TUGAS PENCEGAHAN PENCEMARAN

Disusun Oleh :

Adha Widoni (1407113105)

Al Ikhwal (

Mahriandhanie Chika Al-Fitri (

Mazlani (1507110867)

Nia Adharianti (1507123682)

Nurwulandari Aputri (1507111741)

PROGRAM STUDI TEKNIK KIMIA

FAKULTAS TEKNIK UNIVERSITAS RIAU

PEKANBARU

2017
 PROBLEM 1
1. Write a review of india environmental legislation directly related to chemical
proces industries ( use other refrence also)

Answer

Water
Water quality standards especially those for drinking water are set by the Indian
Council of Medical Research. These bear close resemblance to WHO standards. The
discharge of industrial effluents is regulated by the Indian Standard Codes and recently, water
quality standards for coastal water marine outfalls have also been specified. In addition to the
general standards, certain specific standards have been developed for effluent discharges
from industries such as, iron and steel, aluminium, pulp and paper, oil refineries,
petrochemicals and thermal power plants. Legislation to control water pollution are listed
below.

 Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974

This Act represented India�s first attempts to comprehensively deal with

environmental issues. The Act prohibits the discharge of pollutants into water bodies beyond
a given standard, and lays down penalties for non-compliance. The Act was amended in 1988
to conform closely to the provisions of the EPA, 1986. It set up the CPCB (Central Pollution
Control Board) which lays down standards for the prevention and control of water pollution.
At the State level, the SPCBs (State Pollution Control Board) function under the direction of
the CPCB and the state government

 Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess Act, 1977

This Act provides for a levy and collection of a cess on water consumed by industries
and local authorities. It aims at augmenting the resources of the central and state boards for
prevention and control of water pollution. Following this Act, The Water (Prevention and
Control of Pollution) Cess Rules were formulated in 1978 for defining standards and
indications for the kind of and location of meters that every consumer of water is required to
install.

Air

 Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981

 To counter the problems associated with air pollution, ambient air quality standards
were established, under the 1981 Act. The Act provides means for the control and abatement
of air pollution. The Act seeks to combat air pollution by prohibiting the use of polluting
fuels and substances, as well as by regulating appliances that give rise to air pollution. Under
the Act establishing or operating of any industrial plant in the pollution control area requires
consent from state boards. The boards are also expected to test the air in air pollution control
areas, inspect pollution control equipment, and manufacturing processes.

National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) for major pollutants were notified
by the CPCB in April 1994. These are deemed to be levels of air quality necessary with an
adequate margin of safety, to protect public health, vegetation and property (CPCB 1995
cited in Gupta, 1999). The NAAQS prescribe specific standards for industrial, residential,
rural and other sensitive areas. Industry-specific emission standards have also been developed
for iron and steel plants, cement plants, fertilizer plants, oil refineries and the aluminium
industry. The ambient quality standards prescribed in India are similar to those prevailing in
many developed and developing countries.

To empower the central and state pollution boards to meet grave emergencies, the Air
(Prevention and Control of Pollution) Amendment Act, 1987, was enacted. The boards were
authorized to take immediate measures to tackle such emergencies and recover the expenses
incurred from the offenders. The power to cancel consent for non-fulfilment of the conditions
prescribed has also been emphasized in the Air Act Amendment. The Air (Prevention and
Control of Pollution) Rules formulated in 1982, defined the procedures for conducting
meetings of the boards, the powers of the presiding officers, decision-making, the quorum;
manner in which the records of the meeting were to be set etc. They also prescribed the
manner and the purpose of seeking assistance from specialists and the fee to be paid to them.

Complementing the above Acts is the Atomic Energy Act of 1982, which was
introduced to deal with radioactive waste. In 1988, the Motor Vehicles Act, was enacted to
regulate vehicular traffic, besides ensuring proper packaging, labelling and transportation of
the hazardous wastes. Various aspects of vehicular pollution have also been notified under
the EPA of 1986. Mass emission standards were notified in 1990, which were made more
stringent in 1996. In 2000 these standards were revised yet again and for the first time
separate obligations for vehicle owners, manufacturers and enforcing agencies were
stipulated. In addition, fairly stringent Euro I and II emission norms were notified by the
Supreme Court on April 29, 1999 for the city of Delhi. The notification made it mandatory
for car manufacturers to conform to the Euro I and Euro II norms by May 1999 and April
2000, respectively, for new non-commercial vehicle sold in Delhi.

Forests and wildlife

 The Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972, Amendment 1991

The WPA (Wildlife Protection Act), 1972, provides for protection to listed species of
flora and fauna and establishes a network of ecologically-important protected areas. The
WPA empowers the central and state governments to declare any area a wildlife sanctuary,
national park or closed area. There is a blanket ban on carrying out any industrial activity
inside these protected areas. It provides for authorities to administer and implement the Act;
regulate the hunting of wild animals; protect specified plants, sanctuaries, national parks and
closed areas; restrict trade or commerce in wild animals or animal articles; and miscellaneous
matters. The Act prohibits hunting of animals except with permission of authorized officer
when an animal has become dangerous to human life or property or so disabled or diseased as
to be beyond recovery (WWF-India, 1999). The near-total prohibition on hunting was made
more effective by the Amendment Act of 1991.

 The Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980

This Act was adopted to protect and conserve forests. The Act restricts the powers of
the state in respect of de-reservation of forests and use of forestland for non-forest purposes
(the term non-forest purpose includes clearing any forestland for cultivation of cash crops,
plantation crops, horticulture or any purpose other than re-afforestation).

General

 Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 (EPA)

This Act is an umbrella legislation designed to provide a framework for the co-
ordination of central and state authorities established under the Water (Prevention and
Control) Act, 1974 and Air (Prevention and Control) Act, 1981. Under this Act, the central
government is empowered to take measures necessary to protect and improve the quality of
the environment by setting standards for emissions and discharges; regulating the location of
industries; management of hazardous wastes, and protection of public health and welfare.
From time to time the central government issues notifications under the EPA for the
protection of ecologically-sensitive areas or issues guidelines for matters under the EPA.

Some notifications issued under this Act are:

Doon Valley Notification (1989), which prohibits the setting up of an industry in which
the daily consumption of coal/fuel is more than 24 MT (million tonnes) per day in the Doon
Valley.

Coastal Regulation Zone Notification (1991), which regulates activities along coastal
stretches. As per this notification, dumping ash or any other waste in the CRZ is prohibited.
The thermal power plants (only foreshore facilities for transport of raw materials, facilities
for intake of cooling water and outfall for discharge of treated waste water/cooling water)
require clearance from the MoEF.

Dhanu Taluka Notification (1991), under which the district of Dhanu Taluka has been
declared an ecologically fragile region and setting up power plants in its vicinity is
prohibited.

Revdanda Creek Notification (1989), which prohibits setting up industries in the belt around
the Revdanda Creek as per the rules laid down in the notification.

The Environmental Impact Assessment of Development Projects Notification, (1994 and as

amended in 1997). As per this notification:

All projects listed under Schedule I require environmental clearance from the MoEF.

Projects under the delicenced category of the New Industrial Policy also require clearance
from the MoEF.

All developmental projects whether or not under the Schedule I, if located in fragile regions
must obtain MoEF clearance.

Industrial projects with investments above Rs 500 million must obtain MoEF clearance and
are further required to obtain a LOI (Letter Of Intent) from the Ministry of Industry, and an
NOC (No Objection Certificate) from the SPCB and the State Forest Department if the
location involves forestland. Once the NOC is obtained, the LOI is converted into an
industrial licence by the state authority.
The notification also stipulated procedural requirements for the establishment and operation
of new power plants. As per this notification, two-stage clearance for site-specific projects
such as pithead thermal power plants and valley projects is required. Site clearance is given in
the first stage and final environmental clearance in the second. A public hearing has been
made mandatory for projects covered by this notification. This is an important step in
providing transparency and a greater role to local communities.

Ash Content Notification (1997), required the use of beneficiated coal with ash content not
exceeding 34% with effect from June 2001, (the date later was extended to June 2002). This
applies to all thermal plants located beyond one thousand kilometres from the pithead and
any thermal plant located in an urban area or, sensitive area irrespective of the distance from
the pithead except any pithead power plant.

Taj Trapezium Notification (1998), provided that no power plant could be set up within the
geographical limit of the Taj Trapezium assigned by the Taj Trapezium Zone Pollution
(Prevention and Control) Authority.

Disposal of Fly Ash Notification (1999) the main objective of which is to conserve the
topsoil, protect the environment and prevent the dumping and disposal of fly ash discharged
from lignite-based power plants. The salient feature of this notification is that no person
within a radius of 50 km from a coal-or lignite-based power plant shall manufacture clay
bricks or tiles without mixing at least 25% of ash with soil on a weight-to-weight basis. For
the thermal power plants the utilisation of the flyash would be as follows:

Every coal-or lignite-based power plant shall make available ash for at least ten years from
the date of publication of the above notification without any payment or any other
consideration, for the purpose of manufacturing ash-based products such as cement, concrete
blocks, bricks, panels or any other material or for construction of roads, embankments, dams,
dykes or for any other construction activity.

Every coal or lignite based thermal power plant commissioned subject to environmental
clearance conditions stipulating the submission of an action plan for full utilisation of fly ash
shall, within a period of nine years from the publication of this notification, phase out the
dumping and disposal of fly ash on land in accordance with the plan.
2. Write various standards which have to me met for discharge of various types of
pollutants from Pulp and Paper industry.

answer

lp and paper mills contribute to air, waterand land pollution and discarded paper and
paperboard make up roughly 26% of solid municipal solid waste in landfill sites.

Pulp and paper generates the third largest amount of industrial air, water, and land emissions
in Canada and the sixth largest in the United States.[ In 2015, the industry released 174,000
tonnes of emissions to air, water and land (or 5.3%) out of a total of 3.3 million tonnes of
emissions released by all industries in Canada.In the United States the pulp and paper
industry released about 79, 000 tonnes or about 5% of all industrial pollutant releases in
2015 Of this total waste released by the pulp and paper industry in the U.S., 66% was
released into the air, 10% into water and 24% onto land whereas in Canada, most of the waste
(96%) was released into the air.

Worldwide, the pulp and paper industry is the fifth largest consumer of energy, accounting
for four percent of all the world's energy use. However, the entire paper and printing sector
contributes less than 1% to the global greenhouse gas inventory due to the very high use of
renewable energy, mostly biomass[

The pulp and paper industry uses more water to produce a ton of product than any other
industry.

The de-inking process during paper recycling is also a source of emissions due to chemicals
released in the effluent. The European Recovered Paper Council has developed the
‘deinkability scorecard’ so that the printed paper products which have the best recyclability
when they are deinked can be identified.

Worldwide consumption of paper has risen by 400% in the past 40 years, with 35% of
harvested trees being used for paper manufacture. Plantation forests, from where the majority
of wood for pulping is obtained, is generally a monoculture and this raises concerns over
the ecoloil effects of the practice although the number of trees has risen by 297%.
3. Write various standards which have to me met for discharge of various types of
pollutants from a thermal power plant of 440 MW.

Answer

Carbon Dioxide (CO2)

CO2 was thought of as a product of combustion and not as a pollutant. Kyoto protocol,
effects of Green House gases and global warming issues have changed the way we look at
CO2. CO2 has turned to be the major greenhouse gas. A fossil fuel power plant is the major
contributor of CO2.

One MJ of heat input produces 0.1 kg of CO2. The only way to eliminate CO2 is to capture it
before leaving to atmosphere. After capturing it has to be stored permanently or sequestered.
Commercially viable capture and sequestration systems are yet to be in place.

Sulphur Dioxide (SO2)

This is a product of Combustion and depends on the amount of Sulfur in Coal.This is also
referred to as SOx.

Sulphur in Coal ranges for 0.1 % to 3.5% depending on type and rank. During combustion
Sulfur combines with Oxygen to form SO2.

Power plants are the largest emitters of SO2. In the presence of other gases SO2 forms
Sulphuric acid and can precipitate down as acid rain leading to destruction of eco systems.

Ash

Ash is the residue after the combustion. A 500 MW coal fired power plant burning Coal with
around 20 % Ash, collects ash to the tune of Two Million Tons in Five years. Cement plants
may utilize a small portion of the ash. Disposing bulk of it on a long term basis can raise
major environmental issues.

Ash contains toxic elements that can percolate into the drinking water system.

The wind, breach of dykes or ash spills can carry away the ash particles to surrounding areas
causing harm to humans and vegetation.
Use of low Sulfur coals is the best ways to reduce the SO2 emissions. Desulphurisation plants
downstream of the boilers also reduce emissions. Fluidized bed combustion of coal is another
effective method to reduce SO2emissions..

Particulate Matter

Power plants have elaborate arrangements to collect the ash. A small quantity still goes out
through the stack and is categorized as Particulate Matter emission.

The very tall stacks in power plants disperse this ash over a very wide area reducing the
concentration levels to human acceptable levels at ground levels.

The particles of size less than 2.5 microns called PM 2.5 is of great concern since these are
responsible for respiratory illness in humans.

Nitrogen Oxides (NOx)

Nitrogen in fuel and in the air reacts with Oxygen at high temperatures to form various oxides
of Nitrogen collectively called NOX. Fossil fuel power plants are the second largest emitter
of NOX.

This is a hazardous pollutant creating visual and respiratory problems. Also NOX combines
with water to form acid rain, smog, and ground ozone.

Design changes in combustion technology have helped in reducing the NOX emissions.
Methods like Selective Catalytic Reactors are used in power plants to meet the emission
regulations.

4. Which are the major polluting chemical process industries? Write their major
environmental concerns and affect on the regional and global climate changes.
Answer :
Major polluting industrial sectors :
1. Cement 7. Distilleries
2. Thermal power plants 8. Pulp & Paper
3. Fertilizer 9. Tanneries
4. Copper Smelters 10. Zinc Smelters
5. Aluminium 11. Pesticides
6. Oil Refineries 12. Petro Chemicals
 13. Petroleum Refining 16. Dyes and Dye Intermediates
14. Iron & Steel 17. Basic Drugs
15. Sugar
Dampak industri proses kimia terhadap lingkungan global dan sekitar :
a. Pembangkit listrik bahan bakar fosil : Bahaya dari industri ini adalah pilihan
untuk memenuhi pasokan listrik tersebut berasal dari pembangkit listrik tenaga batu
bara. Pembakaran batu bara akan melepaskan sejumlah besar karbondioksida ke
atmosfer. Hasilnya, semakin banyak emisi karbondioksida mencemari lingkungan
hidup dan merusak ekosistem.
b. Gas metana : Metana adalah gas rumah kaca yang sangat kuat, peringkat dua, tepat
di belakang pencemaran lingkungan yang dihasilkan oleh emisi CO2.
c. Pupuk kimia : Penggunaan pupuk berlebih akan menciptakan zona kematian di
lautan. Residu dan racun pupuk yang digunakan untuk meningkatkan hasil pertanian
akan dibawa oleh parit, sungai, dan bermuara ke laut. Akhirnya laut semakin
tercemar. Selain efek ini, tingkat nitrit yang tinggi dalam air tanah karena
pemupukan berlebih akan menurunkan kesehatan manusia.

5. Write full forms of

Answer :
a. CPCB : Central Pollution Control Board
b. MoEF : Ministry of Environment and Forests
c. BIS : Business Inovation and Skill
d. EIA : Environmental Impact Assessment
e. BOD : Biochemical Oxygen Demand
f. COD : Chemical Oxygen Demand
g. TKN : Total Kjeldahl Nitrogen
h. TDS : Total Bissolved Solid
i. VOC : Volatile Organic Compound
j. TOC : Total Organic Carbon
k. TOCl : Total Organic Chlorine
l. PAN : Peroxy Acetyl Nitrate
m. HPLC : High Performance Liquid Chromatography
n. AAS : Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer
o. AES : Atomic Emission Spectrophotometer
 p. ICP : Inductively Coupled
q. NDIR : Non Dispersive Infrared
r. TOEM : Tapered Oscillating Element MicroBalance
s. XRF : X-Ray Fluoroscence
t. ppm : part per million
u. ppt : part per thousand
v. JTU : Jackson Camble Turbidity Unit
w. NTU : Nethelo Metric Turbidity Unit
x. TON : Threshold Other Number
y. MPN : Most Probable Number
z. PAH : Polynuclear Aromatic Hidrocarbon
aa. MINAS : Minimal Nasional Standard for Poluting Industries
bb. NAAQS : National Ambient Air Quality Standard

6. Write short notes on the following :

Answer :
a. Environmental ethics
Environmental ethics is related to attitude of people towards other living beings and
environment.
b. EIA
 Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) has now been made a prerequisite for
the settling up of new projects and renewal of licenses of old and existing plants.
 EIA is a major instrument in decision making and for measurement of
sustainability in the context of the regional carrying capacity. It provides the
conceptual framework for extending the cumulative assessment of development
policies, plans and projects on a regional basis.
c. BOD
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) is a chemical procedure for determining how
fast biological organisms use up oxygen in a body of water.
d. COD
COD is a measure of the oxygen equivalent of the organic matter content of a
sample that is susceptible to oxidation by a strong chemical oxidant.
e. Water quality monitoring
 It is essential for devising water quality management programme to properly use
water in any project. It gives information for following decisions to be taken :
 Helps in identifying the present and future problems of water pollution.
 Identifying the present resources of water as per various usages.
 It helps in developing plans and setting priorities for water quality management
programme so as to meet future water requirements.
 It helps in evaluating the effectiveness of present management actions being
taken and devising future course of actions.
f. TON
The intensities of the odors are measured in terms of threshold odor number (TON).
TON indicates how many dilutions it takes to produce odor-free water. In this
method, enough odor-free water.
g. Alkalinity, its types and significance
Alkalinity is a measure of the ability of a solution to neutralize acids to the
equivalence point of carbonate or bicarbonate. It is the water’s ability to absorb
hydrogen ions without significant pH change. Alkalinity is a measure of the
buffering capacity of water. Alkalinity is equal to the stoichiometric sum of the
bases in solution.
h. Fecal indicator bacteria
Fecal indicator bacteria, which are directly associated with fecal contamination, are
used to detect the possible presence of waterborne pathogens by assessing the
microbiological quality of water. Fecal material from warm-blooded animals may
contain a variety of intestinal microorganisms (viruses, bacteria, and protozoa) that
are pathogenic to humans.
i. MPN
MPN (Most Probable Number) is the number which represents the bacterial density
which is most likely to be present.
j. Primary water quality criterion
 Dissolved oxygen : Usually decreases as discharge increases. Used as a water
quality indicator in most water quality models.
 Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) : A measure of oxygen-reducing potential
for waterborne discharges. Used in most water quality models.
  Temperature : Often increased by discharges, especially from electric power
plants. Relatively easy to model.
 Ammonia nitrogen : Reduces dissolved oxygen concentrations and adds nitrate to
water. Can be predicted by most water quality models.
 Algal concentration : Increases with pollution, especially nitrates and phosphates.
 Coliform bacteria : Predicted by moderately complex models. An indicator of
contamination from sewage and animal waste.
 Nitrates : A nutrient for algal growth and a health hazard at very high
concentrations in drinking water. Predicated by moderately complex models.
 Phosphates : Nutrient for algal growth. Predicated by moderately complex
models.
 Toxic organic compounds : A wide variety of organic (carbon-based) compounds
can affect aquatic life and may be directly hazardous to humans. Usually very
difficult to model.
 Heavy metals : Substances containing lead, mercury, cadmium, and other metals
can cause both ecological and human health problems. Difficult to in detail.

7. Write in short importance of various physical constituents in wastewaters.

Answer:
a. Suspended solids : Lead to sludge deposits and development of anaerobic conditions
b. Biodegradable organics : Depletion of natural oxygen and to the development of
septic condition; Composed principally of proteins, carbohydrates, fats,
biodegradable organics, etc.; Measured in terms of biochemical oxygen demand
(BOD) and chemical oxygen demand (COD).
c. Pathogens : Communicable diseases
d. Nutrients : Nitrogen and phosphorus are principal limiting nutrients for growth;
Cause eutrophication in lakes & ponds.
e. Heavy metals : Added wastewater from commercial and industrial activities; Many
of the metals are highly toxic at small concentration also.
f. Priority pollutants : Organic and inorganic compounds having known or suspected
carcinogenicity, mutagenicity, teratogenicity and/or high acute toxicity.
g. Refractory organics : Organic compounds like surfactants, phenols and agricultural
pesticides, etc. resist conventional method of wastewater treatment.
 h. Dissolved inorganics : Inorganic constituents such as calcium, sodium and sulphates
are added to the original domestic water supply as a result of water use and may
have to be removed if the wastewater is to be reused.

8. Differentiate between the followings:

a. Apparent and true color
b. BOD, COD, TOC
c. Total, dissolved, and suspended solids
d. SPM, RSPM, PM10 and PM2.5
Answer:
a. Apparent and true color
Apparent color is the color of the whole water sample and consists of color from
both dissolved and suspended components. True color is measured after filtering the
water sample to remove all suspended material.
b. BOD or biochemical oxygen demand is a chemical procedure for determining how
fast biological organisms use up oxygen in a body of water, it is used in water
quality management and assessment, ecology and environmental science. COD or
chemical oxygen demand is a measure of the oxygen equivalent of the organic
matter content of a sample that is susceptible to oxidation by a strong chemical
oxidant, that is an indirect method to measure the amount of organic compounds in
water. TOC or total organic carbon is the measure of the level of organic molecules
or contaminants in purified water. TOC is an analytic technique that helps
organizations understand whether the water they are using is pure enough for their
processes.
c. Total, dissolved, and suspended solids
Amount of total solids in a water sample can be determined by evaporating the water
and weighing the residue. Amount of suspended solids is determined by filtering the
sample of water through filter paper, followed by drying the filter paper and
weighing the solids. The quantity of dissolved solids including the colloidal solids is
determined evaporating the filtered water (obtained from the suspended solid test)
and weighing the residue.
d. SPM, RSPM, PM10 and PM2.5
SPM or suspended particulate matter are finely divided solids or liquids that may be
dispersed through the air from combustion processes, industrial activities or natural
 sources.. RSPM or respirable suspended particulate matter are particulate matters
with aerodynamic diameter less than or equal to 10 micrometers, thus also named as
PM10. They are produced from combustion processes, vehicles and industrial
sources. PM10 is defined as the fraction of particles with an aerodynamic diameter
smaller than respectively 10 micrometer. PM2.5 is defined as the fraction of
particles with an aerodynamic diameter smaller than respectively 2.5 micrometer

9. Write in brief about various water quality parameters need to be determined to

assess the quality of water.
Answer:
a. Dissolved oxygen : Usually decreases as discharge increases. Used as a water
quality indicator in most water quality models.
b. Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD): A measure of oxygen-reducing potential for
waterborne discharges. Used in most water quality models.
c. Temperature : Often increased by discharges, especially from electric power plants.
Relatively easy to model.
d. Ammonia nitrogen : Reduces dissolved oxygen concentrations and adds nitrate to
water. Can be predicted by most water quality models.
e. Algal concentration : Increases with pollution, especially nitrates and phosphates.
Predicted by moderately complex models.
f. Coliform bacteria : An indicator of contamination from sewage and animal waste
g. Nitrates : A nutrient for algal growth and a health hazard at very high concentrations
in drinking water. Predicted by moderately complex models.
h. Phosphates : Nutrient for algal growth. Predicted by moderately complex models.
i. Toxic organic compounds : A wide variety of organic (carbon-based) compounds
can affect aquatic life and may be directly hazardous to humans. Usually very
difficult to model.
j. Heavy metals : Substances containing lead, mercury, cadmium, and other metals can
cause both ecological and human health problems. Difficult to model in detail.

10. What is air pollution? What are the various sources of air pollution? Classify
various types of air pollutants.
Answer:
a. Air pollution
 Both natural and/or anthropogenic activities introduce air pollutants which can be
solid (large or sub-molecular), liquid or gas into the atmosphere that pose problem to
human health and other life forms on earth.
b. Classification of Air Pollutants
Natural contaminants: Natural fog, pollen grain, bacteria, volcanic eruption, wind
blown dust, lightning generated fires. Particulate (aerosols): Dust, smoke, fog, mists,
fume. Gases and odor: SOx, NOx, CO, CO2, halogen compounds, hydrocarbons,
radioactive compounds.

11. Write about particulate matter and their types, sources and effect on environment

Answer:
a. Pengertian partikulat
Partikulat adalah partikel pencemar yang dapat meliputi berbagai macam bentuk,
dari bentuk yang sederhana sampai dengan bentuk yang rumit/kompleks yang
semuanya merupakan bentuk pencemaran udara. Sifat kimia masing-masing
partikulat berbeda-beda, akan tetapi secara fisik ukuran partikulat berkisar antara
0,0002 – 500 mikron.
b. Sumber partikulat
Berbagai proses alami mengakibatkan penyebaran partikulat di atmosfer, misalnya
letusan vulkano dan hembusan debu serta tanah oleh angin. Aktivitas manusia juga
berperan dalampenyebaran partikulat, misalnya dalam bentuk partikulat-partikulat
debu dan asbes dari bahan bangunan, abu terbang dari proses peleburan baja, dan
asap dari proses pembakaran tidak sempurna, terutama dari batu arang. Sumber
partikulat yang utama adalah dari bakaran bahan bakar kendaraan dan diikuti oleh
proses-proses industri.
c. Dampak partikulat terhadap kesehatan dan lingkungan
Partikulat-partikulat yang masuk dan tertinggal di dalam paru-paru mungkin
berbahaya bagi kesehatan karena tiga hal penting, yaitu :
 Partikulat tersebut mungkin beracun karena sifat-sifat kimia dan fisiknya.
 Partikulat tersebut mungkin bersifat inert (tidak bereaksi) tetapi jika tertinggal di
dalam saluran pernafasan dapat mengganggu pembersihan bahan-bahan lain yang
berbahaya.
  Partikulat-partikulat tersebut mungkin dapat membawa molekul-molekul gas
yang berbahaya, baik dengan cara mengabsorbsi atau mengabsorpsi, sehingga
molekul-molekul gas tersebut dapat mencapai dantertinggal di bagian paru-paru
yang sensitif. Karbon merupakan partikulat yang umum dengan kemampuan yang
baik untuk mengabsorbsi molekul-molekul gas pada permukaannya.
Partikulat di dalam atmosfer dapat mempengaruhi pembentukan awan, hujan dan
salju dengan cara berfungsi sebagai inti dimana air dapat mengalami kondensasi.
Selain itu penurunan jumlah radiasi solar yang mencapai permukaan bumi karena
adanya partikulat dapat mengganggu keseimbangan panas pada atmosfer bumi.
Suhu atmosfer bumi ternyata menurun sedikit sejak tahun 1940, meskipun pada
beberapa abad terakhir ini terjadi kenaikan kandungan CO2 di atmosfer yang
seharusnya mengakibatkan kenaikan suhu atmosfer. Peningkatan refleksi radiasi
solar oleh partikulat mungkin berperan dalam penurunan suhu atmosfer tersebut.

12. Write about gaseous air pollutants, their properties and significance
Answer:

Nama Formula Properties of importance Significance of air

pollutant
Sulfur dioxide SO2 Colorless gas, intense acrid Demage to vegetation,
odor, forms H2SO3 in water building materials,
respiratory system
Sulfur trioxide SO3 Soluble in water to form Highly corosive
H2SO4
Hydrogen sulfide H2S Rotten egg odor at low Extremely toxic
concentrations, odorless at
high concentrations
Nitrous oxide N2O Colorless; used as aerosol Relatively inert; not a
carrier gas combustion product
Nitric oxide NO Colorless; sometimes used Produced during
as anaesthetic combustion and high-
temperature oxidation;
oxidizes in air to NO2
Nitrogen dioxide NO2 Brown or orange gas Component of
photochemical smog
formation; toxic at high
concentration
Carbon CO Colorless and odorless Product of incomplete
Monoxide combustion;
 toxic at high concentration

Carbon dioxide CO2 Colorless and odorless Product of complete

combustion of
organic compounds;
implicated in
global climate change
Ozone O3 Very reactive Damage to vegetation and
materials; produced in
photochemical smog
hydrocarbons CxHy Many different Emitted from automobile
compounds crankcase and exhaust
Hydrogen HF Colorless, acrid, very Product of aluminum
fluoride reactive smelting; causes reactive
fluorosis in cattle; toxic

13. Fugitive emissions and their sources. What are the various methods for measuring
and controlling fugitive emissions?
Answer:
 Mengukur Fugitive Emissions
 Portable gas detector
 Catalytic bead
 Non-dispersive infrared
 Photo-ionization detectors
 Combustion analyzers
 Standard GC with flame ionization detector is most commonly used
 Average emission factor approach
 Screening ranges approach
 EPA correlation approach
 Unit-specific correlation approach
 Mengontrol Fugitive Emissions
 Modifying or replacing existing equipment
  Implementing a leak detection and repair (LDAR) program

14. Write about water use minimization in and out-side process industries. Write
about methods for minimizing boiler water.
Answer:
 Minimasi pemakain air
 Air adalah sumber penting bagi banyak kegiatan ekonomi. Bahkan beberapa
kegiatan tidak bisa dilanjutkan tanpa air.
 Penggunaan air harus diminimalkan tidak hanya pada kegiatan ekonomi yang
lebih besar tetapi juga dalam kehidupan sehari-hari sehingga aktivitas ini bisa
berlangsung lama dan air tetap tersedia untuk generasi mendatang.
 Pengelolaan air memerlukakan penggabungan tujuan produksi, dampak
lingkungan, dan pengaruh ekonomi.
 Minimasi penggunaan air melibatkan evaluasi menyeluruh terhadap proses yang
ada, perbaikan penggunaan air, perubahan operasional, perbaikan desain tingkat
tanaman, dan lain-lain.
 Minimasi air boiler
Boiler memasok uap untuk pemanasan proses, pemanas ruangan, pembangkit listrik,
dan lain-lain. Boiler membutuhkan air makeup yang berfungsi: dan menghasilkan air
limbah seperti blow down. Minimalisasi air boiler bisa dilakukan dengan:
 High Purity Water Makeup: peralatan pretreatment seperti reverse osmosis dan
demineralisai memungkinkan boiler masuk ke pada tahap siklus konsentrasi yang
lebih tinggi. Hal ini menghasilkan air makeup yang lebih rendah dan tingkat blow
down yang lebih rendah dan kurang konsumsi energi.
 Increase Condensate Return: semakin banyak kondensat yang bisa dikembalikan
ke boiler, semakin tinggi jumlah siklus dan kurangnya blow down,makeup, dan
energi panas yang akan dibutuhkan.
 Eliminate Condensate Contamination: mungkin alasan kondensat tidak
dikembalikan adalah kontaminasi kondensat. Hindari Kontaminasi kondensat,
konduktivitasnya akan lebih tinggi. Semakin tinggi kadar air dalam boiler,
semakin rendah makeup dan tingkat blow down dan konsumsi energi.
 Water chemistry; selalu merupakan praktek yang baik untuk memeriksa kembali
water chemistry boiler. Jika kualitas air umpan berubah, ini berdamapk langsung
 pada jumlah siklus yang bisa dijalankan boiler. Dampaknya bisa positif atau
negatif, tapi harus diperiksa.
 Blow Down Controller: banyak boiler memiliki blow down manual untuk
mengendalikan konduktivitas blow down manual, ada kalanya konduktivitas
berada dibawah rentang kontrol dan waktu di atas rentnag kontro. Secara otomatis
mengendalikan blow down pada boiler memastikan boiler berjalan dalam batas
konduktivitas yang ditetapkan. Hal ini menghasilkan penghematan air jika boiler
biasanya di bawah kualitas uap yang diawetkan atau diperbaiki jika biasanya
lebih dari siklus.

15. Explain in detail water recycling and its quality. Write different motivational
factors, benefits and uses of recycled water.
Answer:
 Daur Ulang Air
 Daur ulang air menggunakan kembali air limbah yang diolah untuk
tujuanbermanfaat seperti irigasi pertanian dan lanscape, proses industri,
pembilasan toilet, dan penambahan cekungan air tanah(disebut air tanah).
 Misalnya, ketika fasilitas indutri mendaur ulang air yang digunakan untuk proses
pendinginan. Jenis air yang umum digunakan adalah air yang telah direklamasi
dari air limbah kota, atau limbah. Istilah daur ulang air sama dengan reklamasi air
dan penggunaan kembali air.
 Daur ulang ini menawarkan penghematan sumber daya dan finansial.
 Air daur ulang untuk irigasi lanscape membutuhkan sedikit perawatan daripada
air daur ulang untuk air minum.
 Gray water atau grey water adalah air limbah yang dapat digunakan dari wastafel
kamae mandi, komersial dan industri, bak mandi pancuran, peralatan cuci pakaian
yang mengering. Gray water digunakan kembali ditempat biasanya untuk irigasi
lanscap. Penggunaan sabun yang tidak beracun dan sodium rendah (tidak
mengandung natrium atau zat yang mengandung natrium tinggi) dan produk
perawatan pribadi diperlukan untuk melindungi vegetasi saat menggunakan
kembali gray water untuk irigasi.
 Faktor-faktor motivasi untuk daur ulang air
 Kesempatan untuk menambah sumber air primer terbatas.
  Pencegahan pengalihan air secara berlebihan dari penggunaan alternatif, termasuk
lingkungan alam, kemungkinan untuk mengola sumber air in-situ.
 Minimisasi biaya infrastruktu, termasuk biaya perawatan dan pelepasan total.
 Pemgurangan dan penghapusan pembuangan air limbah (dipeerlukan atau tidak
dirawat) ke lingkungan penerima.
 Ruang lingkup untuk mengendalikan kendala politik, masyarakat dan
kelembagaan.
 Manfaat lingkungan dari daur ulang air: selain menyediakan air yang terkendali
secara lokal, daur ulang air memberikan manfaat lingkungan yang luar biasa.
Dengan menyediakan sumber air tambahan, daur ulang air dapat, membantu kita
menemukan cara untuk mengurangi pengalihan air dari ekosistem yang sensitif.
Manfaat lainnya termasuk mengurangi debit air limbah dan mengurangi dan
mencegah polusi. Air daur ulang juga dapat digunakan untuk membuat atau
meningkatkan lahan basah dan habitat riparian.
 Air daur ulang dilokasi atau di dekatnya mengurangi energi yang dibutuhkan
untuk memindahkan jarak air lebih jauh dari atau memompa air dari jauh kedalam
akuifer. Membuat kualitas air ke penggunaan air tertentu juga mngurangi energi
yang di butuhkan untuk merawat air.
 Kegunaan dari Daur Ulang Air
 Pertanian
 Lanscape
 Taman umum
 Irigasi lapangan golf
 Air pendingin untuk pembangkit listrik dan kilang minyak
 Pengolahan air untuk pabrik, tanaman
 Pembersih toilet
 Kontrol debu
 Kegiatan konstruksi
 Beton miring danau buatan.
16. The BOD5 of a wastewater is determined to be 150 mg/l at 20°C. The k value at
20°C is known to be 0.23 /day. What would be BOD8 value if tests were run at
15°C
Answer:
Dik : kT = k20 = 0,23/hari
BODt, T = BOD5, 20°C = 150 mg/l
θ = 1,047
Dit : BOD8, 15°C = ?
Penyelesaian:
Diasumsi BOD = y
 yt, T = yu (1-exp(-kTt))
 yu = yt, T / (1-exp(-kTt))
 kT = k20 (θ)(T-20)

a. yu = y5, 20 / (1 - exp(-k20 . 5)
= 150 / (1 – exp(-0,23 . 5)
= 220 mg/l Jadi, BODu = 220 mg/l
b. kT = k20 (θ)(T-20)
k15 = 0,23 ( 1,047) 15-20 = 0,18/hari
c. yt, T = yu (1-exp(-kTt))
y8, 15 = 220 (1 – exp(-0,18 . 8))
= 168 mg/l Jadi didapatkan BOD8 = 168 mg/l

17. Answer all questions

Answer:
a. Forest Conservation Act was passed in the year (27th December 1980)
b. Ozone is a primary/secondary pollutant. Choose the correct one. (Secondary
Pollutant)
c. Arsenic can be measured by FTIR/AAS/NMR/HPLC. Choose the correct One.
(NMR)
d. Annual ARSENIC maximum concentration in the new NAAQS is (6) ng/m3
e. Annual PM2.5 maximum concentration in the new NAAQS is (25) μg/m3
f. Old notification of EIA was notified in the year. (1994)
g. Noise limits for motor-cycle (from at 7.5 metre in dB(A) at the. (80 dBA)
h. (manufacturing stage) is 70/75/80/85 dB. Choose the correct one. (75 dB)
 PROBLEM 2

1 . What is air pollution ? discuss the causes and effect

Answer

Pollution is now a common place term, that our ears are attuned to. We hear about the various
forms of pollution and read about it through the mass media. Air pollution is one such form
that refers to the contamination of the air, irrespective of indoors or outside. A physical,
biological or chemical alteration to the air in the atmosphere can be termed as pollution. It
occurs when any harmful gases, dust, smoke enters into the atmosphere and makes it difficult
for plants, animals and humans to survive as the air becomes dirty.

Air pollution can further be classified into two sections- Visible air pollution and invisible air
pollution. Another way of looking at Air pollution could be any substance that holds the
potential to hinder the atmosphere or the well being of the living beings surviving in it. The
sustainment of all things living is due to a combination of gases that collectively form the
atmosphere; the imbalance caused by the increase or decrease of the percentage of these
gases can be harmful for survival.

Carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas, is the main pollutant that is warming Earth. Though living
things emit carbon dioxide when they breathe, carbon dioxide is widely considered to be a
pollutant when associated with cars, planes, power plants, and other human activities that
involve the burning of fossil fuels such as gasoline and natural gas. In the past 150 years,
such activities have pumped enough carbon dioxide into the atmosphere to raise its levels
higher than they have been for hundreds of thousands of years.

ed to be taken. On a personal level, driving and flying less, recycling, and conservation
reduces a person’s "carbon footprint"—the amount of carbon dioxide a person is responsible
for putting into the atmosphere.

On a larger scale, governments are taking measures to limit emissions of carbon dioxide and
other greenhouse gases. The Paris Agreement, a voluntary agreement among 118 nations
ratified on November 4, 2016, is one effort being enacted on a global scale to combat climate
change. As a part of the agreement, each country agreed to take measures to combat climate
change, with the ultimate goal of keeping the post-industrial global temperature rise below
two degrees Celcius. Another method is to put taxes on carbon emissions or higher taxes on
gasoline, so that individuals and companies will have greater incentives to conserve energy
and pollute less.

2. give the classfication of air pollutants along with suitable example

Answer

An air pollutant is a substance in the air that can have adverse effects on humans and the
ecosystem. The substance can be solid particles, liquid droplets, or gases. A pollutant can be
of natural origin or man-made. Pollutants are classified as primary or secondary. Primary
pollutants are usually produced from a process, such as ash from a volcanic eruption. Other
examples include carbon monoxide gas from motor vehicle exhaust, or the sulfur
dioxide released from factories. Secondary pollutants are not emitted directly. Rather, they
form in the air when primary pollutants react or interact. Ground level ozone is a prominent
example of a secondary pollutant. Some pollutants may be both primary and secondary: they
are both emitted directly and formed from other primary pollutants.

Before flue-gas desulfurization was installed, the emissions from this power plant in New
Mexico contained excessive amounts of sulfur dioxide

Schematic drawing, causes and effects of air pollution: (1) greenhouse effect, (2) particulate
contamination, (3) increased UV radiation, (4) acid rain, (5) increased ground level ozone
concentration, (6) increased levels of nitrogen oxides.

Thermal oxidizers are air pollution abatement options for hazardous air
pollutants (HAPs), volatile organic compounds (VOCs), and odorous emissions.

Substances emitted into the atmosphere by human activity include:

Carbon dioxide(CO2) - Because of its role as a greenhouse gas it has been described as "the
leading pollutant"5] and "the worst climate pollution".[6]Carbon dioxide is a natural
component of the atmosphere, essential for plant life and given off by the human respiratory
system.[7] This question of terminology has practical effects, for example as determining
whether the U.S. Clean Air Art is deemed to regulate CO2 emissions.[8]CO2 currently forms
about 405 parts per million (ppm) of earth's atmosphere, compared to about 280 ppm in pre-
industrial times,[9] and billions of metric tons of CO2 are emitted annually by burning
of fossil fuels.[10]CO2 increase in earth's atmosphere has been accelerating.[11]
Sulfur oxides(SOx) - particularly sulfur dioxide, a chemical compound with the formula SO2.
SO2 is produced by volcanoes and in various industrial processes. Coal and petroleum often
contain sulfur compounds, and their combustion generates sulfur dioxide. Further oxidation
of SO2, usually in the presence of a catalyst such as NO2, forms H2SO4, and thus acid
rain.[2] This is one of the causes for concern over the environmental impact of the use of
these fuels as power sources.

Nitrogen oxides (NOx) - Nitrogen oxides, particularly nitrogen dioxide, are expelled from
high temperature combustion, and are also produced during thunderstorms by electric
discharge. They can be seen as a brown haze dome above or a plume downwind of cities.
Nitrogen dioxide is a chemical compound with the formula NO2. It is one of several nitrogen
oxides. One of the most prominent air pollutants, this reddish-brown toxic gas has a
characteristic sharp, biting odor.

Carbon monoxide (CO) - CO is a colorless, odorless, toxic yet non-irritating gas. It is a

product of incomplete combustion of fuel such as natural gas, coal or wood. Vehicular
exhaust is a major source of carbon monoxide.

Volatile organic compounds (VOC) - VOCs are a well-known outdoor air pollutant. They are
categorized as either methane (CH4) or non-methane (NMVOCs). Methane is an extremely
efficient greenhouse gas which contributes to enhanced global warming . Other hydrocarbon
VOCs are also significant greenhouse gases because of their role in creating ozone and
prolonging the life of methane in the atmosphere. This effect varies depending on local air
quality. The aromatic NMVOCs benzene, toluene and xylene are suspected carcinogens and
may lead to leukemia with prolonged exposure. 1,3-butadiene is another dangerous
compound often associated with industrial use.

Particulates, alternatively referred to as particulate matter (PM), atmospheric particulate

matter, or fine particles, are tiny particles of solid or liquid suspended in a gas. In contrast,
aerosol refers to combined particles and gas. Some particulates occur naturally, originating
from volcanoes, dust storms, forest and grassland fires, living vegetation, and sea spray.
Human activities, such as the burning of fossil fuels in vehicles, power plants and various
industrial processes also generate significant amounts of aerosols. Averaged worldwide,
anthropogenic aerosols—those made by human activities—currently account for
approximately 10 percent of our atmosphere. Increased levels of fine particles in the air are
linked to health hazards such as heart disease,[12] altered lung function and lung cancer.
Persistent free radicals connected to airborne fine particles are linked to cardiopulmonary
disease.[13][14]

Toxic metals, such as lead nd mercury especially their compounds.

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) - harmful to the ozone layer; emitted from products are
currently banned from use. These are gases which are released from air conditioners,
refrigerators, aerosol sprays, etc. On release into the air, CFCs rise to the stratosphere Here
they come in contact with other gases and damage the ozone layr. This allows harmful
ultraviolet rays to reach the earth's surface. This can lead to skin cancer, eye disease and can
even cause damage to plants.

Ammonia (NH3) - emitted from agricultural processes. Ammonia is a compound with the
formula NH3. It is normally encountered as a gas with a characteristic pungent odor.
Ammonia contributes significantly to the nutritional needs of terrestrial organisms by serving
as a precursor to foodstuffs and fertilizers. Ammonia, either directly or indirectly, is also a
building block for the synthesis of many pharmaceuticals. Although in wide use, ammonia is
both caustic and hazardous. In the atmosphere, ammonia reacts with oxides of nitrogen and
sulfur to form secondary particles.[15]

Odours — such as from garbage, sewage, and industrial processes

Radioactive pollutants - produced by nuclear explosions, nuclear events, war explosives, and
natural processes such as the radioactive decay of radon.

Secondary pollutants include:

Particulates created from gaseous primary pollutants and compounds in photochemical

smog. Smogis a kind of air pollution. Classic smog results from large amounts of coal
burning in an area caused by a mixture of smoke and sulfur dioxide. Modern smog does not
usually come from coal but from vehicular and industrial emissions that are acted on in the
atmosphere by ultraviolet light from the sun to form secondary pollutants that also combine
with the primary emissions to form photochemical smog.

Ground level ozone (O3) formed from NOx and VOCs. Ozone (O3) is a key constituent of
the troposphere. It is also an important constituent of certain regions of the stratosphere
commonly known as the Ozone layer. Photochemical and chemical reactions involving it
drive many of the chemical processes that occur in the atmosphere by day and by night. At
abnormally high concentrations brought about by human activities (largely the combustion of
fossil fuel), it is a pollutant, and a constituent of smog.

Peroxyacetyl nitrate (C2H3NO5) - similarly formed from NOx and VOCs.

Minor air pollutants include:

A large number of minor hazardous air pollutants Some of these are regulated in USA under
the Clean Air Act and in Europe under the Air Framework Directive

A variety of persistent organic pollutants, which can attach to particulates

Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are organic compounds that are resistant to
environmental degradation through chemical, biological, and photolytic processes. Because
of this, they have been observed to persist in the environment, to be capable of long-range
transport, bioaccumulate in human and animal tissue, biomagnify in food chains, and to have
potentially significant impacts on human health and the environment.

3. classify various sources of air polutant and discuss the control methods for each of
them give example

Answer

Types of Air Pollutants

In another lesson, we learned about the Clean Air Act of 1970, which set limits on emissions
and standards for air quality, provided funding for pollution control research and made it
possible for citizens to sue those who violate the standards. The standards set forth in this
legislation by the Environmental Protection Agency, or EPA, identified six pollutants as
those that posed the greatest threat to human health. Let's look at each one.

Carbon monoxide is both odorless and colorless, and it's produced through combustion. Most
carbon monoxide emissions come from vehicles, about 62%, but they also come from forest
fires, lawn equipment and the burning of industrial waste. This pollutant is dangerous to
human health because, even in very small concentrations, it can prevent oxygen from being
delivered through your body to major organs. At higher levels, it can cause death.

Sulfur dioxide is also a colorless gas, and it's highly reactive. About 70% of sulfur dioxide
emissions come from combustion at industrial power plants, like those that generate
electricity from coal. Sulfur in the coal reacts with atmospheric oxygen in the air and forms
the compound sulfur dioxide. Once in the air it may react further to create sulfur acid, which
can fall back to Earth as acid rain. Sulfur dioxide can also cause respiratory illnesses when it's
breathed in.

Nitrogen oxides are a family of gases that are also very reactive, but you can definitely see
and smell these! Both nitric oxide and nitrogen dioxide are in this family, and these are the
gases that contribute to the smog you see over large cities, like Los Angeles. More than half
of these pollutants come from vehicle combustion emissions, with a large amount also
coming from industrial combustion. Nitrogen oxides also cause respiratory illnesses.

Ozone is a tricky one because when it's in the stratosphere layer of the atmosphere, it protects
us from harmful UV radiation. However, when ozone is lower in the atmosphere, it becomes
dangerous to our health because it causes respiratory illnesses and damages ecosystems.
Ozone is a secondary pollutant because it reacts from a combination of sunlight, heat,
nitrogen oxides and volatile carbon containing compounds.

Particulate matter is just what it sounds like, particles suspended in the air. This can be both
liquids and solids, and about 60% of particulate matter pollution is wind-blown dust. The
problem is that particulate matter can also be some of those harmful pollutants previously
described, as well as toxic chemicals and metals.

4. discuss the new engginering areas for air polluton control in india

Answer

Process Change: This technique involves a modification of an existing process or the

introduction of a new process. Since 90’s the process change has been known as “pollution
prevention”. Consider the example of painting operations in automobile industry. Large
quantities of volatile organic compounds and hazardous air pollutants were released as a
result of these operations. After the passage of 1990 CAAA many operations have
substituted water based, low HAP paints for oil based paints for reducing emissions. Some
operations have implemented processes such as electro-deposition, dip tank and powder
coating.

Process modification is a popular technique to control air pollution. Major efforts are
underway in all industries to modify processes to reduce pollution. For example, new oxy
furnaces are being developed by Libbey Owens Ford in Toledo to reduce ozone emissions
during glass manufacturing.

Changes in industrial processes to reduce raw materials and fuels also lead to reduction in air
emissions. The promotions to use fluorescent lights and to conduct energy audits by electric
utilities are examples of less electricity demand. This results in less fuel use at the power
plant and hence less air pollutants are emitted.

Improve Dispersion: This approach is based on the concept that dilution of air contaminants
before they reach ground will lower the concentrations to which the population is
exposed. The use of this approach for industry is discouraged by the US EPA. However,
local and state agencies use the concept to develop air pollution control strategies for their
area.

Before the 1970 CAAA the most widely approach to air problems was based on the motto
Dilution is the solution to pollution. This is evident from the tall stacks build by Tennessee
Valley Authority and others in 60’s and 70’s.

Another form of this approach is practiced in the form of intermittent control or an air quality
prediction system. This approach attempts to control source emission rate during the periods
of high ground level concentrations. Production curtailments, a plant shutdown, fuel
switching, or other strategies achieve the reduction in source emission rate. The critical
periods are determined from weather related data in the area.

The prediction systems are based on observations, predictive equations or a combination of

observations and predictions.

The first documented predictive intermittent control system was placed in 1941 at the lead-
zinc smelter at Trail, British Columbia (Canada). The plant is located in a valley near the US-
Canada border. The crop damage to orchards in the US from the nighttime emissions brought
to ground during morning inversion breakup led to the formation of an international
tribunal. The study led to the development of an intermittent control system to focus on the
period from 3 AM to three hours after sunrise during growing season.

TVA developed an AQPS for Paradise, Kentucky power plant. Several hours before the
adverse meteorological conditions are predicted, the power output is reduced to prevent
violation of NAAQS.
Many cities in Canada and US have regulations to curtail industrial and other activities during
times of observed poor air quality. Alberta Environment asks industry to cut production
during early morning hours of poor air quality in City of Calgary and Edmonton. Many
western mountain communities in US issue a public notice to shut off wood stoves when
PM10 levels exceed certain value.

The use of oxygenated gasoline in winter months in many cities across US is an example of a
national scale intermittent control for CO emissions. High CO emissions are observed in
many communities during winter months.

Ozone action days are declared during summer months to avoid violations of NAAQS based
on observations of meteorological variables (e.g.: temperature) and ground level ozone
concentration. A procedure to identify ozone action days in Toledo during 1997 is given
in Figure 1

Good Operating Practices: Release of unnecessary air pollutants could be avoided by

maintaining good housekeeping in the plant and performing proper maintenance. For
example, liquid chemicals spread over the floor evaporates rapidly and will cause an increase
in emission rate for that chemical.

Plant Shutdown/Relocation: This is not a pleasant solution for a community because of

economic impact. Most cities develop land-use planning and industrial zoning regulations to
avoid this situation. Encouragement to use new technology through tax credits or grants may
help a company to relocate the plant within the city. In some cases to shutdown the plant is
only viable solution.

The use of wind energy, geothermal energy, hydroelectric power and solar energy is
increasing and is helping in reducing air pollution.

The US EPA has initiated a major effort in the area of pollution prevention. The purpose is to
“prevent” pollution rather than control it at the point of release. The goal is not to produce
solid or hazardous waste.

Change in Fuel: This technique involves the use of less polluting fuel to reduce air
pollution. Use of low sulfur fuel instead of high sulfur fuel by electric utilities is an example
of this method. Remember that low sulfur fuel is much more expensive than high sulfur fuel.
The other choice for an electric utility can be the use of natural gas as a fuel. Fuel switching
based on meteorological conditions or air pollution forecasts have been used to prevent air
pollution problem in many areas.

Control of SOx

The control of SO2 is largely based on chemical means. The sulfur present in organic
compounds can be converted to various forms by oxidation or reduction. Sulfur oxidizes to
Sulfur Dioxide (SO2) and then Sulfur Trioxide (SO3). In the atmosphere SO3 reacts with
water to form sulfuric acid, which then reacts with ammonia or other cat-ions to form
particles of ammonia sulfate or some other sulfate. These small particles are responsible for
urban particulate and visibility problems. Reduction means the removal of oxygen or the
addition of hydrogen.

The major source of SO2in the US are coal burning electric power plants. The typical
SO2 content of the emissions is about 0.1% SO2 or 1000 ppm. Low concentration of SO2 in
gas stream makes it unprofitable for recovery as H2SO4. The most widely used method is
scrubbing. The installation and operation of these air pollution control device is expensive
and require large capital expenditure.

The scrubbing or flue gas desulphurization (FGD) processes can be classified as (i)
Throwaway or regenerative processes or (ii) wet or dry processes.

The major FGD processes are:

Limestone scrubbing

Lime scrubbing

Dual Alkali processes

Lime-spray drying

Wellman-Lord process

The SO2 is removed by inducing exhaust gases to react with a chemical absorbent as they
pass through a tower.

Limestone Wet Scrubber

 This is a widely used device for removing SO2. The incurring exhaust gas after the
removal of solid fly ash particles is passed to a tower. A limestone (CaCO3) slurry is sprayed
on the incoming exhaust gas. The SO2 dissolves in the slurry and reacts with limestone
producing CO2 and solid CaSO3.

SO2 + CaCO3 + H2O > CaSO3 + H2O + CO2 . During the development phase
of this technology during 1970s and early 1980s, the problems of corrosion, solid deposition,
scaling and plugging, mist eliminator plugging, poor reagent utilization and poor solid-liquid
separation were encountered. Most of these problems have either been eliminated or reduced
to manageable size through proper design and careful operation.

The limestone scrubbers are still expensive and troublesome. The large amount of solid
waste produced remains a disposal problem.

Lime Scrubber

The process is similar to limestone wet throwaway process described above. Lime
(CaO) is used instead of limestone. Lime hydrates to Ca(OH)2 in the hold tank and is sprayed
on the exhaust gases. Ca(OH)2 is more chemically reactive than limestone. During the
process CaSO3 is produced.

SO2 + CaO+ H2O > CaSO3 + H2O

Dual Alkali Scrubber

This is a wet regenerative system. Two reagents are used to remove SO2. The scrubbing
is done by sodium sulfite or sodium hydroxide.

Lime-spray Drying

The exhaust gases react with a fine slurry mist of lime. The heat of the exhaust gases is
used to dry the reacted slurry into calcium sulfite particles.

SO2 + CaO > CaSO3

The particles are captured in a particle collection device along with other particles in the
plant. The removal efficiency of SO2 in a dry scrubbing system is typically 70%. The system
is 15 to 30 percent cheaper to install and operate as compared to a conventional wet
scrubbing system. The waste products are easier to handle.
Control and Treatment of VOC and Hydrocarbons

Control and treatment of VOC and organic hazardous air pollutant emissions are generally
accomplished by adsorption, incineration, condensation and gas absorption. The
methodology is usually chosen depending upon the temperature, composition and volumetric
flow rate of the emission stream, space constraints and allowable installation and operational
costs. A brief description of each method is given below:

Adsorption:

This is one of the most commonly used methods, especially for controlling emissions from
small sources. It can be physical adsorption or chemisorptions. The later is rarely used for the
VOC emission control because, it involves a less-reversible chemical bonding of the
adsorbate (pollutant) and the adsorbing solid ( packing) and is relatively expensive. Physical
adsorption uses the Van der Waals force, giving the advantage of reversibility and
regeneration due to the weaker bonding of the gas and adsorbent material. The adsorbed
material can be either recovered or incinerated. Regeneration is usually accomplished by
heating or extraction/displacement. Activated carbon is a commonly used adsorbent because
of its high surface area and material hardness. It has between 800 and 1200 m2/g of surface
area. In general, activated carbon and other adsorbents such as hollow aluminum spheres
coated with a catalyst can be employed in a fixed, moving or fluidized bed system.

Fluidized bed systems, though more expensive to build and operate, yield high contacting
with low pressure loss and regeneration can be accomplished within the system. The fixed
beds are less expensive and provide longer packing life, but provide less contacting per unit
length and require a larger pressureloss;because they are regenerated individually.
Moving beds have properties between fixed and fluidized beds. The useful life of activated
carbon can be determined using break through curves.

Regeneration can be achieved by contact with a hot, inert gas, contact

with a low pressure gas stream and pressure reduction over the bed. Steam desorption is the
most commonly used process for regeneration. Incineration:

Incineration or combustion is another common VOC control technology. Complete

combustion or oxidation of pure hydrocarbons produces carbon dioxide and water. Sulfur
and nitrogen compounds produce acid gases and limited air supply results in the formation of
carbon monoxide.

Complex organic compounds may not oxidize completely in the residence time and ash may
form. Most VOC oxidation must be done at high temperature, unless catalysts are involved.

Flares, thermal oxidizers and catalytic converters all use oxidation chemistry to treat VOC
emissions. Flares mostly treat moderate to high temperature concentrations. All of the heat
produced by the combustion process is lost when the flares are used. Most thermal oxidizers
treat emission streams with maximum VOC concentrations of 25% of the LEL ( lower
explosive limit). Catalyst beds, especially when used to enhance the oxidation of VOCs
(usually noble metals like platinum and palladium) must be able to withstand high
temperatures and must be designed so that a minimum pressure drop is created when the gas
passes through the bed. For example by using catalytic converters, thermal oxidation of the
by-products of the incomplete engine combustion can be safely accomplished at temperatures
much lower than would be required without the aid of catalysis.

Condensation:

Condensation and gas absorption are most commonly used for highly concentrated VOC
streams that are advantageous to recover and the relatively large expense is warranted. It
employs a drop in temperature and/ or increase in pressure to cause the VOCs in the emission
stream to condense. The cleaned air stream is separated from the condensate containing target
pollutants. In many cases, very large temperature drops are required to achieve effective
condensation, requiring significant energy investment to accomplish cooling.

Condensation is used to recover gasoline and fuel vapors at gasoline loading terminals and in
gasoline dispensing facilities. It is also used in the adsorbent regeneration process to separate
solvents from the stream to separate solvents from the stream used to regenerate the activated
carbon.

Gas Absorption:

Gas absorption involves the absorption of a gas into a liquid. Water can be used for recovery
of water-soluble compounds such as acetone and low molecular weight alcohols, which can
later be separated from water using distillation. Additives are often used to increase the
effective mass transfer rate of the pollutant from the gas phase into the liquid phase, affecting
the surface tension, reducing interfacial resistance and increasing the apparent solubility.

Gas absorption can be expensive, however it is generally used only to recover VOCs that
have a secondary market value. Gas absorption techniques are used for the recovery of a
variety of chemicals in the coke manufacturing industry. They are often called scrubbers.

Particulate Control

The control of particulate matter is an important aspect of industrial air pollution engineering.
Particles are collected by a combination of several mechanisms. The six available
mechanisms are gravitational settling, centrifugal impaction, inertial impaction, direct
interception, diffusion and the electrostatic attraction. The physical phenomenon of
gravitational settling, centrifugal impaction and electrostatic attraction are known to
engineers. The other three mechanisms are described below.

Inertial Impaction

The large particles in the gas stream have too much inertia to follow the gas streamlines
around the impactor and are impacted on the impactor surface, while the small particles and
the gas tend to diverge and pass around the interceptor.

5. Enumerate and explain the mechanism used in removal of particulate matter from
gas stream.

answer

(1) Gravitational Settling Chamber:

For removal of particles exceeding 50 µm in size from polluted gas streams, gravitational
settling chambers (Fig 5.1) are put to use.
This device consists of huge rectangular chambers. The gas stream polluted with particulates
is allowed to enter from one end. The horizontal velocity of the gas stream is kept low (less
than 0.3 m/s) in order to give sufficient time for the particles to settle by gravity.

The particulates having higher density obey Stoke’s law and settle at the bottom of the
chamber from where they are removed ultimately. The several horizontal shelves or trays
improve the collection efficiency by shortening the settling path of the particles.

(2) Cyclone Separators (Reverse flow Cyclone):

Instead of gravitational force, centrifugal force is utilized by cyclone separators, to separate

the particulate matter from the polluted gas. Centrifugal force, several times greater than
gravitational force, can be generated by a spinning gas stream and this quality makes cyclone
separators more effective in removing much smaller particulates than can possibly be
removed by gravitational settling chambers.

A simple cyclone separator (Fig 5.2) consists of a cylinder with a conical base. A tangential
inlet discharging near the top and an outlet for discharging the particulates is present at the
base of the cone.
Mechanism of Action:

The dust laden gas enters tangentially, receives a rotating motion and generates a centrifugal
force due to which the particulates are thrown to the cyclone walls as the gas spirals upwards
inside the cone (i.e. flow reverses to form an inner vortex which leaves flow through the
outlet). The particulates slide down the .walls of the cone and are discharged from the outlet.

(3) Fabric Filters (Baghouse Filters):

In a fabric filter system, a stream of the polluted gas is made to pass through a fabric that
filters out the particulate pollutant and allows the clear gas to pass through. The particulate
matter is left in the form of a thin dust mat on the insides of the bag. This dust mat acts as a
filtering medium for further removal of particulates increasing the efficiency of the filter bag
to sieve more sub micron particles (0.5 µm).

A typical filter (Fig 5.3) is a tubular bag which is closed at the upper end and has a hopper
attached at the lower end to collect the particles when they are dislodged from the fabric.
Many such bags are hung in a baghouse. For efficient filtration and a longer life the filter
bags must be cleaned occasionally by a mechanical shaker to prevent too many particulate
layers from building up on the inside surfaces of the bag.

(4) Electrostatic Precipitators:

The electrostatic precipitator (Fig. 5.4) works on the principle of electrostatic precipitation
i.e. electrically charged particulates present in the polluted gas are separated from the gas
stream under the influence of the electrical field.

A typical wire and pipe precipitator consists of:

(a) A positively charged collecting surface (grounded).

(b) A high voltage (50 KV) discharge electrode wire.

(c) Insulator to suspend the electrode wire from the top.

(d) A weight at the bottom of the electrode wire to keep the wire in position.
Mechanism of Action:

The polluted gas enters from the bottom, flows upwards (i.e. between the high voltage wire
and grounded collecting surface). The high voltage in the wire ionises the gas. The negative
ions migrate towards the grounded surface and pass on their negative charge to the dust
particles also. Then these negatively charged dust particles are electrostatically drawn
towards the positively charged collector surface, where they finally get deposited.

The collecting surface is rapped or vibrated to periodically remove the collected dust-
particles so that the thickness of the dust layer deposited does not exceed 6 mm, otherwise the
electrical attraction becomes weak and efficiency of the electrostatic precipitator gets
reduced.

As the electrostatic precipitation has 99 + percent efficiency and can be operated at high
temperatures (600°C) and pressure at less power requirement, therefore, it is economical and
simple to operate compared to other devices.

(5) Wet Collectors (Scrubbers):

In wet collectors or scrubbers, the particulate contaminants are removed from the polluted gas
stream by incorporating the particulates into liquid droplets.

Common wet scrubbers are:

(i) Spray Tower

(ii) Venturi Scrubber

(iii) Cyclone Scrubber

(i) Spray Tower:

Water is introduced into a spray tower (Fig. 5.5.) by means of a spray nozzle (i.e. there is
downward flow of water). As the polluted gas flows upwards, the particulates (size exceeding
10 µm) present collide with the water droplets being sprayed downward from the spray
nozzles. Under the influence of gravitational force, the liquid droplets containing the
particulates settle to the bottom of the spray tower.

(ii) Venturi Scrubber:

Submicron particulates (size 0.5 to 5 µn) associated with smoke and fumes are very
effectively removed by the highly efficient Venturi Scrubbers. As shown in Fig 5.6 a Venturi
Scrubber has a Venturi shaped throat section. The polluted gas passes downwards through the
throat at the velocity of 60 to 180 m/sec.

A coarse water stream is injected upwards into the throat where it gets atomised (i.e. breaks
the water into droplets) due to the impact of high velocity of the gas. The liquid droplets
collide with the particulates in the polluted gas stream.

The particles get entrained in the droplets and fall down to be removed later on. Venturi
Scrubbers can also remove soluble gaseous contaminants. Due to the atomisation of water
there is proper contact between the liquid and the gas increasing the efficiency of the Venturi
Scrubber (their power cost is high because of the high inlet gas velocity).
To separate the droplets carrying the particulate matter from the gas stream, this gas-liquid
mixture in the Venturi Scrubber is then directed into a separation device such as a cyclone
separator.

(iii) Cyclone Scrubber:

The dry cyclone chamber can be converted into a wet cyclone scrubber by inserting high
pressure spray nozzles at various places within the dry chamber (Fig. 5.7).

The high pressure spray nozzles generate a fine spray that intercepts the small particles in the
polluted gas. The centrifugal force throws these particles towards the wall from where they
are drained downwards to the bottom of the scrubber.

(c) Diffusion of Pollutants in Air:

Dilution of the contaminants in the atmosphere is another approach to the control of air
pollution. If the pollution source releases only a small quantity of the contaminants then
pollution is not noticeable as these pollutants easily diffuse into the atmosphere but if the
quantity of air contaminants is beyond the limited capacity of the environment to absorb the
contaminants then pollution is caused.

However, dilution of the contaminants in the atmosphere can be accomplished through the
use of tall stacks which penetrate the upper atmospheric layers and disperse the contaminants
so that the ground level pollution is greatly reduced. The height of the stacks is usually kept 2
to 21/2 times the height of nearby structures.

Dilution of pollutants in air depend on atmospheric temperature, speed and direction of the
wind. The disadvantage of the method is that it is a short term contact measure which in
reality brings about highly undesirable long range effects.

This is so because dilution only dilutes the contaminants to levels at which their harmful
effects are less noticeable near their original source whereas at a considerable distance from
the source these very contaminants eventually come down in some form or another.

(d) Vegetation:

Plants contribute towards controlling air-pollution by utilizing carbon dioxide and releasing
oxygen in the process of photosynthesis. This purifies the air (removal of gaseous pollutant—
CO2) for the respiration of men and animals.

Gaseous pollutants like carbon monoxide are fixed by some plants, namely, Coleus Blumeri,
Ficus variegata and Phascolus Vulgaris. Species of Pinus, Quercus, Pyrus, Juniperus and
Vitis depollute the air by metabolising nitrogen oxides. Plenty of trees should be planted
especially around those areas which are declared as high-risk areas of pollution.

(e) Zoning:

This method of controlling air pollution can be adopted at the planning stages of the city.
Zoning advocates setting aside of separate areas for industries so that they are far removed
from the residential areas. The heavy industries should not be located too close to each other.

New industries, as far as possible, should be established away from larger cities (this will also
keep a check on increasing concentration of urban population in a few larger cities only) and
the locational decisions of large industries should be guided by regional planning. The
industrial estate of Bangalore is divided into three zones namely light, medium and large
industries. In Bangalore and Delhi very large industries are not permitted.

6. Explain the objective of using control equipments

Answer

The environmental consequences of rapid industrialization have resulted in countless

incidents of land, air and water resources sites being contaminated with toxic materials and
other pollutants, threatening humans and ecosystems with serious health risks. More
extensive and intensive use of materials and energy has created cumulative pressures on the
quality of local, regional and global ecosystems.

Before there was a concerted effort to restrict the impact of pollution, environmental
management extended little beyond laissez-faire tolerance, tempered by disposal of wastes to
avoid disruptive local nuisance conceived of in a short-term perspective. The need for
remediation was recognized, by exception, in instances where damage was determined to be
unacceptable. As the pace of industrial activity intensified and the understanding of
cumulative effects grew, a pollution control paradigm became the dominant approach to
environmental management.

Two specific concepts served as the basis for the control approach:

· the assimilative capacity concept, which asserts the existence of a specified level of
emissions into the environment which does not lead to unacceptable environmental or human
health effects

· the principle of control concept, which assumes that environmental damage can be
avoided by controlling the manner, time and rate at which pollutants enter the environment

Under the pollution control approach, attempts to protect the environment have especially
relied on isolating contaminants from the environment and using end-of-pipe filters and
scrubbers. These solutions have tended to focus on media-specific environmental quality
objectives or emission limits, and have been primarily directed at point source discharges into
specific environmental media (air, water, soil).
7. List the various types of control equipment used in particulate removal.

Answer

Scrubber systems are a diverse group of air pollution control devices that can be used to
remove some particulates and/or gases from industrial exhaust streams. "Scrubber" is a
pollution control devices that use liquid to wash unwanted pollutants from a gas stream.
Scrubbers are one of the primary devices that control gaseous emissions, especially acid
gases, Fumes. Industrial Scrubbers can also be used for heat recovery from hot gases by flue
gas condensation. Scrubber are used for scrubbing the abnoxious fumes such as silicon
tetrafluride, HNO3, HCl, NH3, Phosphoric acid, super phosphate & Fluorine. Manufacturing
using quality R.M these are available in various dimensions & specifications. As per the
client requirement this systems can also be used for recovery of the products.

The cyclone is a widely used type of particulate collection device in which dust-laden gas
enters tangentially into a cylindrical or conical chamber and leaves through a central opening.
When very large gas volumes must be handled and high collection efficiencies are needed a
multiple of small diameter cyclones are usually nested together to form a multicyclone. Such
systems are also customized for product recovery system along with pollution control
equipment

Answer

1. High-efficiency settling chambers are often fitted with baffles or deflectors to change the
gas flow direction. The simplest chamber is merely a horizontal duct in which large
particles settle out on the floor.  In principle,pollutants are removed by reducing the velocity
of the gas stream sufficiently to allow particles to settle out under the influence of gravity
Gravity settling chambers are the oldest and simplest means of removing suspended
particles from a gas

2. This type of technology is a part of the group of air pollution controls collectively referred
to as "precleaners," because they are oftentimes used to reduce the inlet loading of particulate
matter (PM) to downstream collection devices by removing larger, abrasive particles.
3. Multiple-tray settling chambers are also referred to as Howard settling chambers. Settling
chambers are also referred to as gravity settling chambers, gravity collectors, expansion
chambers, and outfall chambers. 

4. Figure 1, is a simplified representation of a horizontal simple gravity settling chamber. It

is a long duct fitted with hoppers on the floor to collect particulates. Physical dimensions are
characterized by the ductwork above the collection hoppers: length = L, width = W, and
height = H.

5. The primary section of the chamber is characterized by its cross-sectional area (W x H)

and by its length (L).The cross-sectional area is designed to be larger than the inlet and exit
ducts in order to reduce substantially the gas stream's d inlet linear velocity. The length of the
chamber determines the amount of time the particles remain at the reduced rate.This starving
of the gas's forward motion allows the particles sufficient time to settle out into the hoppers.

6. The collection efficiency of settling chambers varies as a function of particle size and
settling chamber design. Settling chambers are most effective for large and/or dense
particles.

7. Dry collection and disposal. Provide incidental cooling of gas stream;Temperature and
pressure limitations are only dependent on the materials of construction; and  Device not
subject to abrasion due to low gas velocity;  Low pressure drop through device;  Excellent
reliability;  No moving parts, therefore, few maintenance requirements and low operating
costs;  Very low energy cost;  Low capital cost; 

8 .Multiple-tray settling chambers may experience plugging of the individual gas passages.
The most common failure mode of settling chambers is plugging of the chamber with
collected dust. In expansion settling chambers the plugging can result from hopper bridging
or hopper discharge seal failure.  Trays in multiple-tray settling chamber may warp during
high-temperature operations.  Large physical size; and  Unable to handle sticky or tacky
materials;  Relatively low PM collection efficiencies, particularly for PM less than 50
micrometer in size; 
9. Explain the working and the principle of a cyclone separator with a suitable diagram.
Answer

dapun prinsip kerja dari cyclone ini sebagai berikut:

1. Gas atau aliran fluida diinjeksikan melalui pipa input.
2. Bentuk kerucut cyclone menginduksikan aliran gas atau fluida untuk berputar,
menciptakan vortex.
3. Partikel dengan ukuran atau kerapatan yang lebih besar didorong ke arah luar vortex.
4. Gaya gravitasi menyebabkan partikel-partikel tersebut jatuh ke sisi kerucut menuju tempat
pengeluaran.
5. Partikel dengan ukuran atau kerapatan yang lebih kecil keluar melalui bagian atas dari
cyclone melalui pusat yang bertekanan rendah.
6. Cyclone membuat suatu gaya sentrifugal yang berfungsi untuk memisahkan partikulat dari
udara kotor.
7. Gaya sentrifugal timbul saat partikulat di dalam udara masuk ke puncak kolektor silindris
pada suatu sudut dan diputar dengan cepat mengarah ke bawah seperti pusaran air. Aliran
udara mengalir secara melingkar dan partikulat yang lebih berat mengarah ke bawah
setelah menabrak ke arah dinding cyclone dan meluncur ke bawah.
a. Give the advantages and disavantages of a cyclone separator and give its
applications.
Answer :
Advantage : Relatively inexpensive, simple to design and maintain; requires less floor
area; low to moderate pressure loss.
Disadvantage : Requires much head room; collection efficiency is low for smaller
particles, quite sensitive to variable dust loading and flow rates.
Application:
 Oil refineries to separate oils and gases
 Cement industry
 Vacuum cleaners

b. What is a fabric filter? Give its classification and explain fibre characteristics.
Answer :
 Fabric Filters (also called baghouses and bagfilters) are air pollution control devices
that remove particulate matter from a gas stream by passing the dirty air through a
layer of cloth.
 Fabric Filter Classification : Fabric filters are classified by their cleaning method or
the direction of gas flow and hence the location of the dust deposit.
 Fabric Filters are air pollution control devices that remove particulate matter from a
gas stream by passing the dirty air through a layer of cloth. The particulate matter
deposits on the cloth surface and the clean air passes through.

Common Natural Fibres

Characteristics Disadvantages Used In
 A cellulose fibre  Damaged by  Bedding,
derived from the insects, mildew, clothing, quilts,
fleecy bolls of rot and moths often blended
the cotton plant  Wrinkles with other fibres
 Absorbant fibre  Shrinks when wet such as rayon,
which makes it polyester,
comfortable to spandex etc.
wear, cool and
good static
resistance
 With stands
 washing, drying,
ironing and
steaming
 Made from the  Expensive to  Apparel, table
flax plant produce and linens, table
 Is a vegetable manufacture cloths, napkins,
fibre  Poor elasticity kitchen towels
 Very absorbant causes wrinkling
(contributes to  Damaged by
comfort and mildew,
static resistance) perspiration and
making it a bleach
perfect choice  Fibre is brittle in
for dish towels fabric which can
as it does not cause breakage
easily produce when constantly
lint creased
 Lustrous
 Good conductor
of heat and
allows body to
feel cool
 Becomes softer
when washed
 Often blended
with cotton
 Resistant to
moths and
carpet beetles
 Made from  Expensive due to  Formal and high
filament strands labour-intensive fashion clothes
spun by silk production and decor items
worms  Weakened by including
 Silk is a protein sunlight (consider upholstery and
fibre when selecting for carpeting
 Valued for its drapery - will
lustre and ability require a sun-
to drape well resistant lining
 Good colour  Elasticity is poor
fastness when  May require dry-
dyed cleaning
 Silk can be  Affected by
treated to be enzyme detergents
 machine and pre-treaters
washable
 Raw or Tussah
silk is rougher
then cultured
silk
 Produced
primarily in
China, India and
Japan
 Obtained from  Felting occurs  Suiting, jackets,
different breeds when washing - men's wear,
of sheep's hair shrinking and carpets
 Fibre matting of fibre
appearance will  May require dry-
vary depending cleaning
on the breed of  Coarse wool can
sheep cause itching and
 Wool is a sensitivities
protein fibre  Prone to insect
 Warm, resilient problems (moth
fibre with great and carpet beetle)
wrinkle  Affected by
recovery, enzyme detergents
durable and and pre-treaters
naturally flame
resistant
 Fibre absorbs
moisture well
and resists static
electricity
Manufactured and Synthetic Fibres
Characteristics Disadvantages Used In
 The oldest  Wrinkles  Apparel,
manufactured  Shrinkes when wet bedspreads,
textile fibre  Weakened when blankets, linings,
 Manufactured wet trims and drapery
from cellulose  Not a good fabric
 Lustrous, soft candidate for
and smooth to frequent washing
the touch, silk-
like in
appearance
 Very absorbant
so it is
comfortable to
wear
 Good static
resistance and a
cool hand
 Good heat
resistance
 After WWI,
rayon replaced
silk as the fibre
used in women's
stockings
 A form of rayon  Expensive to  Apparel,
developed on manufacture sportswear and
the 1990's  May scorch with bedding
 Very absorbant direct high heat of
making it iron
comfortable to
wear
 Good static
resistance, good
heat resistance,
cool hand
 Great ability to
drape
 Often blended
with other fibres
like cotton,
polyester and
wool
 Has dry strength
and better wet
strength than the
original rayon
(can be
repeatedly
washed without
weakening)
 Will take a wet
finishing
process to
 increase it's
resistance to
wrinkling
 Modified  Is damaged by  Apparel, linings,
cellulosic fibre acetone men's ties and in
with different  Weak fibre and fabrics like satin,
characteristics to loses strength brocade and
rayon when wet; must be taffetta
 Low cost to dry-cleaned
manufacture  Poor abrasion
 Thermoplastic; resistance
can be heat set  Heat sensitive
 Excellent  Wrinkles
draping ability
 Smooth, lustrous
finish and
resilient
 Wicks moisture
and dries
quickly
 Static resistant
 Resists  N/A  Clothing, often
shrinking and skirts and dresses
wrinkling due to its great
 Maintains shape pleat setting
well, thus fibre ability
can be pleated
or creased and
heat set to
maintain shape
 The first  Piling since it is a  Apparel, hosiery,
synthetic textile strong fibre, must sportswear,
filament fibre be shaved or cut carpet
developed by off
imitating the silk  Not an absorbent
worm fibre, so not as
 Developed in comfortable to
the 1930's by a wear
team of  Low absorbency
scientists property
working for contributes to
DuPont static build-up
 Used in many
 fabrications
other than fabric
 In its standard
form it is the
strongest fibre
and is very
durable
 Used in place of
silk in hosiery
 Can be lustrous,
semi-lustrous or
matte
 Good resiliency
and elasticity -
will stretch
 Excellent
abrasion
resistance
 Thermoplastic -
strong heat
capability which
allows for heat-
set fibre
treatments
 Quick drying
due to low
moisture
absorbency
 Resists insects
and mildew
 One of the most  Hold on to oily  Fiberfill in
commonly used stains stuffing and
synthetic fibres  Does not wick batting
 Developed in well in its natural  Clothing apparel,
England in 1941 form; not home decor and
 Manufacturing absorbant upholstery
process is more  Builds static due to
economical than low absorbancy
that of nylon characteristics
 A very strong  Strong fibre
fibre, abrasion contributes to
resistant piling
 Thermoplastic;
 will take heat-
set finish,
offering it
greater
versatility
 Good resiliency
and sun-light
resistance
 Wicks moisture
better than nylon
(however it is
still low wicking
compared to the
natural fibres)
 Dries fast and
more pliable in
cold conditions
 Wrinkle-
resistant, which
makes it ideal in
blends with
other wrinkle
prone fibres
 Developed  Low absorbancy  Velvet,
through DuPont contributes to furnishings,
research and static build-up carpeting and
introduced in  Can be sensitive to blankets
1950 heat - a
 The most wool- disadvantage with
like fibre of the the dryer
synthetics
 Warm, dry and
soft hand
 Good resilience
and light-weight
 Maintains it's
shape well
 Washable - does
not 'felt' like
natural wool
 A form of
acrylic,
modacrylic, has
 excellent flame
resistance
properties and is
thereore often
used in home
furnishing,
draperies and
carpeting
 In fabric, it is  Piling  Home
commonly  Heat sensitive, furnishings and
known as dry, iron and carpet, sports
polypropylene steam at a low wear
 Very light- setting
weight fibre, yet  Poor resilience,
strong when crushes and won't
both wet and dry return to previous
 Economical to form; compresses
manufacture in carpet
 Has good static  Oil-based stains
resistance even are very difficult
though it has ow to treat
absorbancy, in  Shiny reflective
fact it has the surface sometimes
lowest static of evident
all synthetic
fibres
 Good wicking
ability, makes
for comfortable
wearing
 Colour-fast
when colour is
added at fibre-
forming stage
 Resists abrasion,
although piling
can be a
problem
 Quick drying
 Heat sets well
and is resilient
 Stain, oil and
sunlight
 resistant
 Insulating
properties
 Formed from a  Will degrade with  Sportswear,
long chain heat; should not be lingerie and in
polymer put into dryer apparel where
filament fibre comfort in
 Lycra is a desirable
common trade  Swimwear
name for this
fibre
 Highly elastic
and comfortable
to wear
 Excellent shape
retention
 Durable
 Extremely fine
filament fibre
now available in
most
manufactured
generic fibres,
offering many
options for the
end use
 Offers a
luxurious hand
and finish while
maintaining
strength and
breathability
 These fibres are
very light
weight and
comfortable to
wear
c. Explain fabric filter system along with a neat sketch. Give its advantages and
disavantages.
Answer :
Dalam sistem saringan kain, aliran gas partikel-sarat melewati kain tenunan atau felted
yang menyaring partikel dan memungkinkan gas melewatinya. Partikel kecil pada
awalnya dipertahankan pada kain dengan intersepsi langsung, impaksi inersia, difusi,
daya tarik elektrostatik, dan pengendapan gravitasi. Setelah lapisan debu terbentuk pada
kain, koleksi partikel submikron yang lebih efisien dilakukan dengan cara sieving.
Tas saring biasanya berbentuk tabung atau amplop, mampu mengeluarkan sebagian
besar partikel sekecil 0.5μm dan akan menghilangkan partikel dalam jumlah kecil
sekecil 0,1 μm. Tas saringan mulai dari 1,8 sampai 9 m, dapat digunakan dalam
pengaturan filter bag rumah. Saat partikulat terbentuk di permukaan dalam tas,
penurunan tekanan akan meningkat.

Sebelum tekanan turun menjadi terlalu parah, tas harus dilepas dari beberapa lapisan
partikulat. Filter kain bisa dibersihkan sebentar-sebentar, secara berkala, atau terus
menerus. Sistem penyaring kain biasanya terdiri dari tas tubular atau amplop,
ditangguhkan atau dipasang sedemikian rupa sehingga partikel yang terkumpul jatuh ke
dalam gerbong saat terlepas dari kain. Struktur tempat tas digantung dikenal sebagai
rumah bag. Umumnya, gas sarat partikel masuk ke kantong di bagian bawah dan
melewati kain sementara partikel diendapkan di bagian dalam tas. Pembersihan
dilakukan dengan mengocok pada interval waktu tertentu.
 Keuntungan : Filter kain dapat memberikan efisiensi tinggi, dan bahkan bisa
menghilangkan partikel yang sangat kecil dalam keadaan kering.
Kerugian : Gas dengan suhu tinggi perlu didinginkan. Gas buang harus kering untuk
menghindari kondensasi dan penyumbatan. Kain ini bertanggung jawab atas serangan
kimia.

8. With a neat sketch explain the principle, construction and working of an

electrostatic precipitator along with its advantages and disadvantages.
Answer :
Presipitator elektrostatik adalah salah satu alat yang paling banyak digunakan untuk
mengendalikan emisi partikulat pada instalasi industri mulai dari pembangkit listrik,
pabrik semen dan kertas hingga kilang minyak. Presipitator elektrostatik adalah proses
fisik dimana partikel tersuspensi dalam aliran gas dibebankan secara elektrik dan, di
bawah pengaruh medan listrik, dipisahkan dari aliran gas. Sistem presipitator terdiri
dari permukaan pengumpul bermuatan positif dan kawat elektroda pelepasan tegangan
tinggi yang tersuspensi dari isolator di bagian atas dan menahan gairah berat di bagian
bawah. Pada tegangan DC yang sangat tinggi, dari urutan 50 kV, pelepasan korona
terjadi di dekat elektroda negatif, memasang medan listrik di antara permukaan yang
dipancarkan dan permukaan yang diarde .
Gas sarat partikel masuk di dekat bagian bawah dan mengalir ke atas. Gas yang
dekat dengan elektrode negatif, dengan demikian, terionisasi saat melewati korona.
Sebagai ion negatif dan elektron bermigrasi ke permukaan ground, mereka pada
gilirannya mengisi partikel yang lewat. Bidang elektrostatik kemudian menarik partikel
ke permukaan kolektor di mana mereka disimpan.

Secara berkala, partikel yang terkumpul harus dikeluarkan dari permukaan

pengumpul. Hal ini dilakukan dengan mengetuk atau menggetarkan kolektor untuk
 melepaskan partikel. Partikel yang terlepas dikeluarkan di bawah zona perlakuan listrik
dan dikumpulkan untuk pembuangan akhir.
Keuntungan:
 Pemeliharaan bersifat nominal, bahan korosif dan perekat tidak bermanfaat hadir
dalam gas buang.
 Mereka mengandung beberapa bagian yang bergerak.
 Mereka dapat dioperasikan pada suhu tinggi sampai 300oC-450o C.
Kerugian:
 Biaya awal yang lebih tinggi.
 Sensitif terhadap pemuatan debu dan kecepatan aliran variabel.
 Mereka menggunakan voltase tinggi, dan karenanya dapat menimbulkan risiko
terhadap keselamatan pribadi staf.
 Efisiensi koleksi berkurang seiring berjalannya waktu.

Construction Electrostatic Precipitator :

Apart from these variables the design of ESP also include the determination of
ancillary factors such as rappers to shake the dust loose from the plates, automatic
control system, measures for ensuring high-quality gas flow, dust removal system,
provisions for structural and heat insulation and performance monitoring system.
Firstly size distribution of dust is determined; from the information of size
distribution of dust the migration velocity is calculated. After that number of charge on
a particle is calculated by using appropriate equation. On the basis of precipitation rate
the collecting surface area for a given efficiency at a particular flow rate is calculated
by using Deutsch-Andersen relationship.

9. What do you understand by wet gas scrubbing and where is it used?

Answer :
Scrubber basah menghilangkan partikulat dari aliran gas dengan memasukkan partikel
ke tetesan cairan secara langsung saat terjadi kontak. Fungsi dasar scrubber basah
adalah untuk memberikan kontak antara cairan scrubbing, biasanya air dan partikulat
yang akan dikumpulkan. Kontak ini dapat dicapai dengan berbagai cara karena partikel
dihadapkan pada apa yang disebut target impaksi, yang berupa permukaan basah seperti
pada scrubber kemasan atau tetesan individual seperti pada scrubber semprot. Wet
 scrubber digunakan sesuai dengan dimana cairan scrubber dan partikel dapat terjadi
kontak.

10. Name widely used scrubbers in industries.

Answer :
There are many scrubber designs presently available where the contract between the
crubbing liquid and the particles is achieved in a variety ways. The major types are:
plate scrubber, packed-bed scrubber, spray scrubber, ventury scrubber, cyclone
scrubber, baffle scrubber, impingement-entrainment scrubber, fluidized-bed scrubber.

11. Explain in detail about plate scrubber including its effectiveness.

Answer :
It contains a vertical tower containing one or more horizontal plates (trays). Gas enters
the bottom of the tower and must pass through perforations in each plate as it flows
countercurrent to the descending water stream. Collection efficiency increases as the
diameter of the perforations decreases. A cut diameter, that collected with 50%
efficiency, of about µm aerodynamic diameter can be achieved with 3.2-mm-diameter
holes in a sieve plate.

12. Provide working of packed bed scrubber by diagram and tell where is it most
effectively used? Explain working and major differences between spray scrubber
and cyclone scrubber. Provide diagram.
Answer :
Diagram packed bed scrubber :
 Spray scrubber :
Partikel dikumpulkan dengan cairan tetes yang telah dikabutkan oleh semprotan nozel.
Aliran gas horisontal dan vertikal digunakan, serta semprotkan arus co-arus, arus
berlawanan, atau aliran silang ke gas.

Cyclone scrubber :
Tetesan dapat dimasukkan ke dalam aliran gas siklon untuk mengumpulkan partikel.
Semprotan bisa diarahkan keluar dari manifold pusat atau ke dalam dari dinding
kolektor.

13. Give detail working of venturi scrubber and provide schematic diagram.
Answer :
Scrubber venturi terdiri dari tiga bagian: bagian konvergen, bagian tenggorokan, dan
bagian yang berbeda. Aliran gas inlet memasuki bagian konvergen dan, seiring daerah
berkurang, kecepatan gas meningkat (sesuai dengan persamaan Bernoulli). Cairan
dimasukkan ke tenggorokan atau di pintu masuk ke bagian konvergen.
Gas masuk, dipaksa bergerak dengan kecepatan sangat tinggi di bagian tenggorokan
kecil, menggunting cairan dari dindingnya, menghasilkan sejumlah besar tetesan sangat
kecil. Pelepasan partikel dan gas terjadi di bagian divergen karena aliran gas inlet
bercampur dengan kabut tetesan cairan mungil. Aliran masuk kemudian keluar melalui
bagian yang berbeda, di mana ia terpaksa melambat. Venturis dapat digunakan untuk
mengumpulkan polutan partikel dan gas, namun lebih efektif dalam menghilangkan
partikel daripada polutan gas.
Cairan bisa disuntikkan pada bagian konvergen atau di tenggorokan. Dengan demikian,
cairan melapisi tenggorokan venturi sehingga sangat efektif untuk penanganan panas,
gas inlet kering yang mengandung debu. Jika tidak, debu akan cenderung mengunyah
atau mengeringkan tenggorokan kering. Venturis ini kadang-kadang disebut memiliki
pendekatan membasahi. Karena disemprotkan pada atau sesaat sebelum tenggorokan, ia
tidak benar-benar melapisi permukaan tenggorokan. Tenggorokan ini rentan terhadap
penumpukan padatan saat tenggorokan kering. Mereka juga rentan terhadap abrasi oleh
partikel debu. Ventana ini paling baik digunakan saat aliran masuk dingin dan lembab.
Venturis ini disebut memiliki pendekatan non-pembasuhan.
Venturis dengan tenggorokan bulat dapat menangani arus masuk sebesar 88.000 m³ /
jam (40.000 cfm). Pada laju aliran inlet yang lebih besar dari ini, mencapai distribusi
cairan yang seragam sulit dilakukan, kecuali jika ada weir atau baffle tambahan. Untuk
menangani aliran inlet besar, scrubber dirancang dengan tenggorokan panjang dan
sempit, persegi panjang telah digunakan.
Venturis sederhana memiliki daerah tenggorokan yang tetap dan tidak dapat digunakan
pada berbagai tingkat aliran gas. Produsen telah mengembangkan modifikasi lain pada
desain venturi dasar untuk menjaga efisiensi scrubber dengan mengubah area
tenggorokan untuk berbagai tingkat gas inlet.
Beberapa jenis lubang (daerah tenggorokan) yang menciptakan turbulensi lebih banyak
daripada venturi sejati ternyata sama efisiennya dengan unit energi yang dikonsumsi
(McIlvaine Company 1974).
Hasil dari temuan ini mengarah pada perkembangan sekat-orifice, atau adjustable-
throat, venturi scrubber. Ukuran area tenggorokan bervariasi dengan menggerakkan
plunger, atau disk yang dapat diatur, naik atau turun di tenggorokan, sehingga
mengurangi atau meningkatkan pembukaan anulus. Gas mengalir melalui lubang
annular dan mengionisasi cairan yang disemprotkan ke plunger atau berputar dari atas.
Venturi tenggorokan lainnya. Di scrubber ini, daerah tenggorokan divariasikan dengan
menggunakan piring bergerak. Semprotan air digunakan untuk terus mencuci bahan
yang dikumpulkan dari piring. Modifikasi lain bisa dilihat pada venturi-rod atau rod
deck scrubber. Dengan menempatkan sejumlah pipa sejajar satu sama lain, serangkaian
 lubang venturi membujur dapat dibuat. Daerah antara batang yang berdekatan adalah
tenggorokan venturi kecil.
Semprotan air membantu mencegah penumpukan padatan. Atomisasi utama cairan
terjadi pada batang, dimana gas berkecepatan tinggi yang bergerak melalui jarak
membuat butiran kecil yang diperlukan untuk pengumpulan partikel halus. Batang ini
harus terbuat dari bahan tahan abrasi karena tingginya kecepatan yang ada. Semua
scrubber venturi memerlukan pemisah entrainment karena kecepatan gas yang tinggi
melalui scrubber akan memiliki kecenderungan untuk mengatasi tetesan dengan aliran
gas bersih outlet.
Pemisah siklon, mesh-pad, dan pisau semua digunakan untuk menghilangkan tetesan
cairan dari gas buang dan mengembalikan cairan ke air pembersih. Pemisah siklon,
yang paling populer untuk digunakan dengan scrubber venturi, dihubungkan ke bejana
venturi oleh siku yang banjir. Cairan mengurangi abrasi siku saat aliran gas keluar pada
kecepatan tinggi dari venturi ke pemisah.

14. What do you understand by impingement baffle plate? What is its importance in
impingement-entrainment Scrubber?
Answer :
Impingement baffle plate adalah plat yang digunakan untuk melindungi bundel saat
kecepatan masuk tinggi pada Impingement-Entrainment Scrubber.

15. On which principle fluidized bed scrubbers work and where are they used?
Answer :
 A zone of fluidized packing is provided where gas and liquid can mix intimately. Gas
passes upward through the packing, while liquid is sprayed up from the bottom and/or
flows down over the top of the fluidized layer of packing.

16. What do you understand by wet gas scrubbing and where is it used?
Answer :
Wet scrubber removes particulate matter from gas streams by incorporating the
particles into liquid droplets directly on contact. The basic function of wet scrubber is
to provide contact between the scrubbing liquid, usually water and, the particulate to be
collected. This contact can be achieved in a variety of ways as the particles are
confronted with so-called impaction target, which can be wetted surface as in packed
scrubbers or individual droplets as in spray scrubbers. The basic collection mechanism
is the same as in filters: inertial impaction, interception and diffusion. Generally,
impaction and interception are the predominant mechanism for particles of diameter
above 3 μm, and for particle of diameter below 0.3_μm diffusion begins to prevail.
There are many scrubber designs presently available where the contact between the
scrubbing liquid and the particles is achieved in a variety of ways. The major types are:
plate scrubber, packed-bed scrubber, spray scrubber, venturi scrubber, cyclone
scrubber, baffle scrubber, impingement-entrainment scrubber, fluidized-bed scrubber.

17. Name widely used scrubbers in industries.

Answer :
Plate scrubber, packed-bed scrubber, spray scrubber, venturi scrubber, cyclone
scrubber, baffle scrubber, impingement-entrainment scrubber, fluidized-bed scrubber.

18. Explain in detail about plate scrubber including its effectiveness.

Answer :
It contains a vertical tower containing one or more horizontal plates (trays). Gas enters
the bottom of the tower and must pass through perforations in each plate as it flows
ountercurrent to the descending water stream. Collection efficiency increases as the
diameter of the perforations decreases. A cut diameter, that collected with 50%
efficiency, of about _μm aerodynamic diameter can be achieved with 3.2-mm-diameter
holes in a sieve plate.
19. Provide working of packed bed scrubber by diagram and tell where is it most
effectively used? Explain working and major differences between spray scrubber
and cyclone scrubber. Provide diagram.
Answer :
Operates similarly to packed-bed gas absorber. Collection efficiency increases as
packing size decreases. A cut diameter of 1.5 μm aerodynamic diameter can be attained
in columns packed with 2.5 cm elements.

In spray scrubber, particles are collected by liquid drops that have been atomized by
spray nozzles. Horizontal and vertical gas flows are used, as well as spray introduced
co-current, countercurrent, or cross-flow to the gas. Collection efficiency depends on
droplet size, gas velocity, liquid/gas ratio, and droplet trajectories. For droplets falling
at their terminal velocity, the optimum droplet diameter for fineparticle collection lies
in the range 100 to 500 _μm. Gravitational settling scrubbers can achieve cut diameters
of about 2.0 μm. The liquid/gas ratio is in the range 0.001 to 0.01 m3/ m3 of gas
treated.
In cyclone scrubber, drops can be introduced into the gas stream of a cyclone to collect
particles. The spray can be directed outward from a central manifold or inward from the
collector wall.

20. Give detail working of venturi scrubber and provide schematic diagram.
Answer :
 A moving gas stream is used to atomize liquids into droplets. High gas velocities (60 to
120 m/s) lead to high relative velocities between gas and particles and promote
collection.

21. What do you understand by impingement baffle plate? What is its importance in
impingement-entrainment Scrubber?
Answer :
The gas is forced to impinge on a liquid surface to reach a gas exit. Some of the liquid
atomizes into drops that are entrained by the gas. The gas exit is designed so as to
minimize the loss of entrained droplets.

22. On which principle fluidized bed scrubbers work and where are they used?
Answer :
A zone of fluidized packing is provided where gas and liquid can mix intimately. Gas
passes upward through the packing, while liquid is sprayed up from the bottom and/or
flows down over the top of the fluidized layer of packing.
A fluidized bed scrubber for use in gas cleaning systems, comprising means for
introducing a quantity of polluted gas into a first chamber; means for removing a
portion of the pollutants from the polluted gas in the first chamber; means for
introducing the polluted gas into a second chamber; and means for removing additional
pollutants from the polluted gas in the second chamber. The invention also provides an
improved method for cleaning polluted gas, comprising the steps of passing the
polluted gas from a combustion source through a fluidized bed scrubber, removing a
plurality of pollutants within the fluidized bed scrubber, passing the fluidized gas
 through a reactor, passing the fluidized gas through a filter in order to remove further
quantities of pollutants, and emitting the now-clean gas into the atmosphere.

23. What do you understand by electrostatic precipitator and where is it used?

Answer :
The electrostatic precipitator is one of the most widely used collection devices for
particulates. An electrostatic precipitator (ESP) is a particulate collection device that
removes particles from a flowing gaseous stream (such as air) using the force of an
induced ectrostatic charge. ESP can be operated at high temperature and pressures, and
its power requirement is low. For these reasons the electrostatic precipitation is often
the preferred method of collection where high efficiency is required with small
particles. ESP are highly efficient filtration devices that minimally impede the flow of
gases through the device, and can easily remove fine particulate matter such as dust and
smoke from the air stream. In the electrostatic precipitation process the basic force
which acts to separate the particles from the gas is electrostatic attraction. The particles
are given an electrical charge by forcing them to pass through a corona, a region in
which gaseous ions flow. The electrical field that forces the charged particles to the
walls comes from electrodes maintained at high voltage in the center of the flow lane.
Electrostatic precipitator are used in :
a. Pulp and paper mills, Non-ferrous metal industry, Chemical industry, Public
buildings and areas
b. Cement recovery furnace, steel plant for cleaning Blast furnace gas.
c. Removing tars from coke oven, sulphuric acid (Pyrite raw material) , phosphoric
acid plant
d. Petroleum industry for recovery of catalyst, carbon black, thermal power plant.

24. What are major requirements of electrostatic precipitator? Explain steps in this
process.
Answer :
Requirement of electrostatic precipitation process:
a. Source of high voltage
b. Discharge and collecting electrode
c. Inlet and outlet for gas
d. A means for disposal of collected material
 e. Cleaning system, outer casing.
Steps in electrostatic precipitation:
a. Generation of electric field high voltage direct current 20-80kv.
b. Generation of electric charges
c. Transfer of electric charge to a dust particle.
d. Movement of the charge dust particle in an electric field to the collection electrodes.
e. Adhesion of the charge dust particle to the surface of the collection electrode.
f. Dislodging of dust layer from collection electrode
g. Collection of dust layer in a hopper
h. Removal of the dust from the hopper.

25. Explain electrostatic process by schematic diagram

Answer:
In the electrostatic precipitation process the basic force which acts to separate the
particles from the gas is electrostatic attraction. From the schematic diagram dust laden
air and gases in from 2. In the ESP The particles are given an electrical charge by
forcing them to pass through a corona, a region in which gaseous ions flow. The
electrical field that forces the charged particles to the walls comes from electrodes
maintained at high voltage in the center of the flow lane. the clean of gas and air out
from 3, and dust or air left behind return to process or dumped.
 3

31. Explain basic principle used in ESP

Answer :
An electrostatic precipitator (ESP) is a particulate collection device that remove
particles from a flowing gaseous stream (such as air) using the force of an induced
electrostatic charge. In the electrostatic precipitation process the basic force which acts
to separate the particles from the gas is electrostatic attraction. The particles are given
an electrical charge by forcing them to pass through a corona, a region in which
gaseous ions flow. The electrica l field that forces the charged particles to the walls
comes from electrodes maintained at high voltage in the center of the flow lane.
Principle of ESP has four distinct phases as follows :
a. Ionization or corona generation : this electrical break down or ion discharge is
known as corona formation and thereby gas is transformed from insulating to
conducting state. Two type of corona discharge can be generate which are :
 Negative corona
 Positive corona
Negative corona are commonly used in industrial application, while for cleaning air
in inhabited space positive coronas are used.
 b. Charging of Particles
c. Migration and Precipitation Particle
d. Removal of deposited dust : Once collected, particle can be removed by coalescing
and draining, in the case of liquid aerosols and by periodic impact or rapping, in case
of solid material. In case of solid material, a sufficiently thick layer of dust must be
collected so that it falls into the hopper or bin in coherent masses to prevent
excessive re-entrainment of the material into the gas system.

32. What is electrical breakdown ? show it by graph in case of ESP.

Answer :

At the graph electrical break down or ion discharge is known as corona formation and
thereby gas is transformed from insulating to conducting state when the potential
difference between the wire and electrode increases, a voltage is reached where an
electrical breakdown of the gas occurs near the wire.

33. Tell the size of particle for which diffusion charging predominates.
Answer :
Mainly two mechanisms are responsible for particle charging. Each mechanism
becomes significant according to particle size ranges. For particles having diameter
greater than 1µm, field charging is dominant force; and for particle size less than 0.2
µm diffusion charging predominates.
34. Name any five types of electrostatic precipitators.

Answer :
a. Single Stage Precipiators
 Plate wire Precipitators
 Flat Plate Precipitators
 Tubular Precipitators
 Wet Precipitators
b. Two stage Precipitators

35. Explain in detail about single stage precipitators and two stage precipitators and
give difference between these two.
Answer :
a. Single Stage Precipiators
1. Plate wire Precipitators
 In a plate-wire ESP, gas flows between parallel plates of sheet metal and high-
voltage electrodes.
 These electrodes are long wires weighted and hanging between the plates or are
supported there by mast-like structures (rigid frames).
 Within each flow path, gas flow must pass each wire in sequence as flows
through the unit.
 Plate-wire ESPs are used in a wide variety of industrial applications, including
coal-fired boilers, cement kilns, solid waste incinerators, paper mill recovery
boilers, petroleum refining catalytic cracking units, sinter plants, basic oxygen
furnaces, open hearth furnaces, electric arc furnaces, coke oven batteries, and
glass furnaces
2. Flat Plate Precipitators
 A significant number of smaller precipitators [100,000 to 200,000 actual cubic
feet per minute (acfm)] use flat plates instead of wires for the high-voltage
electrodes.
 A flat plate ESP operates with little or no corona current flowing through the
collected dust, except directly under the corona needles or wires.
 Flat plate ESPs seem to have wide application for high-resistivity particles with
small (1 to 2 µm) mass median diameters.
  Fly ash has been successfully collected with this type of ESP, but low-flow
velocity appears to be critical for avoiding high rapping losses.
3. Tubular Precipitators
 The original ESPs were tubular like the smokestacks they were placed on, with
the highvoltage electrode running along the axis of the tube.
 Tubular precipitators have typical applications in sulfuric add plants, coke oven
by product gas cleaning (tar removal), and, recently, iron and steel sinter plants
4. Wet Precipitators
 Any of the precipitator configurations discussed above may be operated with wet
walls instead of dry.
 The water flow may be applied intermittently or continuously to wash the
collected particles into a sump for disposal.
 The advantage of the wet wall precipitator is that it has no problems with rapping
re- entrainment or with back coronas.
 The disadvantage is the increased complexity of the wash and the fact that the
collected slurry must be handled more carefully than a dry product, adding to the
expense of disposal
b. Two stage Precipitators
 The previously described precipitators are all parallel in nature, i.e., the discharge
and collecting electrodes are side by side.
 Two-stage precipitators are considered to be separate and distinct types of devices
compared to large, high-gas-volume, single-stage ESPs.
 The two-stage precipitator invented by Penney is a series device with the
discharge electrode, or ionizer, preceding the collector electrodes.
 Advantages of this configuration include more time for particle charging, less
propensity for back corona, and economical construction for small sizes.

36. What is difference between flat plate precipitators and tubular precipitators?
Answer :
a. The tubular Precipitators
The original ESPs were tubular like the smokestacks they were placed on, with the
highvoltage electrode running alone the axis of the tube.
b. The flat plate precipitators
 A significant number of smaller precipitators [100,000 to 200,000 actual cubic feet
per minute (acfm)] use flat plates instead of wires for the high-voltage electrodes.
Flat plate ESPs seem to have wide application for high-resistivity particles with
small (1 to 2 µm) mass median diameters.

37. How does wet precipitator work?

Answer :
Precipitator operated with wet walls instead of dry. The water flow may be applied
intermittently or continuously to wash the collected particles into a sump for disposal.

38. Name major type of industries where ESPs are used.

Answer :
 Pulp and paper mills, Non-ferrous metal industry, Chemical industry, Public
buildings and areas.
 Cement recovery furnace, steel plant for cleaning Blast furnace gas.
 Removing tars from coke oven, sulphuric acid (Pyrite raw material ) , phosphoric
acid plant.
 Petroleum industry for recovery of catalyst, carbon black, thermal power plant.

39. What are major operational issues related to ESP?

Answer :
 Pre-Scrubbing
 Wash-down sprays and wires
 Wet/dry Interface
 Current Suspension
 Sparking
 Mist Elimination

40. What are advantages and draw backs of ESP?

Answer:
 Keuntungan ESP
 Efisiensi pengumpulan yang tinggi
 Biaya pemeliharaan dan pengoperasian yang rendah
  Menangani volumebesar pada gas suhu tinggi
 Waktu perawatan tidak ada
 Mudah dibersihkan.
 Kekurangan ESP
 Biaya awal yang tinggi
 Kebutuhan ruang lebih banyak
 Bahaya ledakan yang mungkin terjadi
 Produksi gas beracun.

41. Explain working of plate- wire precipitators.

Answer:
 Plate-Wire Precipitators
 Dalam Plate-Wire ESP, mengalir gas antara pelat paralel atau lembaran logam
dan elektroda tegangan tinggi.
 Elektroda-elektroda ini adalah kawat panjang yang tertimbang dan tergantung
diantara pelat atau didukung oleh struktur tiang-tiang (bingkai kaku).
 Dalam setiap jalur aliran, aliran gas harus melewati setiap kawat secara beurutan
seperti mengalir melalui unit.
 Plate-Wire ESP digunakan dalam berbagai macam aplikasi industri, termasuk
boiler bahan bakar batubara, kilns semen, incinerators limbah padat, boiler
pemulihan pabrik kertas, penyulingan minyak bumi unit catalytic cracking.
Tanaman sinter, basic oxygen furnaces, open hearth furnaces, electric arc
furnaces, coke oven batteries, dan glass furnaces.

42. What do you mean by migration speed and how migration and precipitation of particle
take place in ESP?
Answer:
Kecepatan partikel bermuatan yang tersuspensi di dalam gas di bawah pengaruh medan
listrik dikenal sebagai kecepatan migrasi. Kecepatan migrasi partikel adalah parameter
yang paling penting dan merupakan fungsi dari sejumlah besar operasi, seperti:
kekuatan medan listrik, ukuran partikel, viskositas gas, sifat debu. Gaya utama yang
bekerja pada partikel adalah gaya gravitasi, gaya listrik, kekuatan kental, dan gaya
inersia.
43. What is the difference between absorption and adsorption?
Answer:
 Absorpsi adalah proses dimana transfer komponen gas dari fase gas ke fase cair
berlangsung. Lebih khusus lagi dalam pengendalian pencemaran, absorpsi
melibatkan penghilangan kontaminan gas yang tidak diinginkan dari aliran proses
dengan melarutkannya dalam cairan.
 Adsorpsi adalah pencabutan kontaminan yang dilakukan dengan melewatkan aliran
gas buangan melalui bahan padat penuang (adsorben) yang terkandung dalam
adsorpsi. Permukaan bahan padat berpori menarik dan menahan gas (adsorbat) baik
dengan adsorpsi fisik atau kimia. Perbedaan mendasa antara adsorpsi fisik dan kimia
adalah cara molekul gas terikat pada adsorben.

44. Write properties of a gas stream for selection of a control system.

Answer:
 Sifat-sifat gas stream untuk pemilihan sistem kontrol
Pemilihan dan perancangan sistem kontrol kontaminan gas dilakukan berdasarkan
beberapa informasi spesifik mengenai aliran gas yang akan diolah. Berikut adalah
faktor yang dipertimbangkan selama pemilihan suatu proses.
 Karakteristik partikel aliran gas
 Aliran gas rata-rata atau alir puncak
 Rata-rata arus gas dan suhu puncak
 Rataan arus gas partikulat dan konsentrasi puncak
 Efisiensi aliran gas minimal, rata-rata, dan konsentrasi oksigen maksimum
 Konsentrasi rata-rata dan konsentrasi terkontaminasi
 Karakteristik pengapian kontaminan.

45. Explain difference between physical adsorption & chemical adsorption.

Answer:
 Perbedaan antara adsorpsi fisik dan kimia
Adsorpsi Fisik Adsorpsi Kimia

Gas atau molekul

Kontaminan
uap gas
lemah
dan dipegang kuat ke permukaan padat
dipegang pada permukaan padat oleh kekuatan valensi.
 oleh kekuatan tarik antarmolekul.
Hal ini disertaiReaksi
dengankimia terjadi antara adsorben dan kontaminan gas.
kondensasi
kapiler didalam pori-pori.
Reaksi kimia
Adsorpsi fisikmudah dibalikbiasanya
oleh ireversibel.
penerapan panas atau dengan
mengurangi tekanan.
Biasa digunakanHaluntuk
ini sering
menangkap
digunakan untuk mengendalikan gas asam.
dan konsentarsi senyawa organik. Adsorpsi kimia juga digunakan
untuk mengendalikan uap merkuri.

Suhu gas biasanya

Adsorpsidijaga
kimia dapat
pada dilakukan pada suhu yang lebih tinggi
tingkat yang kurang dari sekitar 120 (100 °F – 400 °F).
°F.
Lebih tinggi titik
Jauhdidih
lebihyang
lambat
lebih
daripada adsorpsi fisik. Jumlah adsorpsi
besar akan menjadi adsorpsi. gas tergantung pada suhu dan
tekanan.

Hal ini berbanding

Membebaskan
lurus dengan jumlah
luas panas yang lebih banyak dan
permukaan yang tersedia dan karenanya membutuhkan banyak
adsorpsi multilayer dapat terjadi. energi.

46. Define salient features of adsorption process.

Answer:
 Slaient Feature dalam Proses Adsorpsi
 Proses adsorpsi digunakan secara ekstensif pada aplikasi berskala besar yang
memiliki konsentrasi uap pelarut pada kisaran 10 sampai 10.000 ppm
 Sebelum menjadi jenuh dengan pelarut, adsorben diisolasi dari aliran gas dan
diolah untuk mendorong pelarut senyawa dari adsorben padat dan menjadi
volume kecil, aliran gas konsentrasi tinggi.
 Aliran gas desorpsi kemudian diolah untuk memulihkan dan menggunakan
kembali pelarutnya
 Adsorben didinginkan (jika perlu) dan dikembalikan ke layanan adsorpsi
 Karena adsorben diperlakukan dan ditempatkan kembali dalam proses, proses
adsorpsi ini adalah regeneratif
 Proses adsorpsi biasanya beroperasi pada efisiensi 90 samapai 98% selama
periode waktu yang lama.
 47. What is operating adsorption efficiency and its usual range?
Answer:
Proses adsorpsi biasanya beroperasi pada efisiensi 90 samapai 98% selama periode
waktu yang lama.

48. Name major type of adsorbent with their physical properties.

Answer:
 Sifat Fisik dari Jenis Adsorpsi Utama
Internal Porosity (%)
Adsorbent Surface Pore Bulk Mean
A V D P
r o r o
e l y r
a densityu e
(m2/gm) (gm/cm3) m Diameter
(Å)e
(cm3/gm)

Activated carbon55-75 600-1600 0,8-1,2 0,35-0,50 1500-2000

Activated alumina30-40 200-300 0,29-0,37 0,90-1,00 1800-2000

Zeolite (Molecular sieves)

40-55 600-700 0,27-0,38 0,80 300-900

Synthetic Polymers - 1080-1100 0,94-1,16 0,34-0,40 -

49. Explain major steps of adsorption process by diagram only.

Answer:
50. Define isotherm and explain isotherm graph for carbon tetrachloride.
Answer:
Isoterm adalah plot dari kapasitas adsorben versus tekanan parsial dari adsorbat pada
suhu konstan. Kapasitas adsorbsi biasanya diberikan dalam pon adsorbat per 100 pon
adsorben. Jenis grafik ini digunakan untuk memperkirakan jumlah adsorpsi. Adsorben
bisa terbentuk cekung ke atas, cekung kebawah, atau “S”.

51. Explain difference between isobars and isostere.

Answer:
Isobars adalah plot dari jumlah uap yang terabsorbsi versus suhu pada tekanan konstan
sedangkan isostere adalah plot dari tekanan versus reciprocal of absolute temperature
(In (P) Vs 1/T) pada jumlah konstan uap yang terabsorbsi.

52. Explain adsorption isobar for benzene on carbon by plot.

Answer:
Isobars adalah plot dari jumlah uap yang terabsorbsi versus suhu pada tekanan konstan.
Gambar dibawah menunjukkan grafik isobar untuk adsorpsi uap benzena pada karbon
aktif.
53. How are adsorbents regenerated? Explain method of regeneration of adsorbent.
Answer:
Regeneration is accomplished by reversing the adsorption process, usually increasing
the temperature or decreasing the pressure. Following four main methods used
commercially for regeneration.
Thermal Swing: The bed is heated so that the adsorption capacity is reduced to a lower
level. The adsorbate leaves the surface of the carbon and is removed from the vessel by
a stream of purge gas. Cooling must be provided before the subsequent adsorption
cycle begins.
Pressure Swing: The pressure is lowered at a constant temperature to reduce the
adsorbent capacity.
Inert Purge Gas Stripping: The stripping action is caused by an inert gas that reduces
the partial pressure of the contaminant in the gas phase, reversing the concentration
gradient. Molecules migrate from the surface into the gas stream.
Displacement Cycle: The adsorbates are displaced by a preferentially adsorbed
material. This method is usually a last resort for situations in which the adsorbate is
both valuable and heat sensitive and in which pressure swing regeneration is
ineffective.

54. What is displacement cycle and when is it used?

Answer:
Displacement cycle : adsorpsi digantikan oleh bahan yang teradsorpsi secara khusus.
Metode ini biasanya merupakan upaya terakhir untuk situasi dimana adsorbat sangat
berharga dan sensitif terhadap panas dan yang mana regenerasi ayunan tekanan tidak
efektif.

55. Write main factors affecting performance of adsorption system.

Answer:
Temperature: For physical adsorption processes, the capacity of an adsorbent
decreases as the temperature of the system increases.
Pressure: Adsorption capacity increases with an increase in the partial pressure of the
vapour.
Gas velocity: The slower the contaminant stream flows through the adsorbent bed, the
greater the probability of a contaminant molecule reaching an available site.
 Humidity: Activated carbon has more affinity towards nonpolar hydrocarbons over
polar water vapour.

56. How solubility of contaminants affects adsorption and give law which explains
equilibrium solubility of gas in liquid.
Answer:
Solubility of contaminant affects the amount of contaminant that can be adsorbed. It is
a function of both the temperature and, to a lesser extent pressure of a system. As we
increase the temperature of the system the amount of gas that can be absorbed by liquid
decreases, while as with increasing the pressure generally absorption increases. The
solubility data are analyzed by equilibrium diagram.

57. Explain working of spray tower and packing tower in detail.

Answer:

Spray Tower: Spray towers are useful for large volume handling with relatively low
pressure drop and high efficiency. In general smaller the droplet size the greater the
turbulence, the more chance for absorption of the gas. Absorbing liquid usually water is
sprayed through the contaminated gas and the absorbent contaminant solution falls
downwards for removal while clean gas exits through an outlet valve in the top of unit.
Moisture eliminator reduces the amount of moisture in the gases being released. Spray
tower has less gas liquid interfacial area so they are less effective in removal of gaseous
contaminant.