Is Motivation?

 Define motivation.
 Explain the energy, direction, and persistence aspects of motivation.

Motivation is the process by which a person’s efforts are energized, directed, and

sustained towards attaining a goal. The energy element is a measure of intensity or drive.

The effort needs to be channeled in a direction that benefits the organization. Finally,

motivation includes a persistence dimension in that employees need to persist in putting

forth effort to achieve goals.

Early Theories of Motivation

 Describe Maslow’s hierarchy of needs and how it can be used to motivate.

 Discuss how Theory X and Theory Y managers approach motivation.
 Describe Herzberg’s motivation-hygiene theory.
 Explain Herzberg’s views of satisfaction and dissatisfaction.

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs proposes that there are five need levels

(physiological, safety, social, esteem, and self-actualization) arranged in a hierarchy.

Once a need level has been generally satisfied, it no longer serves to motivate behavior.

(See Exhibit 16-1.)

According to McGregor, a Theory X manager assumes that people don’t like to

work and must be threatened, forced, and directed to work. A Theory Y manager assumes

that people like to work and exercise self-direction.

Herzberg’s motivation-hygiene (two-factor) theory proposes that the hygiene

factors (those associated with job context) keep people from being dissatisfied, but don’t

motivate. The motivators (those job factors associated with job content) are the ones that

motivate employees. (See Exhibit 16-2.)

 Herzberg viewed satisfaction and dissatisfaction as two separate concepts. (See

Exhibit 16-3.) Those factors that led to job satisfaction and job dissatisfaction were

separate and distinct.

Contemporary Theories of Motivation

 Describe the three needs McClelland proposed as being present in work settings.
 Explain how goal-setting and reinforcement theories explain employee
motivation.
 Describe the job characteristics model as a way to design motivating jobs.
 Discuss the motivation implications of equity theory.
 Contrast distributive justice and procedural justice.
 Explain the three key linkages in expectancy theory and their role in motivation.

McClelland’s three needs were the need for achievement (the drive to excel,

achieve, and succeed), the need for affiliation (the desire for friendly and close

interpersonal relationships), and the need for power (the need to make others behave in a

way they would not have behaved otherwise).

Intention to work towards a goal is a major source of job motivation. Goal-setting

theory says that specific goals increase performance and that difficult goals, when

accepted, result in higher performance than do easy goals. (See Exhibit 16-5.)

Reinforcement theory says that behavior is a function of its consequences. Behavior that

is reinforced is likely to be repeated.

The Job Characteristics Model (JCM) describes jobs in terms of five core job

dimensions: skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy, and feedback. When

these dimensions are designed into a job, positive personal and work outcomes will

result. (See Exhibits 16-6 and 16-7.)

Equity theory proposes that employees compare their outcomes/inputs ratio to

others to see if there is equity. (See Exhibit 16-8.) If they perceive that inequity exists,
they will do something about it. In addition, employee motivation is influenced

significantly by relative rewards and absolute rewards.

Distributive justice is the perceived fairness of the amount and allocation of

rewards among individuals. Procedural justice is the perceived fairness of the process

used to determine the distribution of rewards.

Expectancy theory proposes that individual effort leads to individual performance

which leads to organizational rewards which influence individual goals. (See Exhibit 16-

9.) The theory proposes that an individual tends to act in a certain way based on the

expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcome and on the attractiveness of

that outcome. The three key linkages are effort-performance (expectancy or the

probability that a given amount of effort will lead to a certain level of performance);

performance-reward (instrumentality or the degree to which the individual believes

performing at that level is instrumental in attaining the desired outcome); and reward-

goal (valence or attractiveness of the reward or how important that reward is to the

person).

Current Issues in Motivation

 Describe the cross-cultural challenges of motivation.

 Discuss the challenges managers face in motivating unique groups of workers.
 Describe open-book management, employee recognition, pay-for-performance,
and stock option programs.

The cross-cultural challenges of motivation have to do with whether the

motivation theories are appropriate for that culture.

Employees differ in their motivational requirements. Managers must deal with

groups such as: a diverse workforce (the key is flexibility); professionals (the key is

offering challenges and support); contingent workers (the key is opportunities for full-
time work or education/training); and low-skilled, minimum wage workers (the key is

using employee recognition programs).

Open-book management is sharing financial information (opening up “the

books”) so employees can see how their work affects the financials. Employee

recognition programs are motivational programs consisting of personal attention and

expressing appreciation for a job well done. Pay-for-performance programs are variable

compensation plans that pay employees on the basis of some performance measure. Stock

options are financial instruments that give employees the right to purchase shares of stock

at a set price.