Thesis-Comparative Chemometric Studies of Water Quality Parameters of Drinking Underground Water of Rural & Urban Areas of District Jind, Haryana

COMPARATIVE CHEMOMETRIC STUDIES
OF WATER QUALITY PARAMETERS OF

DRINKING UNDERGROUND WATER OF
RURAL & URBAN AREAS OF DISTRICT
JIND, HARYANA
A Thesis
Submitted to
NIILM UNIVERSITY, KAITHAL
By
JAI PAL
Reg. No.: NU/K/13/6501/0111
Under the Guidance of
Dr. P. S. Kadian (Supervisor)

Department of Chemistry, NIILM University, Kaithal
Dr. Bal Raj Deshwal (Co-supervisor)

Department of Chemistry, A I J H M College, Rohtak
In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements

For the Award of Degree
of
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
in Chemistry
NIILM UNIVERSITY, KAITHAL (HARYANA)

(January, 2018)
Comparative chemometric studies of water quality parameters of drinking underground water of rural & urban areas
of district Jind, Haryana
S.No. Item Pages
1 Candidate Declaration i
2 Certificate from Supervisor ii
3 Certificate from Co-Supervisor iii
4 Abstract iv
5 Acknowledgements v
6 List of Figures vi
7 List of Tables viii
8 List of Publications ix
9 Abbreviations x
ii
DECLARATION
It is certified that the research work presented in this thesis entitled
“Comparative chemometric studies of water-quality parameters of drinking
groundwater water of rural & urban areas of District Jind, Haryana” embodies the
results of original research work carried out by me and this research work has not
been submitted in partial or full for the award of any other diploma or degree in any
other university. All the ideas and references have been duly acknowledged.
Date: (Jai Pal)
Place: Reg No.: NU/K/13/6501/0111
iii
CERTIFICATE FROM SUPERVISOR
“Comparative chemometric studies of water-quality parameters of drinking
groundwater water of rural & urban areas of District Jind, Haryana” has been carried
out by (Jai Pal) under my supervision for the degree of “DOCTOR OF
PHILOSOPHY” in Chemistry. This research work is original and has not been
submitted before for any degree of this or any other university. The thesis is fit to be
considered for the award of degree of Doctor of philosophy.
Dr. P. S. Kadian
(Supervisor)
Professor
Department of Chemistry
NIILM University, Kaithal
iv
CERTIFICATE FROM CO-SUPERVISOR
“Comparative chemometric studies of water quality parameters of drinking
groundwater water of rural & urban areas of District Jind, Haryana” has been carried
out by (Jai Pal) under my supervision for the degree of “DOCTOR OF
PHILOSOPHY” in Chemistry. This research work is original and has not been
submitted before for any degree of this or any other university. The thesis is fit to be
considered for the award of degree of Doctor of philosophy.
Dr. Bal Raj Deshwal

(Co-supervisor)
Associate Professor
Department of Chemistry
A. I. J. H. M. (PG) College, Rothtak
v
ABSTRACT
The present study represents a comprehensive investigation of the current
status of groundwater quality of Jind district over a period of more than two years.
Some water quality parameters have already exceeded the limit and some parameters
are approaching towards the limit because of leaching, percolation and other such
phenomenon. It is therefore need of hour to take necessary measures to control the
groundwater pollution. The excess use of ground water resources in the Jind district
has led to contamination of groundwater quality.
The principle aim of this study was to determine the physico-chemical
analysis of groundwater to evaluate its efficiency for potability. A total of 663 water
samples were collected from 314 villages of Jind district. The parameter analyzed
were pH, EC, TDS, TH, TA, Cl–, F–, Ca2+, Mg2+, SO42–, PO43– and NO3– in water.
The mean pH values of all samples analyzed was 7.96 which are well below
the standard prescribed for drinking purpose. The mean EC observed was 1.346. All
the water samples examined have high EC and thus water samples have a corrosive
property.
Most of the water samples of Jind district are of hard type and none of the
samples showed soft or moderately hard type water quality. Jind district has 4.1 %
moderately hard water and 26.8% is hard water, 69.1 % is very hard water.
Further on the basis of Total Dissolved Solids (TDS), 2.5% water of Jind
district is good, 16.2% is fair, 41.4% is average, 22.9% is poor, 16.2% is very poor
and 0.6% water comes under unacceptable category.
vi
The Total Alkalinity (mean values = 314ppm) was observed in the acceptable
limit. The mean Calcium values of all samples of Jind district was 87 ppm which are
below the permissible limit of Calcium i.e. 200 ppm. The mean Magnesium content of
all samples of Jind district was 51 ppm which is also in the range. It is observed that
concentration of Magnesium in water is nearly half when compared to Calcium
possibly due to lesser presence of Magnesium minerals.
The mean Chloride content of samples of Jind district was 209 ppm which is
in the acceptable limit of standard of drinking water quality. The mean Fluoride
contant of samples of Jind district was 1.8 ppm which is higher than the permissible
limit. On account of higher Fluoride level, the browning of teeth and dental fluorosis
has been observed in many regions.
The mean Sodium and Potassium values observed are 159 and 14 ppm which
are also in the acceptable limit of standard of drinking water quality. The mean
Sulphate, Phosphate and Nitrate concentrations observed are 135, 1.6 and 22ppm
respectively which are also in the acceptable limit of standard of drinking water
quality.
Further there is declining trend in the depth of ground water level due to over
exploitation and thus it requires careful management of surface water and conjunctive
use of surface water and groundwater.
Key Words: Groundwater, Water Quality Parameters, Total Hardness, Total
Dissolved Solids.
vii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This research would not have been possible without the support of my
advisors so, I would like to express my heartiest gratitude to my Research Supervisor,
Dr. P. S. Kadian and Research Co-supervisor, Dr. Bal Raj Deshwal who are great
teachers and mentors, for their invaluable advices and consecutive supports for this
research. I am indebted to them for their excellent guidance, support and for the
countless hours they dedicated to brain-storming sessions. They foster a fun, stress-
free working relationship and also encourage scholars for their academic progress
making. It is a real pleasure to work for him. They are not only outstanding advisors
but also distinguished research leaders. They have brought me to the cutting-edge
research topic and provided me excellent academic training and precious ideas, which
make the whole work possible. Their strict attitude in research with teaching,
generosity and considerateness to students and colleagues and their deep devotion to
career have shown me the personalities that a real scientist should possess. Working
with Dr. P. S. Kadian and Dr. Bal Raj Deshwal, was a priceless experience for me.
My heartfelt thanks to my parents Sh. Pratap Singh my father and Smt.
Nyadhri my mother who supervised my home schooling during the first six academic
years of my life, which served as the foundation for my education since then.
(Jai Pal)
viii
LIST OF FIGURES
Page No.
Fig. 1.1 Global distribution of the world’s water 6
Fig. 1.2 Various factors responsible for groundwater pollution 25
Fig. 1.3 Statistics regading water resources of India 28
Fig. 1.4 Increase in ground water utilization for irrigation 31
Fig. 1.5 Drinking Water Source in Households in India 33
Fig. 1.6 Global Water Usage 34
Fig. 2.1 Location Map of Haryana 46
Fig. 2.2 Map of Haryana 47
Fig. 2.3 Location Map of Jind 59
Fig. 2.4 Four sub-districts of Jind 60
Fig. 2.5 Some major cities of Jind District 60
Fig. 2.6 Map of water levels in different parts of Jind District 63
Fig. 5.1 Geographical map of Jind District 133
Fig. 5.2 Ratio of Water Samples in Villages of different Blocks of 174
district Jind on the basis of Total Hardness
Fig. 5.3 Ratio of Water Samples in Villages of different Blocks of 175
district Jind on the basis of Total Dissolved Solids
Fig. 5.4 Drinking water quality of Jind District on the basis of Total 176
Hardness
Fig. 5.5 Drinking water quality of Jind District on the basis of Total 176
Dissolved Solids
Fig. 5.6 Comparison of Mean pH values of Drinking Water in 178
Different Blocks of district Jind
Fig. 5.7 Comparison of Mean Elecrical Conductivity values of 178
Drinking Water in Different Blocks of district Jind
Fig. 5.8 Comparison of Mean Total Dissolved Salts values of 179
Fig. 5.9 Comparison of Mean Total Hardness values of Drinking 179
ix
Water in Different Blocks of district Jind

Fig. 5.10 Comparison of Mean Calcium ions values of Drinking 180
Fig. 5.11 Comparison of Mean Magnesium ions values of Drinking 180
Fig. 5.12 Comparison of Mean Alkalinity values of Drinking Water in 181
Fig. 5.13 Comparison of Mean Chloride ion values of Drinking Water 181
in Different Blocks of district Jind
Fig. 5.14 Comparison of Mean Fluoride ions values of Drinking 182
Fig. 5.15 Comparison of Mean Sodium ions values of Drinking Water 182
Fig. 5.16 Comparison of Mean Potassium ions values of Drinking 183
Fig. 5.17 Comparison of Mean Sulphate ions values of Drinking 183
Fig. 5.18 Comparison of Mean Phosphate ions values of Drinking 184
Fig. 5.19 Comparison of Mean Nitrate ions values of Drinking Water 184
Fig. 5.20 Comparison of Min, Max, Mean and S. D. of pH values of 185
Fig. 5.21 Comparison of Min, Max, Mean and S. D. values of 185
Electrical Conductivity of Drinking Water in Different
Blocks of district Jind
Fig. 5.22 Comparison of Min, Max, Mean and S. D. values of Total 186
Dissolved Solids of Drinking Water in Different Blocks of
district Jind
Hardness (TH) of Drinking Water in Different Blocks of
x
district Jind
Calcium ions of Drinking Water in Different Blocks of
district Jind
Magnesium ions of Drinking Water in Different Blocks of
district Jind
Alkalinity (TA) of Drinking Water in Different Blocks of
district Jind
Chloride ions of Drinking Water in Different Blocks of
district Jind
Fluoride ions of Drinking Water in Different Blocks of
district Jind
Fig. 5.29 Comparison of Min, Max, Mean and S. D. values of Sodium 189
ions of Drinking Water in Different Blocks of district Jind
Potassium ions of Drinking Water in Different Blocks of
district Jind
Sulphate ions of Drinking Water in Different Blocks of
district Jind
Phosphate ions of Drinking Water in Different Blocks of
district Jind
Fig. 5.33 Comparison of Min, Max, Mean and S. D. values of Nitrate 191
ions of Drinking Water in Different Blocks of district Jind
xi
LIST OF TABLES
Page No.
Table 1.1 Global water distribution 6

Table 1.2 Water Resources of India 28
Table 1.3 Distribution of Households by availability of drinking water 32-33
facility
Table 1.4 States and districts affected by geogenic contamination in 37
groundwater
Table 2.1 Behavioural pattern of depth of water level 49
Table 2.2 Blockwise details of ground water potential, draft and balance 65
in Jind district, Haryana
Table 4.1 Drinking Water – Specifications for some of the important 110
parameters Bureau of Indian Standards, IS 10500 – 2012
Table 4.2 Drinking Water Specifications 111
Table 5.1 Water quality parameters of villages of Alewa Block of Jind 145
District
Table 5.2 Comparison of drinking water samples of Alewa Block 146
of District Jind with BIS and WHO
Table 5.3 Water quality parameters of villages of Jind Block of Jind 147-
District 149
Table 5.4 Comparison of drinking water samples of Jind Block 150
Table 5.5 Water quality parameters of villages of Julana Block of Jind 151
District
Table 5.6 Comparison of drinking water samples of Julana Block 152
Table 5.7 Water quality parameters of villages of Narwana Block of 153-
Jind District 155
Table 5.8 Comparison of drinking water samples of Narwana Block 156
xii
Table 5.9 Water quality parameters of villages of Pillukhera Block of 157

Jind District
Table 5.10 Comparison of drinking water samples of Pillukhera Block 158
Table 5.11 Water quality parameters of villages of Safidon Block of Jind 159-
District 160
Table 5.12 Comparison of drinking water samples of Safidon Block 161
Table 5.13 Water quality parameters of villages of Uchana Uchana of 162-
Jind District 163
Table 5.14 Comparison of drinking water samples of Uchana Block 164
Table 5.15 Classification of Drinking Water in Villages of different 174
Blocks of District Jind on the basis of Total Hardness
Table 5.16 Classification of Drinking Water in Villages of different 175
Blocks of District Jind on the basis of Total Dissolved Solids
Table 5.17 Mean Values of different parameters of drinking water 177
of villages studied of the district Jind
Table 5.18 Correlation Coefficients among different drinking Water 192
Quality Parameters of all the villages studied of the district
Jind
xiii
LIST OF PUBLICATIONS
Journals
1) Deshwal J. P., Kundu, N., Saharan, J. P. and Deshwal B. R., “Physico-

chemical studies of water-quality parameters of drinking water - A case study
of rural areas of Narwana Tehsil, Haryana (India)”, International Journal of
Current Research (ISSN: 0975-833X), 8-9 (2016) 39329-39333.
2) Saharan, J.P., Deshwal J.P., and Deshwal, B. R., “Chemometric studies of
water-quality parameters of drinking water - A case study of Narwana City,
Haryana (India)”, Nature and Science (ISSN: 1545-0740), 13-7 (2015) 88-93.
Seminars/Conferences
1) J. P. Deshwal, B. R. Deshwal & J. P. Saharan “Physio-chemical studies of

water quality parameters of drinking water-A case study of Jind city, Haryana
(India)” in National Seminar on Industrial Globalization and Environmental
Awareness, (ISBN-13: 978-1533168078) held on Feb. 11, 2016
at Government PG College, Ambala Cantt., Haryana-India.
2) Neha, B. R. Deshwal, S. P. Sharma, P. Singh & J. P. Deshwal, “Studies of
quality parameters of drinking water-A case study of rural areas of Kaithal,
Haryana (India)” in National Seminar on Industrial Globalization and
Environmental Awareness, (ISBN-13: 978-1533168078) held on Feb. 11,
2016 at Government PG College, Ambala Cantt., Haryana-India.
3) J. P. Deshwal, Neha Kundu & B. R. Deshwal, “Chemometric analysis of
water quality parameters of potable water-A case study of Narwana city,
Haryana (India)” in National Seminar on Utility of Basic Sciences for
Engineers-UBSE-2K15, (ISSN: 2277 9876) held on Nov. 21, 2015 at B S
Anangpuria Institute of Technology & Management, Faridabad-India.
4) J. P. Deshwal, Neha Kundu & B. R. Deshwal, “Chemometric studies of water
quality parameters of drinking water-A case study of rural areas of Narwana,
Jind, Haryana (India)” in National Conference on "Current Advances in
xiv
Theoretical and Experimental Physics (CATEP-15) held on Nov. 07, 2015 at

S. D. College, Ambala Cantt.
5) Bal Raj Deshwal, Jaipal Deshwal & Jaipal Seharan, “Assessment of drinking
water quality: A case study of Narwana, Jind, Haryana, India” in National
Conference on Emerging Trends in Chemistry (NSETC-2014), 12-13 March,
2014, Dept. of Chemistry, A J H M College, Rohtak (Haryana), India.
6) Bal Raj Deshwal, Jaipal Deshwal & Jaipal Seharan, “Chemometric analysis
of groundwater of few villages of Narwana block in Jind district, Haryana,
India” in National Conference on Emerging Trends in Chemistry (NSETC-
2014), 12-13 March, 2014, Dept. of Chemistry, A J H M College, Rohtak
(Haryana), India.
7) Bal Raj Deshwal, Neha Kundu and Jaipal Deshwal, “Absorption kinetics of
nitric oxide into aqueous sodium hypochlorite solution” in National
Conference on Emerging Trends in Chemistry (NSETC-2014), 12-13 March,
2014, Dept. of Chemistry, A J H M College, Rohtak (Haryana), India.
xv
ABBREVIATIONS
APHA : American Public Health Association

ASTM : American Society for Testing & Materials
AWWA : American Water Works Association
BIS : Bureau of Indian Standards
BOD Biological Oxygen Demand
CGWB : Central Groundwater Board
COD : Chemical Oxygen Demand
DO : Dissolved Oxygen
dS : deci-Siemens (measure of conductivity)
EBT : Erichrome Black-T
EC : Electrical Conductivity
EDTA : Ethylene Diamine Tetra Acetic Acid
EPA : Environmental Protection Agency
L : Litre
m : Meter
MCLs : Maximum Contaminant Levels
RGNDWM : Rajiv Gandhi National Drinking Water Mission
TA : Total Alkalinity
TDS : Total Dissolved Solids
TH : Total Hardness
UNCED : United Nations Conference on Environment and Development
UNEP : United Nation Environment Programme
USEPA : United State Environmental Protection Agency
UNICEF : United Nations Children’s Fund
WHO : World Health Organization
WQI : Water Quality Index
WRC : Water Resources Commission
xvi
CONTENT
Chapter Title Pages
1. Introduction
1.1. Importance of water 2
1.2. Global distribution of water 5
1.3. Scarcity of Freshwater 7
1.4. Hydrology 8
1.5. Water Pollutants 10
1.5.1. Various kinds of impurities in water 11
1.6. Sources of Water Pollution 13
1.6.1. Pollution from point sources 13
1.6.2. Pollution from Diffuse sources 15
1.7. Soil - The ultimate Sink 19
1.8. Sources of drinking water supply 21
1.9. Groundwater 22
1.9.1. Use of Groundwater in different Fields 23
1.10. Groundwater Pollution 24
1.11. Status of Water in India 27
1.11.1. Water Resources in India 27
1.11.2. Groundwater extraction and use 29
1.11.3. Groundwater contamination in India 36
1.12. Pollution Threats to Groundwater 39
1.13. Relevance and Need of Present Study 41
2. Grounwater Scenario in Haryana

2.1. State of Haryana 45
2.2. Hydrometeorology 46
2.2.1. Behaviour of Ground Water Level 48
2.3. Ground Water Quality in Haryana State 49
2.4. Water Quality Analysis of Haryana State 50
xvii
2.4.1. Suitability for Drinking 53

2.4.2. Suitability for Irrigation 54
2.5. Groundwater Pollution in Major Cities of Haryana 54

2.6. Jind District, Haryana 58
2.6.1. Canal system and Irrigation in Jind District 61
2.6.2. Rainfall and Climate 61
2.6.3. Soils 62
2.7. Ground Water Scenario in Jind 62
2.7.1. Ground Water Resources in Jind District 64
2.7.2. Ground Water Quality in Jind District 65
2.7.3. Use of ground water in irrigation and drinking 66
2.8. Ground Water Related Issues and Problems 67
2.9. Aim and Objective of present study 68
3. Review of Literature
4. Drinking Water Quality Parameters

4.1. Water and its Contamination 104
4.2. Maximum Contaminant Levels 108
4.3. Specifications of the Drinking Water 109
4.4. Sampling of the Drinking Water 112
4.4.1. Alewa Block 113
4.4.2. Jind Block 114
4.4.3. Julana Block 114
4.4.4. Narwana Block 115
4.4.5. Pillukhera Block 116
4.4.6. Safidon Block 117
4.4.7. Uchana Block 118
4.5. Physicochemical Analysis Methods 119
4.5.1. Taste, Odour and Appearance 119
4.5.2. Temperature 120
4.5.3. pH 120
xviii
4.5.4. Electrical Conductivity 121

4.5.5. Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) 121
4.5.6. Total Alkalinity 122
4.5.7. Total Hardness (TH) (as CaCO3) 123
4.5.8. Calcium 125
4.5.9. Magnesium 126
4.5.10. Fluoride 127
4.5.11. Chloride 128
4.5.12. Sulphate 129
4.5.13. Nitrate 130
4.6. Statistical Interpretations 132
5. Drinking Water Quality Analysis of Jind District

5.1. Water Quality Monitoring in Alewa Block 134
5.2. Water Quality Monitoring in Jind Block 136
5.3. Water Quality Monitoring in Julana Block 138
5.4. Water Quality Monitoring in Narwana Block 139
5.5. Water Quality Monitoring in Pillukhera Block 140
5.6. Water Quality Monitoring in Safidon Block 141
5.7. Water Quality Monitoring in Uchana Block 143
5.8. Water Quality Monitoring in District as a Whole 165
5.8.1. pH 165
5.8.2. Electrical Conductivity 165
5.8.3. Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) 166
5.8.4. Total Hardness (TH) (as CaCO3) 166
5.8.5. Calcium 167
5.8.6. Magnesium 167
5.8.7. Total Alkalinity (TA) 168
5.8.8. Chloride 169
5.8.9. Fluoride 169
5.8.10. Sodium 169
5.8.11. Potassium 170
xix
5.8.12. Sulphate 170

5.8.13. Phosphate 171
5.8.14. Nitrate 171
5.9. Water Quality Parametersof General Importance 171
6. Conclusion 193
7. Bibliography 196
xx
INTRODUCTION
Water is the most precious gift of the nature. It is the substance which
influences economic, agricultural and industrial growth of the mankind. Several
fundamental rights especially those guaranteeing the rights to food, health and
development cannot be attained without guaranteeing access to clean water (Gleick,
1999). Importance of water led the United Nations General Assembly to designate 22
March of each year as the “World Day for Water” by adopting a resolution in 1992-
United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) in Rio de
Janeiro.
It is truly stated by the eminent Greek philosopher Pindar that "Water is the
best of all things". The availability of adequate water in terms of both quantity and
quality is essential for human existence. Earlier the importance to water was given
only from the point of view of quantity. Historically civilizations developed around
water bodies that were utilized to support agriculture and transportation besides for
human consumption. Recognition to the importance of water quality came more
slowly. Early humans could judge water quality only through the physical senses of
sight, taste and smell. Only after the development of biological, chemical and medical
sciences, methods to measure water quality and to determine its effects on human
health were identified (Peavy et al, 1987).
Water is the internal medium for almost all organisms and all the biochemical
reactions in the body of the organisms take place in that medium. In the Earth's crust
only 0.01% of total water exists as bore well water. Surface waters are usually rich in
turbidity, suspended impurities of decaying organic matter (vegetable and or animal),
sand and finely divided clay, microorganisms and bacteria, and small amount of
mineral salts dissolved from top soil.
1.1. Importance of water
All living organisms i.e. animals as well as plants need fresh water to maintain
their life processes. Apart from this, some organisms need water for living in; still
others cannot breed except in water. Though the amounts of water required are
different for different organisms, none can do entirely without it. All living organisms
contain 70% to 95% of water in their bodies. About 70% of the human body is made
up of water. Plant tissue also contains large amount of water.
Water is the most abundant, wonderful and essential natural resource present
on earth. Water is anomalous in its behavior due to its remarkable, unusual and unique
physical and chemical properties, which are mainly due to intermolecular hydrogen
bonding. Water prevents large fluctuations in surface temperature of earth because of
its high specific heat (1 cal.g-1cm-1). It is an excellent solvent because of its polar
nature with high dipole moment (1.84 × l0-3 emu) and high dielectric constant. It can
dissolve more substances than any other solvent, so it serves as an effective medium
for transport in geochemical cycles also. The life originated in water is also sustained
by water, hence water is "Mother for all living world".
Water is considered as one of the nutrients, although it yields no calories; it
enters into structural composition of the cell and is an essential component of diet
2
(Baloch et al., 2000). It is not only the basic need for human existence but also a vital
input for the development activities. It is necessary for all metabolic activities in the
body and contributes to heat regulation by perspiration. Degradation of water quality
creates water scarcity and limits its availability for human use and ecosystem and
thereby impacts the optimum management of water resources (Rao and Mamatha,
2004). Its availability in sufficient quantity and of right quality plays a key role in
providing a better quality of life. A daily per capita consumption of two liters by a
person weighing approximately 60kg is generally assumed (WHO, 1996). Gleick
(1999) estimates 50 Lpcd as a true minimum to sustain life in moderate climatic
conditions and average activity levels. Water has always been one of the most
precious commodities. Water functions as a solvent for wide variety of chemical
substances and facilitates industrial cooling and transportation. Water has acted as the
driving force of every civilization and is a part of all basic human needs, including
food, drinking water, sanitation, health, energy and shelter. Without water we can
have no society, no economy, no culture, and no life. The Mohenjodaro and Harappan
civilizations have thrown light on the fact that people of even that period had given
importance to proper and efficient water supply management. Water is being used in
all religious rituals and ceremonies since Ancient India because it is believed that the
pure, divine and well provided waters convey the offerings to Gods.
Vedic writings speak of the value of water:
“Apo Nara Eti Prokta Apo Vai Nasvnv
Ta Yadsyayanm Purv Ten Narayana Smarth”
(Water is the child of the Almighty God)
3
Gurubani (Japji, Guru Nanak) makes a most reverential recitation:
“Pavan Guru Pani Pita Mata Dharti Mahat”
(Air is the Guru, Water the father and Earth the great mother)
Charaka Samhita Sutrasthanam (196) also states the importance of water:
“Jalamekam vidham sarvam patatyaindram nabhastalat,
Tatpatatpatitam caiva desakalavapeksate.”
It is considered that Lord Indra directs the fall of water from heaven according to the
activities performed by mortals. This water while falling from the sky acquires
properties depending upon time and space (Krishnamurthy R, 1996).
The importance of water can be understood by the fact that many great
civilizations in the past sprang up along or near water bodies in India and abroad. The
development of water resources has often been used as a yardstick for socio-economic
and health status of many nations worldwide including India. Clean, fresh drinking
water is essential to human and other life forms. Chemically pure water does not exist
for any appreciable length of time in nature. Our natural environment supplies us
clean drinking water. But while falling as rain, water picks up small amounts of gases,
ions, dust, and particulate matter from the atmosphere. Then, as it flows over or
through the surface layers of the earth, it dissolves and carries with it some of almost
everything it touches, including that which is dumped into it by man. Provision of
regular supply of clean drinking water is a birth right of all the citizens of a country.
Access to safe drinking water has improved steadily and substantially over the last
decades in almost every part of the world (Lomborg, 2001). A correct balance in the
4
sensory, physical, chemical and microbiological qualities of water makes it suitable
for drinking. Water meeting these conditions is termed “Potable” meaning that it may
be consumed in any desirable amount without concern for adverse effects on health
(AWWA, 1990).
1.2. Global distribution of water
Global distribution of water is presented in Figure 1.1 and Table 1.1. Most
water in the Earth's atmosphere and crust comes from the world ocean’s saline
seawater, while freshwater accounts for only 2.5% of the total. Because the oceans
that cover roughly 70% of the area of the Earth reflect blue light, the Earth appears
blue from space, and is often referred to as the Blue Planet and the Pale Blue Dot.
The vast bulk of the water on Earth is regarded as saline or salt water, with an average
salinity of 35%. The remainder of the Earth's water constitutes the planet's fresh
water resource. Typically, fresh water is defined as water with salinity below 0.35%.
The ratio of saline water to the fresh water on Earth is around 40 to 1.
The total volume of water on Earth is estimated at 1.386 billion km³, with
97.5% being saline water and 2.5% being the fresh water. Most of the freshwater is
locked in polar ice caps and only a small fraction of that is available to supply the
multitude of human uses. Of the fresh water, only 0.3% is in liquid form on the
surface (Howard Perlman, 2016, Eakins and Sharman, 2010; Rodda and Shiklomanov,
2003). The total volume of water in rivers is estimated at 2,120 km³, or 2% of the
surface fresh water on Earth (Howard Perlman, 2016).
5
Figure 1.1: Global distribution of the world’s water.
Table 1.1: Global water distribution (Rodda and Shiklomanov, 2003)
Vol. of Water % of % of total

Water source
[km³] freshwater water
Oceans, Seas, & Bays 1,338,000,000 -- 96.5
Ice caps, Glaciers & Snow 24,064,000 68.7 1.74
Ground water 23,400,000 -- 1.69
Fresh 10,530,000 30.1 0.76
Saline 12,870,000 -- 0.93
Soil Moisture 16,500 0.05 0.001
Ground Ice & Permafrost 300,000 0.86 0.022
Lakes 176,400 -- 0.013
Fresh 91,000 0.26 0.007
Saline 85,400 -- 0.006
Atmosphere 12,900 0.04 0.001
Swamp Water 11,470 0.03 0.0008
Rivers 2,120 0.006 0.0002
Biological Water 1,120 0.003 0.0001
6
1.3. Scarcity of Freshwater
Due to increasing industrialization on one hand and exploding population on
the other, the demands of water supply have been increasing tremendously. Moreover
considerable part of this limited quality of water is polluted by sewage, industrial
waste and a wide range of synthetic chemicals.
Water is used in both productive and consumptive activities and contributes to
rural and urban livelihoods in complex ways. Crop and livestock production, agro-
processing, fishing, ecosystems, recreation and human health are all influenced by the
quality and quantity of available water. Many people do not have access to enough
water for both productive and consumptive uses. About one-third of the world’s
population lives in countries that are experiencing moderate to high water stress
resulting from increasing demands. Water use has been growing at more than twice
the rate of population increase during this century, and already a number of regions
are water short. Today, 31 countries, accounting for less than 8% of the world’s
population, face chronic freshwater shortages. Among the countries likely to run short
of water in the next 25 years are Ethiopia, India, Kenya, Nigeria and Peru. Parts of
other large countries (e.g. China) already face chronic water problems (Tibbetts,
2000). According to Population Action International, based upon the UN Medium
Population Projections of 1998, more than 2.8 billion people in 48 countries will face
water stress or scarcity conditions by 2025. By 2050, the number of countries facing
water stress or scarcity could rise to 54, with a combined population of four billion
people - about 40% of the projected global population of 9.4 billion (Gardner-Outlaw
and Engleman, 1997; UNFPA, 1997).
7
Water is difficult to treat, costly to transport and impossible to substitute and
the consumption is increasing day by day due to increase in population. It is not only
quantity that has to be preserved and ameliorated but also quality. Over one billion
people each year are exposed to unsafe drinking water due to poor source water
quality and lack of adequate water treatment. This results in 900 million cases of
diarrhea each year (Rijal and Fujioka, 2001). The estimated number of children that
die each year due to water related diseases ranges from 2.5 million to 15 million
(Burch and Thomas, 1998; Jorgensen et al., 1998). The defecation and urination
alongside rivers, lakes, and other bodies of water are common, especially in
developing countries and it is also used for domestic and recreational purposes. We
are experiencing water scarcity as a result of rising and competing demands for water
due to increasing population, the rapid expansion of irrigation, growth in industry and
power generation, and due to lack of investments in infrastructure or capacity. The
available water supply and its productive capacity are further strained by climatic
change, land degradation, deterioration of quality, and the need to preserve
environmental flows to protect aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems (Janmaat, 2004;
Murgai et al., 2001; Postel, 1999).
1.4. Hydrology
The term hydrology includes the study of storage and movement of water in
streams and lakes on the surface of the earth, as well as in ground water aquifers in
the subsurface. It encompasses both flow and water quality transport aspects of the
water cycle. An aquifer represents a geological unit, which can store and supply
significant quantities of water for a variety of uses. Ground water is an important
8
source of water supply for municipalities, agriculture, and industry. Primary users are
agriculture, municipalities, industry, and rural areas where alternate surface supplies
are inadequate. Agricultural irrigation use is clearly the largest category. Ground
water hydrology is of great importance because of the use of aquifer systems for water
supply and because of the threat of contamination from leaking hazardous waste sites,
which occur at or below the ground surface. Properties of the porous media and
subsurface geology govern both the rate and direction of ground water flow in any
aquifer system.
Hydrology deals with the origin and history of water. It yields information
about the environment through which water has circulated. It examines the
atmospheric water (rainwater), surface water and groundwater simultaneously and
also water pollution. In general, chemical composition of rainwater shows that it is
only slightly mineralized with specific electrical conductance (EC) generally below
50 µS/cm, chloride below 5 mg/L and HCO3- below 10 mg/L. Among the cations,
concentration of Ca, Mg, Na & K vary considerably but the total cations content is
generally below 15 mg/L except in samples contaminated with dust. The
concentration of sulphates and nitrates in rainwater may be high in areas near
industrial hubs. Surface water is found extremely variable in its chemical composition
due to variations in relative contributions of ground water and surface water sources.
The chemical composition of groundwater vary depending upon several factors like
frequency of rain, which will leach out the salts, time of stay of rain water in the root-
zone and intermediate zone, presence of organic matter etc. The movement of
percolating water through larger pores in earth is much more rapid than through the
9
finer pores. Apart from this, there are several other reactions including
microbiological mediated reactions, which tend to alter the chemical composition of
the percolating water. The overall effect of all these factors is that the composition of
ground water varies from time to time and from place to place. Contaminants can be
in the form of microorganism that barely visible in unaided eyes. A number of authors
have reported a statistically significant deterioration in the microbiological quality of
water between the source and point of use in the home (Welch et al., 2000; Genthe
and Strauss, 1997; Simango et al., 1992).
1.5. Water Pollutants
Water pollution is any chemical, physical or biological change in the quality
of water that has a harmful effect on any living thing that drinks or uses or lives (in)
it. When humans drink polluted water it often has serious effects on their health.
Water pollution can also make water unsuited for the desired use. There are several
classes of water pollutants.
The first are disease-causing agents. These are bacteria, viruses, protozoa and
parasitic worms that enter sewage systems and untreated waste. A second category of
water pollutants is oxygen-demanding wastes; wastes that can be decomposed by
oxygen-requiring bacteria. When large populations of decomposing bacteria are
converting these wastes it can deplete oxygen levels in the water. This causes other
organisms in the water, such as fish, to die. A third class of water pollutants is water-
soluble inorganic pollutants, such as acids, salts and toxic metals. Large quantities of
these compounds will make water unfit to drink and will cause the death of aquatic
life.
10
Another class of water pollutants is the nutrients; they are water-soluble
nitrates and phosphates that cause excessive growth of algae and other water plants,
which deplete the water's oxygen supply. This kills fish and, when found in drinking
water, can kill young children.
Water can also be polluted by a number of organic compounds such as oil,
plastics and pesticides, which are harmful to humans and all plants and animals in the
water. A very dangerous category is suspended sediment, because it causes depletion
in the water's light absorption and the particles spread dangerous compounds such as
pesticides through the water. Finally, water-soluble radioactive compounds can cause
cancer, birth defects, genetic damage and are thus very dangerous water pollutants.
The concentration of dissolved constituents in groundwater is comparatively
higher than surface water. It is common thinking that the potable water has few
numbers of dissolved inorganic constituents but the real picture is quite different, as
about 58 elements have been enlisted in the literature. Everyone knows that water
sustains life but not everyone knows that water endanger life as ingestion or exposure
to contaminated water can cause several health hazards. Therefore, safe drinking
water is essential to good health. In addition, diseases caused through consumption of
contaminated water, and poor hygiene practices are the leading cause of death among
children worldwide, after respiratory diseases.
1.5.1. Various kinds of impurities in water
Most surface water includes impurities of dissolved and suspended solids.
Suspended solids are substances that are not completely soluble in water and are
11
present as particles. These particles usually impart visible turbidity to water. The
common impurities present in natural water may be classified as follows:
a) Dissolved impurities
The inorganic salts which dissolve in natural water are usually bicarbonates,
chlorides, sulphates and nitrates of sodium, potassium, magnesium, calcium,
aluminum and iron. Zinc and copper salts are also sometimes present in traces.
a) Gases
Several gases such as carbon dioxide, oxides of nitrogen and sulphur,
hydrogen sulphide and ammonia may dissolve in natural water. These gases
are present as pollutants in the atmosphere and dissolve in water during the
rain fall and thus changing the pH of water.
b) Organic matter
Huge amount of domestic sewage and industrial wastes are thrown into canals
and rivers every year. These wastes contain organic compounds which
contaminates the natural resources of water.
c) Suspended impurities
The surface water contains suspended particles of sand, slit and minerals
eroded from the land.
d) Pathogenic microorganisms
Various pathogenic microorganisms such as bacteria, viruses etc. also enter in
to water bodies through sewage and other wastes.
12
1.6. Sources of Water Pollution
Many factors contribute to the quality of water. Pollution of surface and
groundwater resources occurs through Point and Diffuse sources. Examples of point
source pollution are effluents from industries, sewage-treatment plants and untreated
domestic sewage. Other examples of point source pollution include an oil spill from a
tanker, a discharge from a smoke stack (factory chimney), or someone pouring oil
from their car down a drain. The main sources of diffuse pollution may be
anthropogenic activities, such as agricultural applications of fertilizers and pesticides
or of geo-chemical origin, such as natural contamination of groundwater sources by
fluoride, arsenic and dissolved salts. Discharges from point sources as well as from
land application facilities tend to have higher dissolved solids than natural surface
waters (Kent and Belitz, 2004). Pollution from point sources can be controlled by
disposal in engineered facilities, treatment and recycling of waste materials.
Minimizing application of fertilizers and pesticides is a way to control pollution from
agricultural activities. Natural contamination of groundwater sources by fluoride,
arsenic and dissolved salts is dealt with by suitable treatment of extracted
groundwater.
1.6.1. Pollution from point sources
A) Industrial pollution
In case of industrial units, effluents in most of the cases are discharged into
pits, open ground, or open unlined drains near the factories, thus allowing it to
move to low lying depressions resulting in groundwater pollution. The industries,
which are emerging at a fast rate, produce several million m3 of wastewater per
13
day, which is discharged into rivers and streams. Thus the magnitude of damage
caused to our water resources can be estimated from the fact that about 70% of
rivers and streams in India contain polluted water. The incidence of surface and
groundwater pollution is highest in urban areas where large volumes of waste are
concentrated and discharged into relatively small areas. The groundwater
contamination is detected only some time after the subsurface contamination
begins. Although the industrial sector accounts for only 3% of the annual water
withdrawals in India, its contribution to water pollution, particularly in urban
areas, is considerable.
B) Pollution from domestic activities
Inadequate treatment of human and animal wastes contributes to the high
incidence of water related diseases in the country. To date, only 14% of rural and
70% of urban Indian inhabitants have access to adequate sanitation facilities.
Therefore, water contaminated by human waste is often groundwater table from
faulty septic tanks or pit latrines. Septic systems that are improperly sited,
designed, constructed, or maintained can contaminate ground water with bacteria,
viruses, nitrates, detergents, oils, and chemicals.
In India, 14 major river systems are heavily polluted due to about 50 million
cubic meters of untreated sewage discharged into them each year. The domestic
sector is responsible for the majority of the wastewater pollution in India. It is
estimated that over 7267 million litres of domestic wastewater per day is produced
in the major 22 cities in the country.
14
The disposal of hazardous waste like chemicals used in household septic
systems, paints and paint thinners, disinfectants, medicines, photographic
chemicals, and swimming pool chemicals is also a source of water pollution.
Similarly, many substances used in industrial processes also contaminate the
drinking water source. Disposal of radioactive wastes, oil spill by tanker accidents
are also the point sources sources of water pollution.
1.6.2. Pollution from Diffuse sources
The main sources of diffuse pollution may be anthropogenic activities, such as
agricultural applications of fertilizers and pesticides or of geo-chemical origin, such as
natural contamination of groundwater sources by fluoride, arsenic and dissolved salts.
A) Agricultural activities
In agriculture (Ongley, 1998), there is rarely interaction between agricultural
managers and water quality managers with the result that the database that is
needed to assess agricultural impacts on water quality is never available. Use of
fertilizers and pesticides to improve soil fertility and crop protection has created
an environmental menace. Both these products find their way into the food chain
and have implications on human health. Fertilizers and pesticides have entered the
water supply through runoff and leaching to the groundwater table and pose a
hazard to human, animal and plant populations. Some of these chemicals such as
hexachlorocyclohexane (HCH), dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT),
endosulfan, methylmalathion, malathion dimethoate, etc. are considered as
extremely hazardous and are banned or are under strict control in developed
countries.
15
B) Geological origin
Pollution of groundwater resources due to geological conditions has become a
matter of serious concern (Rao and Mamatha, 2004). Groundwater in certain
geological formations may not be of desired quality for potable use because of
geochemical conditions. Most of the critical quality related problems of ground
water in India are cited as geogenic largely due to major inorganic pollutants like
fluoride and arsenic. Arsenic problem prevails in 3136 habitations and fluoride is
endemic in 36,988 habitations. Arsenic contamination of groundwater invariably
arises from natural geological and environmental conditions. Arsenic arises in
many ores and minerals and is frequently present in combination with iron and
manganese oxides; under various natural conditions it can be rendered soluble and
released into the groundwater. Groundwater with high fluoride content is found
mostly in calcium deficient groundwater in many basement aquifers, such as
granite and gneiss, in geothermal waters and in some sedimentary basins. Almost
all of the states and about 200 districts in India have been identified as endemic to
fluorosis due to abundance in natural occurring fluoride bearing minerals. The
fluorosis problem is severe in India as almost 80% of the rural population depends
on untreated groundwater for potable water supplies (Rao and Mamatha, 2004).
Factor contributing to excess fluoride in groundwater in rural regions of India is
the over exploitation of groundwater resources for agricultural and drinking water
purposes. The quantum of water drawn from the aquifers exceeds aquifer recharge
that aids the concentration of fluoride in the aquifers. Though iron content in
drinking water may not affect the human system as a simple dietary overload, in
the long run prolonged accumulation of iron in the body may result in
16
homochromatosis, where tissues are damaged. A total of 106,019 sq km area
(about 31%) of Rajasthan comes under saline groundwater. Arsenic in
groundwater has been reported in shallow aquifers from 61 blocks in eight
districts of West Bengal.
C) Faecal pollution
The level of faecal coliform bacteria in most rivers often exceeds the WHO
standards and is responsible for causing a number of gastrointestinal ailments
among the population. Faecal pollution of drinking water causes water borne
diseases, which wiped out entire population of cities (Farah et al., 2002). The
coliform groups of bacteria principally infect water used for domestic, industrial
or other purposes (Zamaxaka et al., 2004). Consequently, this has caused many
people to suffer from various diseases (Tanwir et al., 2003). Unsanitary disposal
of refuge and garbage, increased use of agricultural pesticides and fertilizers,
industrial operations, use of pit latrines and problems with septic tank systems
constitute major anthropogenic activities causing groundwater pollution (Baloch
et al., 2000; Sichingabula and Nkhuwa, 1998; Knox and Canter, 1996; Koppe,
1973). Freedom from contamination with faecal matter is the most important
parameter of water quality because human faecal matter is generally considered to
be a greater risk to human health as it is more likely to contain human enteric
pathogens (Scott et al., 2003). Groundwater supplies have some advantages over
surface water. Data have shown that groundwater is less susceptible to favour
bacterial growth (Niquette et al., 2001). Groundwater supply can be easily
17
developed at a small capital cost (Raghunath, 1982), so preferred especially in
rural areas.
Diposal of plastic goods, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) used electronic
circuit borads, lead used in gasoline, mercury and Cadmium used in batteries,
highly toxic tributyltim (TBT) used in paints are some other sources of water
pollution.
The impact of anthropogenic activities has been so extensive that the water
bodies have lost their self purification capacity to a large extent (Sood et al.,
2008). Over one billion people in the world lack access to safe water supplies.
Exposure to environmental health risks in early childhood leads to permanent
growth faltering, lowered immunity and increased mortality. Poor water,
sanitation, hygiene and inadequate water resources management, account for half
of the causative factors behind childhood and maternal underweight and hence
child growth (World Bank 2008). Approximately 3.1% of deaths (1.7 million) and
3.7% of disability adjusted life years (54.2 million) worldwide are attributable to
unsafe water, poor sanitation and hygiene (WHO, 2005). Currently, it is estimated
that two thirds of people in Asia still lives without any access to drinking water
(WHO, 2004). According to WHO (1997), in most of the countries, the principal
risk to human health associated with the consumption of polluted water are
microbial in nature (although the importance of chemical contamination could not
be underestimated). Although the existence and dangers of pathogenic microbes in
surface drinking water supplies have been recognized since long, groundwater
supplies, hence well and springs were generally thought to be naturally protected.
18
This assumes that protection was attributed to the natural filtration and
neutralizing properties of subsurface soil and geological strata (Robertson and
Edberg, 1997). Contamination in surface and ground water can range from natural
substances leaching from soil. Water quality deterioration may occur due to
sources of faecal pollution including grazing cattle, natural animal population,
septic tanks, failed sewage systems, recreational users, and summer storm
activities etc. (Crabill et al., 1999).
1.7. Soil - The ultimate Sink
Soil is considered an ultimate disposal sink, but soil profile is also responsible
for water pollution. Additional constituents might be added to ground water by
leachate from solid waste dumping sites (Kumar, 2008; Robinson and Maris, 1985;
Nicholson et al., 1983; Olaniya and Saxena, 1977). Besides anthropogenic activities,
groundwater because of long contact with rocks and mineralized soils, usually contain
greater concentrations of inorganic additives than surface water. In addition to the
beneficial nutrients, sewage water may also contain significant amounts of heavy
metals. Soil and plants cannot accommodate these all harmful entities. These heavy
metals may be returned to human beings and animals through food chain (Gulfraz et
al., 1997). The presence of toxic chemicals in the environment at low concentrations
is undetectable and produces harmful effects. Sewage usually consists of higher
values of pH, alkalinity, TDS, nitrites, nitrates, conductivity and cations.
Investment in industries and agriculture (Molden, 2010) has made a positive
contribution to livelihood, food security and poverty reduction, but its negative effects
are unforgettable. In the vicinity of industrial houses in almost all cities of India,
19
surface and ground water is polluted due to dumping of industrial wastages.
Approximately 70% of fresh water is consumed by agriculture (Baroni et al., 2007).
Humans change almost all aspects of the hydrological cycle and the ecosystem of
which it is part; shifting water around for different uses, overusing it and degrading
the environment that supplies it. In fact, the rate of loss of biodiversity from
freshwater ecosystems is the fastest of all biomes. Poor access to drinking water is in
most cases a direct result of human behaviour. Unregulated groundwater extraction
for agriculture and industrial use is emerging as a major threat to resource
sustainability, threatening drinking water supplies. Contamination of groundwater
through unregulated mining, the use of chemical fertilizers and salinity ingress in
coastal areas is becoming alarming. Many of irrigation’s negative environmental
impacts arise from the diversion of water away from natural aquatic ecosystems, such
as rivers, lakes, oases and other groundwater dependent wetlands. The direct and
indirect negative impacts have been well documented, including salinization, channel
erosion, decline in biodiversity, introduction of invasive alien species, reduction of
water quality, genetic isolation through habitat fragmentation and reduced production
of floodplains and inland and coastal fisheries (Richter et al., 1997; Bunn and
Arthington, 2002; Pimentel et al., 2004; Khan et al, 2006; Gordon et al., 2010).
Investments in biofuels and other projects under the clean development mechanism
may reduce the rate of climate change, but will also have significant impacts on water
and land (Zomer et al., 2006).
The most important pollutants are probably chloride and nitrate, which can be
derived from leaking sewers, landfills, un-sewered sanitation, livestock farming and
20
agricultural fertilizers. High chloride concentrations may also indicate saline intrusion
in coastal areas or the use of salt for road de-icing in cold climates. These pollutants
can be indicators of impact from both rural and urban activities. Nitrate in particular
can be problematic, as un-sewered sanitation and agriculture often occur in close
proximity. Since these parameters cannot be removed or eliminated by means of
water disinfection and can bring about a lot of health hazards, a complementary unit
must be added to water treatment processes or these resources should be considered as
undrinkable water resources (Chapman, 1996).
1.8. Sources of drinking water supply
The most common source of water supply sources is either surface water or
the ground water. Surface water is the term used to describe the water on land surface
and it is produced by runoff of precipitation and ground water seepage. Water that
seeps underground becomes "Groundwater" the major source of drinking water for
many people. In fact, the bulk of the world’s liquid fresh water is actually
groundwater.
Water in the space between difference soil layers and cracks in rocks is termed
as underground water. It is similar to water being stored in a sponge. It is not visible
but can be drawn out. Rain water is the main source of ground water. When it rains, a
part of the rain water percolates into the soil and collects over the hard rock layer. The
soil or rock formations in the earth that contain water are called ground water
aquifers. Thus, an aquifer is a geological formation or structure, which is porous and
permeable to the extent of maintaining a steady supply of sufficient amount of water
to the wells or springs. Below a certain depth in the ground, the earth is saturated.
21
Saturation is a state in which all the free space or interstices are filled with water. This
level is referred to as ground water level. The level may be just below the ground
level or many hundred meters below ground surface. In rainy season, the ground
water level comes up due to the filling up of the free spaces (saturation) through the
percolation of rain water.
1.9. Groundwater
Ground water is the major source of drinking water in both urban and rural
areas. Besides, it is an important source of water for the agricultural and the industrial
sector. Being an important and integral part of the hydrological cycle, its availability
depends on the rainfall and recharge conditions. It has been considered as the
dependable source of uncontaminated water (Singh and Kumar, 2008).
Groundwater is a valuable resource but unfortunately, many people view
groundwater as a limitless resource protected from human activity. Groundwater,
however, is vulnerable to contamination and, in order to preserve its quality, must be
protected. Fresh water which is a precious and limited vital resource needs to be
protected, conserved and used wisely by man. But unfortunately such has not been the
case, as the polluted lakes, rivers and streams throughout the world testify. According
to the scientists of National Environmental Engineering Research Institute (NEERI),
Nagpur, India, about 70% of the available water in India is polluted (Yadav and
Kumar, 2010).
Groundwater is an important resource for mankind's existence and economic
development. The entire world's water groundwater constitutes about 0.6%. But 50%
22
of this is practically not available for human consumption as it is present at depth
more than 1000 meter. Groundwater is the only source of water for about 50 percent
of our country men. In rural areas almost all the water supply comes from it.
Groundwater is considered as a pure safe and dependable resource in comparison to
surface water because groundwater is protected from surface contamination by upper
soil mantle which removes pollutants. The surface water contains high organic matter
and minerals which result in growth of pathogenic bacteria and algae. Surface water
continues to be contaminated with runoff from agricultural fields, wastes from
industries and domestic sewage (Durfor and Becker, 1964).
1.9.1. Use of groundwater in different fields
In India about 180 km3 of groundwater is used annually for various purposes.
According to a projection the demand for water is likely to increase from 180 to 350
k3m by 2025 A.D. (Handa, 1988). Groundwater is used for agricultural, industrial,
household, recreational and environmental activities all over the world. In the last few
decades, there has been a tremendous increase in the demand for freshwater due to
rapid growth of population and the accelerated pace of industrialization. The quality
of water is vital concern for mankind since it is directly linked with human welfare.
In India, most of the population is dependent on groundwater as the only
source of drinking water supply. Potable water is the water that is free from disease
producing microorganisms and chemical substances that are dangerous to health.
Majority of the rural common people do not have access to potable water and
therefore; depend on well, stream and river water for domestic use. In India, there are
over 20 million private wells in addition to the government tube wells. The story of
23
each city may be different, but the main reasons for the water crisis are common, such
as, increasing demand, zonal disparity in distribution of water supply, lack of ethical
framework, inadequate knowledge and resources, major land-use changes, long term
water level declines, increase in salinity and pollution (Dayal and Singh, 1991).
1.10. Groundwater Pollution
As a result of increased industrial activities in our country during the post
independence period i.e. from the year 1947, India is today rated as one among the
first ten industrial countries of the world .The various process of industrialization,
domestic uses and urbanization are the principal sources of contamination of ground
water quality in India. Due to these causes water quality deteriorates and water
becomes unsuitable for potable use. Water pollution is a matter of great concern for
enviornmentalists all over the world as rapid industrilization and urbanization has
resulted in manifold increase in pollution. Every town and city of developing
countries is facing the challenges of environmental pollution with the persistent
efforts by man to utilize the natural resources for improving the living standard and
for proving extra comfort (Kalra et al, 2012).
Ground water contamination is nearly always the result of human activity. In
areas where population density is high and human use of the land is intensive, ground
water is especially vulnerable. Virtually any activity whereby chemicals or wastes
may be released to the environment, either intentionally or accidentally, has the
potential to pollute ground water.
Groundwater is polluted by natural as well as anthropogenic sources. Natural
sources of pollution include acid rain and salts from rocks etc. Now in the era of
24
economic growth the ground water is polluted with hazardous pollutants of
anthropogenic origin from thousands of legally and illegally constructed and operated
landfills, surface impoundments, soluble effluents disposal, septic tanks etc. via
seepage and leaching. Now a days the scientists from all over the world are
suggesting that the dumping of hazardous waste including radioactive waste from
nuclear reactors in the underground wells is the best way for hazardous waste disposal
but if somehow the waste leaks into groundwater than what would happen? The
results will be very disastrous because once the ground water is polluted it becomes
very difficult rather nearly impossible to restore it. One of the worst cases of ground
water pollution by radioactive material occurred at Idaho National Engineering
Laboratory, where the Snake River Aquifer has been severely fouled. Various factors
responsible for groundwater pollution are presented in Figure 1.2.
Figure 1.2: Various factors responsible for groundwater pollution
Various factors which affect the groundwater pollution in a particular region
are rainfall pattern, depth of water table, distance from sources of contamination and
25
soil properties of that area such as soil texture, soil structure and filtration rate etc. In
Madek district of Andhra Pradesh (India) underground water pollution is a burning
problem as underground water in this area has been made toxic by the effluents
discharged from 300 industrial units around Patancheru industrial complex (Garg et
al.1998). A recent study (Khaiwal and Garg, 2007) showed that the groundwater of
New Industrial Township of Hisar, Haryana has been polluted largely on account of
defective sewerage system and untreated industrial effluent load discharged around
industrialized clusters.
In Haryana particularly at Ambala and Sonipat, the large amount of toxic
metals has been reported from the groundwater. The Arsenic toxicity in underground
water has been reported from West Bengal, which every year effect hundreds of
thousands of people in this state. Nitrate contamination of groundwater in Nagaur,
Barmer and Jaipur districts of Rajasthan and Agra (U.P.) has been reported.
Underground water is polluted by many hazardous pollutants and one of the
major concerns is fluoride. The problem of high fluoride concentration in
groundwater resources has now become one of the most important health related geo
environmental issues in India. The consequences of fluoride levels greater than the
permissible limit pose threat to human health. The effect of such inherent pollutant in
groundwater is rather a slow process but inflicts adversely children as well as adults.
It does not alter the colour and taste of water.
The hydrological cycle works relatively quickly above ground, but slowly
beneath it. It can take only a matter of months or years to recharge, and hence
26
rehabilitate, surface waters, but groundwater recharge periods can be in the order of
hundreds of years. As a result, groundwater, once degraded, can be extremely
difficult, sometimes impossible, to cleanse and restore. Biodiversity is what fortify the
ability of nature to provide continuous recycling of water, through the hydrological
cycle. We cannot properly preserve our water resources without first understanding
how water circulates throughout the environment.
1.11. Status of Water in India
Although water is a universal and global issue, the problems and solutions are
often highly localized. With 2.4% of land and 4% of water resources, India has to
support 16% of world’s population and 15% of livestock. Behavior of groundwater in
the India subcontinent is highly complicated due to occurrence of diversified
geological formations with considerable litho-logical and chronological variations,
complex tectonic framework, climate-logical dissimilarities and various hydro-
chemical conditions.
1.11.1. Water Resources of India
While India is considered rich in terms of annual rainfall and total water
resources, its uneven geographical distribution causes severe regional and temporal
shortages. India’s rivers carry 90 percent of the water during the period from June-
November. Thus, only 10 per cent of the river flow is available during the other six
months. The vaialable resources of India including rainfall, surface water,
groundwater, water vailable for irrigation, domestic uses etc. are presented in Table
1.2 and are also plotted in Figure 1.3.
27
Table 1.2: Water Resources of India. (Source: central Water Commission, 2015)
Average Annual Rainfall 4000 BCM
Annual Rainfall (2015) 3566 BCM
Mean Annual Natural Run-Off 1869 BCM
Estimated Utilisable Surface Water Potential 690 BCM

Total Replenishable Ground Water Resources 433 BCM
Ground Water Resources Available for Irrigation 369 BCM
Ground Water Available for Domestic, Industrial & Other Purposes 71 BCM
Ultimate Irrigation Potential 140 Mha From Surface Water 76 Mha
Ultimate Irrigation Potential 140 Mha From Ground Water 64 Mha

Storage Available Due to Completed Major & Medium Project 253 BCM
2000
1800
1600
1400
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
Annual water
Usable water Surface water Groundwater
availablity
Unit (BCM) 1869 1123 690 433
Figure 1.3: Statistics regading water resources of India. (Source: Central Water
Commission, 2015)
28
As of April 2015, the annual water availability of India in terms of natural
runoff (flow) in rivers is about 1,869 Billion Cubic Meter (BCM) per year. However,
the usable water resources of the country have been estimated as 1,123 BCM per year.
This is due to constraints of topography and uneven distribution of the resource in
various river basins, which makes it difficult to extract the entire available 1,869
BCM per year. Out of the 1,123 BCM per year, the share of surface water and ground
water is 690 BCM per year and 433 BCM per year respectively. Setting aside 35
BCM for natural discharge, the net annual ground water availability for the entire
country is 398 BCM. The overall contribution of rainfall to the country’s annual
ground water resource is 68% and the share of other resources, such as canal seepage,
return flow from irrigation, recharge from tanks, ponds and water conservation
structures taken together is 32% (CGWB-2014). Due to the increasing population in
the country, the national per capita annual availability of water has reduced from
1,816 cubic metres in 2001 to 1,544 m3 in 2011-12. This is a reduction of 15%.
1.11.2. Ground water extraction and use
In the states of Delhi, Haryana, Punjab and Rajasthan, annual ground water
consumption is more than annual ground water recharge. Experts believe that India is
fast moving towards a crisis of ground water overuse and contamination (Kulkarni et
al., 2014). Ground water overuse or overexploitation is defined as a situation in
which, over a period of time, average extraction rate from aquifers is greater than the
average recharge rate.
India is struggling hard to provide its citizens with all basic amenities, but
clean drinking water is not available to great number of people mainly because of
29
rising population, rising levels of pollution in the environment, poor upkeep of water
supply lines and faulty drainage system. Groundwater is the major source of water
supply for drinking and other purposes in the rural areas of India (Gupta et al., 2009).
In India ponds, rivers and groundwater are used for domestic and agricultural
purposes (Bhandari and Nayal, 2008). India is now the biggest user of groundwater
for agriculture in the world. 89% of ground water extracted is used in the irrigation
sector (MWR- Annual Report 2013-14). This is followed by ground water for
domestic use which is 9% of the extracted groundwater. Industrial use of ground
water is 2%. 50% of urban water requirements and 85% of rural domestic water
requirements are also fulfilled by ground water (World Bank, 2010).
A) Groundwater in Irrigation
Groundwater irrigation has been expanding at a very rapid pace in India since
the 1970s (Vijay Shanker et al., 2011). Data from Minor Irrigation Census
(2001) showed that three states (Punjab, Uttar Pradesh and Haryana) accounted
for 57% of the tube-wells in India. On an average, there were 27 tube-wells per
square kilometer of net sown area in Punjab. The main means of irrigation in the
country are canals, tanks and wells, including tube-wells. Of all these sources,
ground water constitutes the largest share. Wells, including dug wells, shallow
tube-wells and deep tube wells provide about 61.6% of water for irrigation,
followed by canals with 24.5%.
Over the years, there has been a decrease in surface water use and a
continuous increase in ground water utilisation for irrigation. The dependence of
irrigation on ground water increased with the onset of the Green Revolution,
30
which depended on intensive use of inputs such as water and fertilizers to boost
farm production (Quinlan et al., 2014). Incentives such as credit for irrigation
equipment and subsidies for electricity supply have further worsened the
situation. Low power tariffs have led to excessive water usage, leading to a
sharp fall in water tables. Increase in ground water utilization for irrigation is
shown in Figure 1.4.
Figure 1.4: Increase in ground water utilization for irrigation (Sources:

Agricultural Statistics at Glance 2014, Ministry of Agriculture; PRS.)
B) Ground water in drinking
Ground water is utilized as drinking water all over India. The major sources of
drinking water are the tap water and hand pumps. About 90% of population uses
tap water as the drinking water in Goa, Himachal Pradesh, Sikkim, Chandigarh
and Puducherry. 86.6% people of Bihar and 64.9% people of Uttar Pradesh use
hand pumps for drinking water. 23.2% people of manipau use tank, pond or lake
water for drinking. The availability of drinking water in various states is
presented in Table 1.3.
31
Table 1.3: Distribution of Households by availability of drinking water facility

(Source: Census of India, 2011)
Tank,
Total No. of Tap Hand Tube River, Other
India/States/U.T. Well Spring Pond,
Households water Pump well Canal sources
Lake
India 246692667 43.5 11 33.5 8.5 0.5 0.6 0.8 1.5
Andhra Pradesh 21024534 69.9 6.4 13.7 6.9 0.5 0.3 0.3 2.1
Arunachal Pradesh 261614 65.5 5.7 10.7 2.4 5.7 6 0.9 3.2
Assam 6367295 10.5 18.9 50.2 9.2 1.3 3.4 4.6 2
Bihar 18940629 4.4 4.3 86.6 3 0 0.2 0.1 1.4
Chhattisgarh 5622850 20.7 11.4 58.4 7.2 0.7 0.9 0.2 0.5
Goa 322813 85.4 11.1 0.1 0.3 1.2 0.3 0.4 1.3
Gujrat 12181718 69 7.1 11.6 9.6 0.1 0.3 0.2 2
Haryana 4717954 68.8 3 12 12.9 0 0.3 0.9 1.9
Himachal Pradesh 1476581 89.5 2.9 3.6 0.7 0.7 0.3 0.5 1.9
Jammu & Kashmir 2015088 63.9 6.5 11.4 1.5 6.2 6.7 0.7 3.1
Jharkhand 6181607 12.9 36.5 43.8 3.5 0.8 1.6 0.2 0.8
Karnataka 13179911 66.1 9 5.5 16 0.3 0.8 1 1.4
Kerala 7716370 29.3 62 0.5 3.7 1.4 0.2 0.7 2.1
Madhya Pradesh 14967597 23.4 20 47.1 7.6 0.3 0.7 0.4 0.6
Maharashtra 23830580 67.9 14.4 9.9 5.7 0.4 0.4 0.4 1
Manipur 507152 38.6 7.5 6.5 0.4 5.6 15 23.2 3.4
Meghalaya 538299 39.3 25.4 2.8 2.6 19 2.6 5.7 2.6
Mizoram 221077 58.7 4.7 0.8 0.9 18.4 7.7 1.8 6.9
Nagaland 399965 47.2 25.7 2.2 4.5 5.6 2 10.3 2.7
Odisha 9661085 13.8 19.5 41.5 20 1.8 1.7 0.9 0.8
Punjab 5409699 51 0.5 24.7 21.9 0 0.2 0.1 1.7
Rajasthan 12581303 40.6 10.8 25.3 12.2 0.1 0.8 5.9 4.3
Sikkim 128131 85.3 0.6 0 0 11.1 0.4 0.6 2
Tamil Nadu 18493003 79.8 5.1 4.6 8.2 0.2 0.2 0.5 1.5
Tripura 842781 33.2 27.4 18.1 16.3 1.9 1.8 0.5 0.9
Uttar Pradesh 32924266 27.3 4 64.9 2.9 0 0.1 0.1 0.7
Uttarakhand 1997068 68.2 1.1 22 2 1.1 0.9 0.7 4
32
Table 1.2 Contd……..

West Bengal 20067299 25.4 6 50.1 16.7 0.5 0.3 0.2 0.8
Andaman Nicobar 93376 85 7.3 0 0.5 1.2 2.6 1.5 1.9
Chandigarh 235061 96.7 0.1 1.8 0.9 0 0 0.1 0.5
Dadra & Nagar 73063 46.5 7.2 24.5 20.6 0.6 0.3 0 0.4
Daman & Diu 60381 75.2 0.7 5.5 18.1 0 0 0 0.5
Delhi 3340538 81.3 0.1 5.3 8.4 0 0 1.2 3.6
Lakshadweep 10703 20.3 71.7 2.5 0.1 0 0 0.4 5.1
Puducherry 301276 95.3 1.9 1.2 1.4 0 0 0 0.3
1%
1% 1%
8%
Tap water
Well
Handpumps/Tubewells
44% Tubewell
Spring
34% River/Canal
Tank/Pond/Lake
Other sources
11%
Figure 1.5: Drinking Water Source in Households in India (Source: Census of

India, 2011)
By far the most important driver in water use during the coming decades will
be the increase and changes in global food demand due to population growth and
changes in diet (Fraiture and Wichelns, 2010). The available utilizable water resource
of the country is considered insufficient to meet all future needs (CWC, GOI, 2005).
India’s finite and fragile water resources are stressed and depleting, while sectoral
33
demands (including drinking water, industry, agriculture, and others) are growing
rapidly. Rapid population growth, urbanization and industrialization have led to a
greater demand for an increasingly smaller supply of water resources in the country.
Of the present water usage in the country, majority is consumed in agriculture (70-
90%), and the remaining is consumed in industrial activities and for domestic
purposes like drinking water and sanitation (Rao and Mamatha, 2004). To meet the
food requirement of the estimated population of India in 2025, agriculture will need
increased and extensive application of agro-chemicals and 731 to 867 Bm3 of
irrigation water, while the utilizable water resources of the country may remain in
between 219 to 355 Bm3 in 2025.
Surface Water Withdrawals Agriculture

Industrial
2% 9% Domestic
89%
Ground Water Withdrawals Agriculture

5% 3%
Industrial
Domestic
92%
Figure 1.6: Global Water Usage (Source: Earth Trends 2011, World Resources
Institute)
34
Problems with water quality are often as severe as the problems with water
availability. Slow growth of surface canal irrigation and watershed projects induced
rapid growth of groundwater irrigation especially after 1970 (Nayak, 2009). While the
technology has allowed drinking water to be pumped from the ground through bore
wells and hand pumps, it also provided irrigation sector the means for unfettered
pumping of groundwater through millions of irrigation bore-wells (nearly 3.7 million
in 2004), leading to imbalance in natural ecological system resulting scarcity and
pollution of ground water (Daw, 2004). Over extraction of groundwater is leading to
alarming depletion of groundwater aquifers in several areas (Iyer, 2003; Reddy,
2004). It is observed that the irrigation potential created has exceeded the ultimate
potential, showing that mining of groundwater is taking place through exploitation
beyond the dynamic resources in many states (Government of India, 2007). Cheap
and unmetered electricity, slow development of surface irrigation, and poor
management of canal systems encouraged groundwater development. Over the last
two decades, 84 percent of the total addition to net irrigated area came from
groundwater, and only 16 percent from canals (Brisco and Malik 2006).
This expansion of groundwater use resulted in speedy decline in the
groundwater table in several parts of the country. Out of 4272 blocks in the country
(except Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat and Maharashtra where ground water resource
assessment has been carried out on the basis of mandals, talukas and watersheds
respectively), 231 blocks have been categorized as “Overexploited” where the stage
of ground water development exceeds the annual replenishable limit and 107 blocks
are “Dark” where the stage of ground water development is more than 85%. Besides,
35
6 mandals have been categorized as “Overexploited” and 24 as ‘Dark’ out of 1104
mandals in Andhra Pradesh. Similarly out of 184 talukas in Gujarat, 12 are
“Overexploited” and 14 are ‘Dark’ and out of 1503 watersheds in Maharashtra, 34 are
‘Dark’. Problem villages have gone up to more than 200,000 in 2004 and habitations
with problems of inadequate water availability are stated at another 300,000.
1.11.3. Groundwater contamination in India
Ground water contamination is the presence of certain pollutants in ground
water that are in excess of the limits prescribed for drinking water (MWR, 2015). The
commonly observed contaminants include arsenic, fluoride, nitrate and iron, which
are geogenic in nature. Other contaminants include bacteria, phosphates and heavy
metals which are a result of human activities including domestic sewage, agricultural
practices and industrial effluents (Planning Commission, 2013). The sources of
contamination include pollution by landfills, septic tanks, leaky underground gas
tanks, and from overuse of fertilizers and pesticides. It has been pointed out that
nearly 60% of all districts in the country have issues related to either availability of
ground water, or quality of ground water, or both.
Table 1.4 shows the number of states and districts affected by geogenic
contaminants as on July 2014. The occurrence of high arsenic content in ground water
has been observed. 68 districts in 10 states are affected by high arsenic contamination
in groundwater (Committee on Estimates, 2014). These states are Haryana, Punjab,
Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, West Bengal, Assam, Manipur and
Karnataka.
36
Table 1.4: States and districts affected by geogenic contamination in

groundwater (Source: Central Ground Water Board).
Geogenic contaminants Number of affected states Number of affected districts
Arsenic 10 68
Fluoride 20 276
Nitrate 21 387
Iron 24 297
Groundwater contamination is a serious problem in India as almost 70% of its
surface water resources and a growing number of its ground water reserves are
already contaminated by inorganic, organic and biological pollutants. High extraction
of ground water due to increased demand has given rise to compounded Arsenic and
Fluoride contamination and Salinization. The problem of high fluoride concentration
in groundwater resources is one of the most important toxicological and geo-
environmental issues in India and about million people in villages are consuming
water having high fluoride (Agrawal et al., 1997; Choubisa, 1998; Susheela, 1999). In
India large known deposits of fluoride are located in Amba-Dongar and Karipani and
a small occurrence of fluorspar in Ajmer district are reported (GSI, 1963) in Khairot
and Barla. Plants growing in the vicinity of industries such as aluminum smelting can
have substantially increased fluoride contents (Adriano, 1986).
Where intensive agriculture is practiced, nitrate levels in ground water are
high. Farmers have a tendency to apply fertilizers at levels somewhat more than that
recommended by the scientists or that required by the crop. Of the three nutrients
Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Potassium, Nitrogen is most amenable to leaching. The
37
leaching of fertilizers and pesticides into groundwater is influenced by a number of
factors such as soil characteristics, levels of use, the timings of application, depth to
water table, irrigation practices, nature of crops cultivated etc. In India documentation
on the incidence of groundwater contamination in general and use of agrochemicals in
particular is limited. Studies by Singh (1975), Singh and Sekhon (1976), Singh et al.
(1987) concluded that agrochemicals pollute groundwater. A Government of India
evaluation survey in 1999 noted that 142,000 habitations consume water that has
excessive quantities of fluoride, iron, nitrate, arsenic and salinity. In Jharkhand and
Chhattisgarh, uranium pollution is now coming on to the horizon as a water quality
problem as has mercury pollution in West Bengal. In many cases, these sources of
water have been rendered unsafe for human consumption as well as for other
activities such as irrigation and industrial needs.
Water quality is now being recognized in India as a major crisis. Water
pollution is a serious problem as almost 70% of India’s surface water resources and a
growing number of its groundwater reserves have been contaminated by biological,
organic and inorganic pollutants (Rao and Mamatha, 2004). All of India’s 14 major
river systems are heavily polluted, mostly from the 50 million cubic meters of
untreated sewage discharged into them each year. The domestic sector is responsible
for the majority of the wastewater generation in India (Rao and Mamatha, 2004).
There are many places in India where groundwater is questionable or unsatisfactory.
Millions of people in rural areas and low-income semi-urban communities are
dependent on groundwater. These populations are most vulnerable to waterborne
diseases as there is evidence of contaminated groundwater leading to outbreak of
38
endemic diseases (WHO, 2004). So, much of this disease burden is found at places
where the use of untreated water from shallow groundwater sources is common in
both rural and semi-urban settlements (Pedley and Howard, 1997). The basic question
in the production of drinking water is how to get rid of potentially dangerous
chemicals and microorganisms without introducing new hazards and problems which
might pose new and different threats to human health. Bio-films are formed in
distribution system pipelines when microbial cells attach to pipe surfaces and multiply
to form a film or slime layer on the pipe. Probably within seconds of entering the
water distribution system, large particles, including microorganisms, absorb to the
clean pipe surface (Clark et al., 2004). Factors that affect bacterial growth on bio-
films include water temperature, type of disinfectant and residual concentration,
assimilable organic carbon level, biodegradable organic carbon level, degree of pipe
corrosion, and treatment/distribution system characteristics (Hunter et al., 2001).
Water treatment and distribution system, if not properly operated and maintained, can
be a source of disease outbreak affecting large population. It is likely that problems of
water scarcity, mismanagement, and water-related disasters will intensify due to
increasing population, the rising demand for water for agriculture and other uses, and
greater climatic variability or climatic change (Namara et al., 2010). Therefore, the
monitoring and surveillance of quality of raw water sources and treated water need to
be enhanced (Hamzah et al., 1997).
1.12. Pollution Threats to Groundwater
History have shown that irrigation based societies are fragile and water
scarcity, soil salinization, and conflict over (river) water have led to the decline of
39
once powerful and advance societies like Mohenjo-Daro, Mesopotamia and Egypt
(Postel, 1999). Intensification of agriculture, increasing productivity, rapid extension
of irrigation, fertilizer application and pest control, put unanticipated adverse impacts
on the quality of underlying groundwater. Microbiological health risks remain
associated with many aspects of water use, including drinking water in developing
countries, irrigation reuse of treated wastewater and recreational water contact
(Grabow, 1991). The information on the quality of groundwater yields valuable
knowledge regarding their possible effects on physico-chemical properties of the soil
and its productivity (Sharma and Minhas, 2004). Several factors may be considered
while assessing the agricultural pollution to groundwater:
❖ Area covered in cultivation is very large, often equal to the aquifer, so can
potentially lead to widespread pollution of the groundwater, because the total
loadings may be high enough to bring considerable changes and
concentrations may significantly exceed drinking water guidelines values.
❖ In many developing countries water supply and sanitation are unable to keep
pace with urbanization and municipalities are therefore forced to set priorities
with the use of waste water in agriculture (Scott et al., 2004) which once
considered useful because of nutrient concentration (van der Hoek et al., 2002)
but is a father of many diseases.
❖ Use of waste water in agriculture increases nitrate contamination of
groundwater (Chilton et al., 1998), salts, metals and other contaminants in soil
and threaten agricultural sustainability (Chang et al., 2002).
40
❖ Improper crop management may change the status of nutrients in soil, leading
to deficiency.
❖ External compensation of deficient minerals can alter the aquifer qualities.
❖ Irrational extraction of water, without recharge or insufficient recharge
increases salinisation, making it unfit.
❖ Blind use of fertilizers, pesticides and over-productivity can easily create
waste and barren lands.
❖ Leaching from unprotected dug-wells and ponds in rural areas is also a rich
source of contamination.
❖ Pollution from human settlements lacking appropriate sanitary infrastructure.
❖ Downward leakage of the wastes of Livestock and humans, and irrigation by
wastewater may exceed the contamination in shallow aquifers significantly.
❖ Nearby industrial units or drainage carrying industrial wastes may further
deteriorate the situation.
❖ If the problem persists, downward leakage of shallow aquifers may cause
contamination of the deeper aquifers in the long term.
❖ Slow and delay in treatment and lack of proper water management in rural
areas may further aggravate the water contamination by reaction products,
byproducts, etc.
1.13. Relevance and Need of Present Study
Climate change is warming the planet, making the world's hottest geographies
even more scorching. At the same time, clouds are moving away from the equator
toward the poles, due to a climate-change driven phenomenon called Hadley Cell
41
expansion. This deprives equatorial regions like sub-Saharan Africa, the Middle East
and Central America of life-giving rainwater. Paradoxically, climate change is also
increasing precipitation in other areas, and people who live near rivers and streams
have the most to lose. Currently, at least 21 million people worldwide are at risk of
river flooding each year. That number could increase to 54 million by 2030. All
countries with the greatest exposure to river floods are least developed or developing
countries – which makes them even more vulnerable to climate change and natural
disasters.
As populations increase and incomes grow, so does water demand. The
world's population, now at 7.5 billion, is projected to add 2.3 billion more people by
2050. How can the planet satisfy their thirst? About 30 percent of the fresh water is
present deep underground in aquifers. It is extracted daily for farming, drinking and
industrial processes at dangerously unsustainable rates. 54 percent of India's
groundwater wells are decreasing, meaning that water is used faster than it's
replenished. In the coming 2 decades, 60 percent of India's aquifers will be in critical
condition. Thus this issue needs urgent attention and action.
There are numerous water related issues which need utmost attention. A few of
them are enumerated as under. Literaure survey reveals that:
 In 1940, world water consumption was 1000 km3, now water consumption has
increased to 9190 km3.
 At present one third of the world’s population do not have access to safe and
adequate water supply by 2025 it will be two thirds.
42
 In India, the per capita average annual freshwater availability has reduced
from 5177 cubic meters in 1951 to 1869 cubic meters in 2001. It is estimated
to further come down to 1341 cubic meters by 2025 and 1140 cubic meters in
2050.
 Fifty years ago, farmers in northern Gujarat used bullocks driving leather
buckets lifting water from open wells dug to about 10 meters. Now tube wells
are sunk to 400 meters and they still run dry.
 In many parts of India and China, ground water is depleting at the rate of 1 to
1.45 meters every year.
 Every year about one percent of the available freshwater of the world become
unfit for human consumption due to pollution.
 Every three minute a child in India dies of diarrhea arising out of
contaminated water.
 Today, the price of water is almost the same as milk.
 Water conflicts are on rise and they may reach a flash point any time.
 Some 1.1 billion people in developing countries have inadequate access to
water.
 Some 1.8 million children die each year as a result of diarrhea
 1.8 billion people who have access to a water source within 1 kilometer, but
not in their house or yard, consume around 20 liters per day.
 Close to half of all people in developing countries suffer at any given time
from a health problem caused by water and sanitation deficits.
 Lack of water means women spend many hours collecting water every day,
sometimes from many miles away.
43
 To these human costs can be added the massive economic waste associated
with the water and sanitation deficit. The costs associated with health
spending, productivity losses and labour diversions are greatest in some of the
poorest countries.
Ground water is the major source of water for drinking, agricultural, and
industrial needs. A mere 12 percent of the world’s population uses 85 percent of its
water, and these 12 percent do not live in the Third World (Barlow, 2001). The
availability of water determines the location and activities of humans in an area and
our growing population is placing great demands upon natural fresh water resources.
The physico-chemical contaminants that adversely affected the quality of
groundwater is likely to arise from a variety of sources, including land application of
agricultural chemicals and organic wastes, infiltration of irrigation water, septic tanks,
and infiltration of effluent from sewage treatment plants, pits, lagoons and ponds used
for storage.
In this study, physico-chemical assessment of ground water samples is
determined by using standard analytical methods. Jind district has been the rice bowl
of Haryana. The objective of the study is to analyze the water quality parameters
pertaining to 663 locations of 314 villages of Jind district, Haryana for during 2014 -
2017. The aim of this study is to examine the physico-chemical quality of
groundwater sources of surrounding village’s area and to compare with levels
obtained with WHO drinking water standards.
44
Groundwater
Scenario in Haryana
2.1. State of Haryana
Haryan is a small state located in North West of India, borderd by
Punjab, Himachal Pradesh, Uttrakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Delhi, and Rajasthan. The
Haryana State is a landlocked state in northern India. It is between 27°39' to 30°35' N
latitude and between 74°28' and 77°36' E longitude covering an area of 44,212 sq.
km. It is bordered by Punjab and Pradesh to the north and by Rajasthan to the west
and south. The river Yamuna defines its eastern border with Uttar Pradesh. Haryana
surrounds the country's capital Delhi on three sides, forming the northern, western and
southern borders of Delhi. The location map of Haryana and map of Haryana showing
various districts are shown in Figure 2.1 and 2.2 respectively.
Haryana is now a leading contributor to the country's production of food
grains and milk. Agriculture is the leading occupation for residents of the state with
the flat arable land irrigated by submersible pumps and an extensive canal system.
Haryana contributed heavily to the Green Revolution that made India self-sufficient in
food production in the 1960s.
45
Figure 2.1: Location Map of Haryana (Source: Map of India)
2.2. Hydrometeorology
In Haryana state, ground water occurs both under confined and unconfined
conditions in the alluvial formation. On the basis of Geohydrological conditions as
well as groundwater movement and surface drainage pattern, the entire Haryana state
is divided into the following basins:
1) Yamuna basin; (a) Upper, (b) Lower
2) Ghaggar Basin; (a) Upper, (b) Lower
3) Inland Alluvial Basin
4) Krishnawati Basin
5) Sahibi Basin
46
6) Landoha Nala Basin
7) Kanti Sub Basin (Loharu Satnali area)
Figure 2.2: Map of Haryana (Source: Map of India)
Haryana state receives its rainfall primarily through southwestern monsoon.
The average annual rainfall varies forms little as 313 mm in areas bordering Rajasthan
in South-western parts of the state over 862 mm in the North- Eastern parts near
Siwalik Hills bordering Himachal Pradesh. In more than 50% of total area average
47
rainfall is less than 500 mm. The state experiences the extreme winter and summer.
There are four irrigation systems in the state namely:
1) Western Yamuna canal,
2) Bhakra canal,
3) Agra canal and
4) Ghaggar canal
The Yamuna flows along the eastern boundary of state. Haryana's main
seasonal river, the Ghaggar rises in the outer Himalayas and enters the state near
Pinjore in the Panchkula district. Passing through Ambala and Hissar, it reaches
Bikaner in Rajasthan and runs for 460 km before disappearing into the deserts of
Rajasthan. Important tributaries include the Chautang and Tangri. The seasonal
Markanda River is a stream, which originates from the lower Siwaliks Hills and enters
Haryana west of Ambala. During monsoons, this stream swells into a raging torrent
notorious for its devastating power.
2.2.1. Behaviour of Ground Water Level
In order to assess the quantitative change in ground water resources, water
levels as a routine were monitored by ground water observation wells (GWOWs). In
summers, 2% area of state fall in very shallow water levels i.e. water logging
conditions (0-2m) particularly in Jhajjar, Sonipat and Rohtak. 15% area mainly in the
central part has shallow water levels (2-5m). 23% of area of the state has moderate
water levels (5-10m) and 30% of the area falling in Karnal, Kurukshetra, Jind,
Fatehabad, Sirsa Hissar, Bhiwani, Rewari, Mahendragarh, Gurgaon and Faridabad
districts has moderate deep water levels (10-20m) however 25% area reported from
48
Ambala, Kurukshetra, Kaithal, Karnal, Panipat, Sonipat, Jind, Fatehabad, Sirsa,
Bhiwani, Rewari, Mahendragarh, Gurgaonand Faridabad districts have deepw watwer
levels of 20-40m. 6% area falling in Bhiwani and Mahendragarh districts & isolated
patches in Kaithal, Kurukshetra, Fatehabad and Sirsa districts have very deep water
levels (>40m). The behavioural pattern of depth of water level various seasons is
presented in Table 2.1.
Table 2.1: Behavioural pattern of depth of water level
Season Depth of water level 0-2m 2-5m 5-10m 10-20m 20-40m > 40m
Summer 2 15 23 30 25 6
Rainy 2 25 22 28 20 4
Winter % Area covered 2 12 29 29 22 6
2.3. Ground Water Quality in Haryana State
Natural quality of ground water is dependent on geological characteristics and
climatic conditions. It is further influenced and generally degraded by human
activities. Indiscriminate extraction of groundwater for day to day uses, application of
fertilizers in agriculture and unscientific disposal of industrial waste have great impact
on ground water quality. The quality of ground water is normally ascertained through
concentration values of number of physical, chemical and biological parameters
present in it. Concentration of these parameters affects its acceptability and usefulness
for domestic, agriculture, industrial and other purposes. It is, therefore, essential to
know the chemical composition of ground water to determine its suitability for the
intended use. Knowledge of quality of ground water not only helps in finding its
suitability for various purposes, but it also helps in taking effective remedial measures
49
for its improvement on scientific lines. In rural as well as in urban area of Haryana
State, ground water is a major resource for drinking and other uses. Wherever surface
water is inadequate or unavailable, ground water is exploited for drinking and
irrigation purposes.
Natural ground water quality in an area is related to leaching of chemical
constituents by circulating waters. The water quality in Haryana state is monitored
annually by Central Ground Water Board, North Western Region, Chandigarh
through dedicated ground water monitoring stations (GWMS) of dug wells and hand
pumps. CGWB, NWR, Chandigarh has installed 517 dug wells and 659 piezometers
in Haryana State for monitoring the water levels. Jind district has 38 dug wells and 27
piezometers for monitoring phreatic and deeper aquifers.
2.4. Water Quality Analysis of Haryana State
Chemical analysis shows that ground water is slightly alkaline with pH
ranging between 7.05 (Rasulpur, block Sadaura district Yamunanagar) and 9.15
(Mangaiana, block Dabwali district Sirsa). Salinity is found to vary widely with a
minimum value of 238μS/cm at Mauzabad, block Pataudi (Gurgaon) and a maximum
value of 14640 μS/cm at Nagina (Mewat district).
Among anions, carbonate though generally absent in ground water is found in
significant amount from upto 199 mg/L at Lahori, block Madlauda in district Panipat.
Bicarbonate varies from 12 to 922 mg/L at Rukhi, block Gohana (Sonipat district),
chloride varies from 7.0 mg/L at Barwasni in Sonipat district to 4930 mg/L at Nagina
(Mewat district) and sulphate varies from nil to 2833 mg/L at Rasalia Khera (Block
Dabwali in Sirsa district). However, exceptionally high concentrations of 4028mg/L
50
of sulphate are also encountered in Mewat district (Nagina). Nitrate, an indicator of
domestic, irrigation and industrial contamination, is found at many locations. Its
concentration in State varies from below detection limit to 1876mg/L at Dadri in
Bhiwani district. Fluoride is found to be present in all the districts and it varies from
nil to 15.72 mg/L at Mohana in Sonipat district. In about 18.9% of the samples, it is
found more than the drinking water limit of 1.5 mg/L (BIS 2012). Phosphate has not
been detected in most of the locations but the highest concentration of 2.78 mg/L has
been observed in well water of Bhunderi (Sonepat district).
Among cations, calcium is found to vary from 2.1 mg/L (Rukhi in Sonipat
district) to 601 mg/L at Nagina (Mewat district) whereas magnesium generally varies
from nil to 1216mg/L at Nagina in Mewat district. Sodium is found to range between
4.5 mg/L (Kalri Jagir, district Karnal) and 2400 mg/L at Nagina in Mewat. Potassium
in ground waters is normally below 10 mg/L and its higher concentration indicates
contamination from point as well as non-point sources. In Haryana, potassium in
shallow waters is found to range from traces to as high as 790 mg/L at Jhamaula in
Jind district. Silica determined as SiO2 varied from 8.4 to 41 mg/L. Hardness reported
as CaCO3 varies between 50 mg/L at Mauzabad in Gurgaon district and 3603 mg/L at
Gagiachajat in Rewari district, indicating wide variation. However, very hard water
with conc. as high as of 6505 mg/L is also encountered at Nagina in Mewat district.
A) Salinity
Generally, salinity of groundwater occurring in areas falling under semi-arid
and arid agro climatic zone is moderately to fairly high. At some places, such as
Farruknagar and Sultanpur, the EC is so high that salt can be manufactured by
51
solar evaporation. For drinking purposes and for irrigation use, high salinity is
one of the major ground water quality problems in these areas. Districts of
Gurgaon, Bhiwani, Rohtak, Kaithal, Mohindergarh, and Sonepat have more than
30% of the ground water with EC above 3000 while EC of ground water in the
districts of Karnal, Kurukshetra, and Yamunanagar is below 3000.
B) Fluoride
A small amount of fluoride in drinking waters has been found beneficial in
reducing dental decay. However, large amounts in drinking waters result in
staining of tooth enamel and still larger concentration may lead to crippling
skeletal fluorosis. The maximum permissible range of fluoride in drinking waters
fixed by BIS is 1.5 mg/L. 24 percent of wells in Haryana have fluoride in ground
water outside the maximum permissible range of 1.5 mg/L. Almost all districts
except districts of Panchkula, Yamunanagar, Ambala, Kurukshetra, Kaithal &
Panipat have ground water with medium to high fluoride concentration. Such
waters are not suitable for drinking purposes.
C) Nitrate
Presence of nitrate above 5.0 mg/L in ground water reflects contamination at
some stageof its percolation and circulation. The probable major sources of nitrate
content in ground water are excessive application of fertilizers, bacterial
nitrification of organic nitrogen, and seepage from animal and human wastes and
atmospheric inputs. Spatial distribution of nitrate indicates that nitrate is less than
45 mg/L (Permissible limit of BIS) in majority of the areas. The districts of
Ambala, Bhiwani, Faridabad, Fatehabad, Gurgaon, Jhajjar, Jind, Kaithal,
52
Mahendergarh, Mewat, Panchkula, Panipat, Rewari, Rohtak, Sirsa and
Yamunanagar districts have nitrate contents even more than 100mg/l.
D) Iron
Water with iron more than 1.0mg/L is not suitable for domestic use, whereas
desirable concentration of iron in water for domestic use is below
0.30mg/L. Water with iron ranging between 0.30 and 1.0mg/L is permitted for
use only when there is no other suitable source of water is available. Central
Ground Water Board during 2001 has found iron in ground water samples
collected from GWOWs located in the districts of Ambala, Yamunanagar, Jind,
Sonepat and Hissar stations ranging from zero to 12.96 mg/L. Majorities of
places have ground water with iron above 1.0mg/L.
E) Arsenic
Problems due to high arsenic in ground water have acquired global attention.
Considering its harmful effects on human health, Central Ground Water Board
devoted international water year, 2003, towards determination of arsenic in
shallow ground waters. Ambala, Bhiwani, Mahendergarh, Jhajjar,Palwal and
Sirsa have Arsenic concentration more than the desirable limit of >0.01mg/L.
Central Ground Water Board has reported only 4 wells located at Balana in
district Ambala, Chorpur and Garhi ka Rajan in district Karnal and Samain in
district Fatehabad having arsenic more than the permissible level of 0.05mg/L.
2.4.1. Suitability for Drinking
The suitability of drinking water is evaluated by the parameters like salinity,
nitrate, sulphate, fluoride, hardness and alkalinity.The ground water at several places
53
in the southern and western parts of Haryana State is not suitable for drinking either
due to one or more constituent exceeding the maximum permissible limits. However
the ground water in the districts of Ambala, Jind, Kaithal, Karnal, Kurukshetra,
Palwal, Panipat, Panchkula, Rohtak, Sonepat and Yamunanagar are mostly suitable
for drinking. Faridabad, Gurgaon Hissar, Gurgaon, Mahendergarh, and Rewari
districts have 30-50% water samples of potable quality as per BIS 2012 standards.
However, Bhiwani, Fatehabad, Jhajjar, Mewat and Sirsa districts have less than 30%
ground waters having chemical parameters within the permissible limits thus ground
water is mostly unsuitable for drinking due to one or more of these constituents
exceeding the maximum permissible limits.
2.4.2. Suitability for Irrigation
The suitability of ground water for irrigation is assessed based on EC, SAR
and RSC values of waters. The ground waters in the districts of Ambala, Fatehabad,
Kaithal, Karnal, Kurukshetra, Panchkula, Panipat, Rohtak and Yamunanagar are
mostly of C1, C2, C3 salinity and S1, S2 sodicity classes and are suitable for
irrigation. However, ground waters from southern and western part of Haryana
comprising of districts of Bhiwani, Faridabad, Gurgaon, Hissar, Jhajjar, Jind,
Mahendergarh, Mewat, Rewari, Sirsa, and Sonepat fall under C4S1, C4S2, C3S3,
C3S3, C4S2, C4S3 and C4S4 classes. Use of such waters for irrigation under normal
conditions may lead to both high to very high salinity as well as sodium hazards.
2.5. Groundwater Pollution in Major Cities of Haryana
There are about 8804 medium and large industrial units working in Haryana,
bulk of them are concentrated in six cities namely Yamunanagar, Panipat, Sonepat,
54
Gurgaon, and Faridabad. In these areas, Central Ground Water Board has taken up
study of quality of ground water vis-à-vis industrial activities. Chemical quality of
ground water occurring at shallow depths as well as at deeper depths has been
evaluated in these industrialized cities.
A) Ambala City
Ambala City is an important industrial town of Haryana and houses about
200 small and medium scale industries. The major industries are of metal and
food processing. Ground water is heavily exploited for domestic and industrial
use. It is observed that the ground water occurring at shallow depths is
alkaline. Some of the well waters have been found with high nitrate due to
contamination with domestic sewage. The concentration of heavy metals was
reported to be low and within permissible levels. However, concentrations
exceeding the permissible levels for Fe and Mn have been found at few places in
the city.
B) Panipat City
Panipat is a major industrial town of Haryana. Thermal power plant, Sugar
mill, National fertilizer and Panipat Oil refinery are some important units located
in and around the city. There are more than 175 handloom and textile units that
use large amounts of chemicals for processing and dyeing of the textile. Huge
quantity of water is used during the processing and consequently large quantity of
waste/effluent. The shallow ground water in most part of the nearby area has
been polluted due to discharge of effluent either in ponds or cesspools or in the
Ganda nala flowing through the city. The pollution of ground water has been
55
inferred on the basis of presence of undesirable yellow colour and heavy metals
like Mn, Pb and Fe having concentration exceeding the permissible levels. At
some places saline ground water with objectionable fluoride concentration has
also been found in the city.
C) Gurgaon City
Gurgaon City is a satellite town of NCT Delhi and is an important center of
trade and commerce in Haryana State. The town has a number of mechanical,
electrical, textile, electroplating and chemical industries. The shallow ground
water in most part of the city has been found polluted due to sewage
contamination as the well waters showed high concentration of nitrate and
chloride. The ground water at deeper depths have much low concentration of
these constituents, which indicates that the pollution of ground water is restricted
to shallow depths only. The shallow ground water has also been found polluted
due to industrial effluents as the water contained relatively high concentration of
heavy metals such as Cu, Pb, Mn, and Fe. However, at deeper aquifer the
concentration of these elements is low as compared to shallow aquifer.
D) Faridabad – Ballabgarh area
Faridabad and Ballabgarh are major industrial towns and there are about
1500 registered factories housed in these towns, some of them generate hazardous
waste. The waste form industries engaged in electroplating works, manufacture
of textile, fertilizer, plastic etc., are normally rich in toxic trace metals. Besides,
industrial effluent, discharge of untreated sewage in the roadside unlined channels
may pollute the ground water due to seepage.
56
High concentration of fluoride, chloride, nitrate, sulphate has been found in
most part of the towns. The main source of these pollutants in ground water is
attributed to contamination of ground water with domestic
sewage. Concentration of heavy metals in shallow ground water of the area has
also been found due to pollution of ground water through discharge of industrial
effluents on the surface. The deterioration in quality of shallow ground water is
more as compared to quality of ground water at deeper depths.
E) Panchkula City
Panchkula City is a fast developing township. Literature survey reveals that
ground water quality is fresh and all the essential chemical constituents have
concentration within permissible levels of concentration. Pollution of ground
water has not been observed in the area.
F) Yamunanagar City
There are sugar mills with attached distilleries at Yamunanagar, Panipat and
Rohtak. It is reported that soils in the nearby areas have deteriorated, have turned
acidic, due to continuous release of spentwash on the soil during irrigation and
mud in the fields by these units. Ground water at shallow depth at several places
has got contaminated. It has turned light yellow in color and has become unfit for
human consumption.
It can be conluded that in Haryana:
1) Shallow ground water occurring in northern and northeastern parts is suitable
for drinking as well as for irrigation.
57
2) Shallow ground water occurring in central parts has intermediate quality and
is permitted for drinking use.
3) Shallow ground water occurring in southern and western parts is not suitable
for drinking as well as for customary irrigation due to high concentrations of
either salinity or nitrate or fluoride.
4) Elevated Arsenic content in ground water is one of the most serious concerns.
2.6. Jind District, Haryana
Jind district lies in the North of Haryana between 29o 03' to 29o 51' North
latitude and 75o 53' to 76o 45'. It is bounded by Patiala in the North and Sangrur
district of Punjab in the northeast. It is surrounded by district Kaithal and Karnal of
Haryana in east and west respectively. In southwest it has a common boundary with
district Hissar, whereas in south and southeast it shares its boundary with Rohtak and
Sonipat respectively. Jind district encompasses a geographical area of 2702 sq. km.
having alluvial plains. The location map of Jind district in Haryana is presented in
Figure 2.3.
Jind district has four tehsils i.e. Narwana, Jind, Safidon and Julana as can be
seen in Figure 2.4. In order to streamline the rural development, these tehsils have
been further subdivided into seven blocks namely Narwana, Uchana, Alewa, Jind,
Julana, Pilukhera and Safidon as can be seen in Figure 2.5. As per 2011 census the
total population of the district is 1,334,152. Out of total population 713,006 are males
and 621,146 are females. The male and female ratio of the district as a whole was
1000:838. In Jind district 77.1% of the population is settled in 307 villages and the
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rest 22.9% of population is concentrated in urban area. Literacy rate in rural and urban
areas of Jind district is 68.85 and 80.11% respectively as per census data 2011.
Figure 2.3: Location Map of Jind (Source: Map of India)
59
Figure 2.4: Four sub-districts of Jind (Source: Map of India)
Figure 2.5: Some major cities of Jind District (Source: Map of India)
60
2.6.1. Canal system and Irrigation in Jind District
The area of Jind district is irrigated by two canal systems i.e. The Western
Yamuna canal and the Bhakra canal. The Narwana and Barwala link canals of Bhakra
canal system interlink these two systems. Western Yamuna Canal takes off from the
Yamuna at Tajewala head works (Ambala district). The Sirsa branch bifurcates from
the main Western Yamuna canal at Indri (Karnal district) and joint by Narwana
branch of Bhakra canal near Budhera. About 49.0 km further down the Hansi Branch
takes off from main branch of Western Yamuna canal at village Munak. Sirsa Branch
irrigates area in the Northern part of Jind district by Narwana branch of the Bhakra
canal and its distributaries i.e. Habri sub branch, Jakhali, Rajaund, Sudkain Dhanauri
etc. The area of the district irrigated by the Sirsa branch is approx. 143744ha. Hansi
branch enters in the district near Anta village in Safidon Tehsil with the augmentation
of water supply from Bhakra canal. It irrigates the southern part of the Jind district
through Buthra Branch and Sunder sub branch. The area irrigated by Hansi branch
system is approx. 63326ha. Narwana Branch link canal irrigates some area of Jind
district in its tail reaches. The district is also irrigated through Khanauri and Haripur
minors. The area irrigated by these distributaries is approx. 5000 ha. (Source:
Irrigation Deptt. Canal)
2.6.2. Rainfall and Climate
The climate of Jind district is mainly dry with very hot summer and cold
winter except during monsoon season when moist air of oceanic origin penetrates into
the district. There are four seasons in a year. The hot weather season starts from mid
March to last week of the June followed by the south west monsoon which lasts upto
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September. The transition period from September to October forms the post- monsoon
season. The winter season starts late in November & remains upto 1st week of March.
The normal annual rainfall of the district is 515 mm. The south west monsoon
sets in from last week of June and withdraws in end of September, contributes about
84% of annual rainfall. July and August are the wettest months. Rest 16% rainfall is
received during non-monsoon period in the wake of western disturbances and thunder
storms. Generally rainfall in the district increases from southwest to northeast.
2.6.3. Soils
The soils of the Jind district are sandy loam to loam in texture. According to
physical characteristics, these soils may be divided into Sandy, Kallar or Rehi and
Sierozem soil. Sandy soils locally called retil dharti are found in parts of all the
blocks of the district. Bajra, Jowar and gram crops are generally grown in these soils.
Kallar or Rehi soils are found in Safidon block of district. This type of soil is formed
due to alkaline reaction. The reclamation of Kallar soils calls for the lowering down
of excessive salts by flooding or by gypsum treatment. Sierozem soil, these soils are
light yellowish brown to pale brown in colour. Soils are calcareous and normally have
a kankar layer at a depth of 0.75m to 1.25m. Almost all the soils are deficient in
nitrogen, phosphorous and potash Salinity and alkalinity are the serious problems
particularly in the irrigated area, wind erosion is also a common feature in this area.
2.7. Ground Water Scenario in Jind District
The ground water occurs in a thick zone of saturation in the alluvium both
under confined and unconfined conditions. The shallow aquifers, which are
62
unconfined in nature, are being tapped chiefly by open dug well and shallow tubewell.
The deeper aquifers, which are underlain by extensive confining clays, occur under
confined conditions. A buried river channel of Ghaggar has been located in the
eastern part of the area. In Safidon-Jind tract tubewells have been constructed within a
depth of 80 to 100 m bgl encountering fresh water zones with 25m to 35m of granular
material comprising coarse sand, gravel and pebble. The depth of water level ranges
from 2.47 to 27.06 mbgl in pre monsoon period. Pillukhera, Alewa, Kalwan, Pipartha,
and Jhamala indicated a declining trend in water level due to over exploitation of
groundwater and these regions require careful management of surface water and
conjunctive use of surface water and groundwater.
Figure 2.6: Map of water levels in different parts of Jind District. (Source:
CGWB, NWR, 2013)
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In general, rate of decline from 0.05m/yr to 0.71m/yr has been observed
during post-monsoon period and 0.003m/yr to 0.89 m/yr during pre-monsoon period.
The map of water levels in different parts of Jind District is shown in Figure 2.6.
2.7.1. Ground Water Resources in Jind District
Ground water resources available in the district clearly indicate that
Northeastern part of the district has high development of ground water resources,
some times the extent of making the block overexploited. Blocks located in southern
and central part have low ground water developed and their development is well
within the 50%. Though water quality is good and fit for the purpose of drinking and
irrigation these areas have low ground water development. Hence ground water draft
is not having adverse impact on the ground water levels. Lower level of recorded
ground water development may be the combined effect of less draft, more rainfall and
suitable hydrogeological conditions and alternate facility for irrigation.
Since the whole area of the district is alluvium hence appropriate method of
drilling in the area would be rotary or reverse rotary. The ground water at shallow
depth up to 40 to 100m is fresh to marginal saline. Tubewells can be installed upto the
depth of 40-100 m for drinking as well as for irrigation purpose depending on the
local hydogeological conditions. Deeper aquifers are largely saline in the district.
The blockwise details of ground water potential, draft and balance are given in
Table 2.2. Out of eight blocks, three blocks namely Alewa, Narwana and Safidon are
over exploited. The total replenishable ground water resource in the district is 817.14
MCM, of which the net utilisable ground water resources for irrigation are 773.63
MCM.
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Table 2.2: Blockwise details of ground water potential, draft and balance in Jind
district, Haryana
Block Net annual Existing Existing Provision for Net annual Catagory
ground gross gross domestic & ground water
water ground water ground industrial availability for
availability draft for water draft requirement future irrigation
(ham) irrigation for all uses supply to 2025 development
(ham) (ham) (ham) (ham)
Over
Alewa 6288 7017 7175 158 -887
Exploited
Jind 18735 15544 17067 1983 1208 Critical
Semi
Julana 8297 7117 7131 174 1006
Critical
Over
Narwana 14507 17428 17971 543 -3464
Exploited
Semi
Pilukhera 9854 7872 7987 142 1840
Critical
Over
Safidon 13854 13957 15072 1115 -1218
Exploited
Semi
Uchana 10179 8428 8470 164 1587
Critical
Total 81714 77363 80873 4278 73
2.7.2. Ground Water Quality in Jind District
The chemical analysis of ground water indicates that ground water is alkaline
in nature (pH values ranges from 8.07 to 9.08). Ground water is moderately to highly
saline. The electrical conductivity ranges from 270 to 8590 μs/cm. It is seen that in a
major part of the district, conductivity ranges from 250 to 2000 μs/cm indicating fresh
ground water. In the blocks of Narwana and parts of Uchana area, the conductivity
values greater than 2000μs/cm have been recorded. Whereas formation water from
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deeper aquifer shows that the electrical conductivity ranges from 17000 at Uchana to
24000μs/cm at Paoli.
Sulphate and Nitrate values were found more than permissible limit at Chabari
and Kanchana Khurd. Fluoride values were found to be more than permissible limits
at seven locations. Highest value of 19.36 was observed at Korawal. Arsenic values
were found more than permissible limit at 3 locations. Samples of Safidon,
Shabuddinpur and Kalwan have been reported to have values 0.013 mg/L, 0.015 mg/L
and 0.023 mg/L respectively. Ground water is fit for drinking in large part of the
district but has been found unfit in isolated patches. The above data has been gathered
by CGWB, NWR Chandigarh through dedicated ground water monitoring stations
(GWMS) of dug wells and hand pumps. This data is collected only from limited sites.
It is therefore highly desible to conduct an exhaustive study on the groundwater of
Jind district.
2.7.3. Use of ground water in irrigation and drinking
The total area used in cultivation in the district is 2, 57,000 ha. Area cultivated
more than once is 2, 09,000 ha bringing the total cropped area of 4, 66,000 ha. 86.8%
of the total area is cultivated annually. The entire area is irrigated through tubewells
and canals. There are 39,169 tubewells in the district which irrigates an area of 390
sq. km, whereas 1300 sq. km area is being irrigated by canals. 41% Irrigation in the
district is being supported by the tubewells. Paddy constitutes the main kharif crop
whereas wheat is the main Rabi crop. The average yield of paddy cultivation is 2213
kg/ha where as wheat crop average yield is 206.90 kg/ha.
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Entire drinking water supply to all rural as well as urban parts of the district is
based on ground water or by canal (where water quality of ground water is saline or
poor). The tubewells for drinking water supply are generally 40 to 100 metre deep.
The regions where drinking water supply is inadequate, are dependent on hand pumps
/dug wells/ shallow jet pumps which are constructed by Panchayat or by user. The
depth of hand pumps varies from 10 to 25 m on the basis of prevailing local
conditions. There are 39169 shallow tubewells ranging in depth from 25 to 60m and
provide irrigation to 930 sq. km area which constitutes about 88.09% of the total
irrigated land.
2.8. Ground Water Related Issues and Problems
Two different types of ground water related problems have been identified in
the Jind district in respect of quality and quantity:
1) Declining water level in the area in parts of Alewa, Narwana and Safidon
Block. In these blocks, rate of decline of 43, 16 and 14 cm/yr have been
observed for Pre-monsoon period and 52, 19 and 15 cm/yr have been observed
for Post- monsoon period respectively. Where as southern and southwestern
part of the district either water level are not showing any decline or they are
rising.
2) Parts of Jind district are showing varying water levels. No Artificial Recharge
Project has been taken up in the district. However Central part of the district
has been found suitable and feasible on the basis of annual decline in water
level for last ten years. Southern part of the district covering Alewa block,
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Northeastern part of Jind and North Western part of Pilukhera blocks are the
most suitable area for Artificial Recharge because these are the areas which
have more than 15m of decadal annual mean water level with decline of 5 to
10 cm/yr. Remaining half of the southeastern area of Alewa block,
northeastern part of the Jind block, North western part of the Pilukhera block
is area second in priority as this area is having mean annual water level
between 10-15 m and decline of 5- 10 cm/yr. Almost whole of the remaining
area of Alewa, part of Uchana, Jind, part of Safidon and Pilukhera blocks are
next suitable for Artificial recharge on priority index as these area with mean
annual water level of 10-15 m for last ten years and are having rate of decline
0-5 cm/yr.
As per the assessment of the Central Ground Water Board, almost the
whole district of Jind is suitable for Artificial Recharge and most suitable
structure for Artificial recharge is recharge trench and recharge shaft of
variable size to accommodate available run-off or surplus available water for
recharge. There are a large numbers of tanks and ponds in the district which
act as water conservation structures and ground water recharge structures in
the district.
2.9. Aim and Objective of present study
The present research work is a sincere attempt to examine the chemometric
properties of drinking water of district of Jind and:
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 To monitor the physicochemical and microbiological quality of rural
drinking water supplies to the rural areas of district Jind.
 To compare the physicochemical parameters and microbiological quality
of drinking water with respect to International and Indian Standards.
 To emphasize the awareness in common people about water quality.
 To explore and compare the water quality of different blocks of Jind
district.
 To study the groundwater quality with respect to Temperature, pH,
Electrical Conductivity, Total Dissolved Solids, Total Suspended Solids,
Total Hardness, Calcium, Magnesium, Total alkalinity, Chloride,
Fluoride and Microbiological.
 To assess the effect of various quality parameters on human health
This research can be the basis of future research of drinking water quality and
contamination using different spatial and temporal datasets. Output of research can be
informative for urban and rural water planning. “Save Water” and “Safe Water”,
slogans can be considered and implemented seriously.
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REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Contaminated drinking water poses a major health threat to human beings
worldwide. In recent years, due to pollution and change in climatic conditions the
rivers, canals, tube-wells and hand-pumps which provide water, may not be suitable
for drinking purposes. Poor water quality can be the result of natural processes but is
more often associated with human activities and is closely linked to agricultural and
industrial developments. Intensification of agriculture, increasing productivity, rapid
extension of irrigation, fertilizer application and pest control, put unanticipated
adverse impacts on the quality of underlying groundwater.
Surface water and other drinking water sources have been polluted to different
extents. The main pollutants present in drinking water sources are organic substances,
ammonia, nitrogen, phenol, pesticides and pathogens. Some of these cannot be
removed effectively by traditional water treatment processes like coagulation,
sedimentation, filtration and chlorination, and the product water usually does not meet
the national drinking water standards.
Numerous severe cases of groundwater contamination have been documented
worldwide (Farooq et al., 2010; Mor et al., 2008; Shivkumar and Biksham, 1995).
Study of quality of drinking water and establishing standards is at least 4000 years old
(Raucher, 1996). Quality assurance is a set of operating principles that if strictly
followed during sample collection and analysis will produce data of known and
70
defensible quality. That is the accuracy of results can be stated with a high level of
confidence (APHA, 1995). Huang and Xia (2001) emphasized the in-depth research
of the related barriers and the relevant mitigation approaches to enhance sustainability
of water quality management systems. Various studies have been carried out in India
including Punjab and abroad regarding the quality of water and its suitability for
plants, animals and human beings.
pH and Alkalinity is the important physicochemical water quality. In water, a
small number of water (H2O) molecules dissociate and form hydrogen (H+) and
hydroxyl (OH-) ions. If the relative proportion of the hydrogen ions is greater than the
hydroxyl ions, then the water is defined as being acidic. If the hydroxyl ions
dominate, then the water is defined as being alkaline. The relative proportion of
hydrogen and hydroxyl ions is measured on a negative logarithmic scale from 1
(acidic) to 14 (alkaline): 7 being neutral (Friedl et al., 2004). Acidic or Alkaline water
affects mucous membrane in the mouth and put a lot of troubles in stomach. Salinity,
another physicochemical water quality, is measured by comparing the dissolved solids
in a water sample with a standardized solution. The dissolved solids can be estimated
using total dissolved solids or by measuring the specific conductance. Specific
conductance, or conductivity, measures how well the water conducts an electrical
current, a property that is proportional to the concentration of ions in solution.
Conductivity is often used as a surrogate of salinity measurements and is considerably
higher in saline systems than in non-saline systems (Dodds, 2002). Turbidity and
Suspended Solids are the other important water quality parameters. Turbidity refers to
water clarity. The greater is the amount of suspended solids in water, the murkier it
71
appears, and the higher the measured turbidity. The major source of turbidity in the
water is phytoplankton, clays and silts, re-suspended bottom sediments, and organic
detritus from stream and/or water discharges. The source of these sediments includes
natural and anthropogenic activities, such as natural or excessive soil erosion from
agriculture, forestry or construction, urban runoff, industrial effluents, or excess
phytoplankton growth (USEPA, 1997). Municipal, agricultural, and industrial
discharges can contribute ions to receiving waters or can contain substances that are
poor conductors like organic compounds, changing the conductivity of the receiving
waters. Thus, specific conductance can also be used to detect pollution sources
(Stoddard et al., 1999). The most important pollutants are probably chloride and
nitrate, which can be derived from leaking sewers, landfills, un-sewered sanitation,
livestock farming and agricultural fertilizers. High chloride concentrations may also
indicate saline intrusion in coastal areas or the use of salt for road de-icing in cold
climates. These pollutants can be indicators of impact from both rural and urban
activities. Nitrate in particular can be problematic, as un-sewered sanitation and
agriculture often occur in close proximity. Since these parameters cannot be removed
or eliminated by means of water disinfection and can bring about a lot of health
hazards, a complementary unit must be added to water treatment processes or these
resources should be considered as undrinkable water resources (Chapman, 1996).
Microbiological health risks remain associated with many aspects of water
use, including drinking water in developing countries, irrigation reuse of treated
wastewater and recreational water contact (Grabow, 1991). The information on the
quality of groundwater yields valuable knowledge regarding their possible effects on
72
physicochemical properties of the soil and its productivity (Sharma and Minhas,
2004). Climate change, the evolution of new waterborne pathogens, and the
development and use of new chemicals for industrial, agricultural, household,
medical, and personal use have raised concern as they have the potential to alter both
the availability and the quality of water (Kolpin et al., 2002). All of these activities
have costs in terms of water quality and the health and integrity of aquatic ecosystems
(Meybeck, 2004).
Human activities such as mining and heavy industry can result in higher
concentrations of trace metals than those that would be found naturally (Charlet and
Polya, 2006). Elevated concentrations of trace metals can have negative consequences
for both wildlife and humans. Trace metals can affect function of pH, oxidation-
reduction state, and organic matter content of the water. Besides, an important
environmental problem (Rayms-Keller et al., 1998), heavy metals constitute some of
the most hazardous substances that can bio-accumulate (Tarifeno-Silva et al., 1982).
Bioaccumulation is a process in which a chemical pollutant enters into the body of an
organism and is not excreted, but rather collected in the organism’s tissues (Zwieg et
al., 1999). Metals that are deposited in the aquatic environment may accumulate in the
food chain and cause ecological damage while also posing a threat to human health
(Ermosele et al., 1995). Pollution by the heavy metals also needs to be cared as it is
anthropogenic impacts like industrial discharges, domestic sewage, nonpoint source
runoff and atmospheric precipitation which are the main sources of toxic heavy metals
that enter aquatic systems (Langston et al., 1999). However, metals also occur in
73
small amounts naturally and enter aquatic systems through ore-bearing rocks,
windblown dust, forest fires and vegetation.
Holt et al. (2000) was of the view that surface water can be contaminated
through direct or indirect emissions and ground water can be contaminated by
leaching from the soil. There are various ways by which pollutants penetrate into
ground water; inadequate storage of harmful substances, refuge dumps, transport
accidents, infiltration of polluted rain water (Ashour and Hung, 2000), fertilizers etc.
(Mattikalli and Richards, 1996). Groundwater control is very different from the
control of surface water bodies. It implies accurate information on the distance
between aquifer and the surface of ground, on the volume of the ground water body,
on the nature of its underlying stratum, on the velocity of flow and on the chemical
characteristics of the various water bearing formations (Koppe, 1973). The diversity
and number of existing and potential source of chemical contamination are very large.
It is estimated that there are between ninety thousand and one hundred thousand
chemicals in regular use but that as few as three thousand accounts for about 90% of
the total mass used (Holt et al., 2000). Funari and Ottaviani (1997) presented some of
the main aspects of the risk to human health associated with the possible exposure,
through drinking water, to carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic chemical substances
and microbiological agents. More research is needed to assess the relationship
between drinking water chemistry and human health.
Harrison et al. (2000) compared the drinking water supplies in the United
Kingdom and found that private supplies follow less stringent sampling and testing
regimes than public supplies. Information regarding the private drinking water
74
supplies is desperate and poorly defined. Majority of breaches of standards were due
to increased concentrations of nitrate in 270, magnesium in 21, manganese in 17, iron
in 15 and turbidity in 15 cases. Regular sampling of private drinking water supplies
remains necessary to prevent risk to health from a wide variety of toxic
contamination.
Hacioglu and Dulger (2009) studied the water samples collected from Biga
Stream, Turkey and concluded that there is a great potential risk of infection of waters
as the water quality was very low. Mallo et al. (2001) studied 100 water samples in
Tandil region of Argentina for pH, temperature, hardness, chloride, calcium, sulphates
and nitrates and grouped them in 5 classes based on difference in levels of parameters
using statistical methods; after concluded that drinking waters and subterranean water
from the regions of Argentina were suitable for human consumption whereas surface
water is highly polluted.
According to Karbassi et al. (2008); Najafpour et al. (2008) and Singh et al.
(2004), the anthropogenic discharges constitute a constant polluting source, whereas
surface runoff is a seasonal phenomenon, largely affected by climate within the basin.
Human activities are a major factor, determining the quality of the surface and
groundwater through atmospheric pollution, effluent discharges, use of agricultural
chemicals, eroded soils and land use (Niemi et al., 1990). Run offs with substantial
agricultural and other land use experience increased inputs and varying compositions
of organic matter (Sickman et al., 2007) and excessive concentrations of phosphorus
and other nutrients from fertilizer application and other releases (Easton et al., 2007).
75
The underground water in Karachi in Pakistan is also quite unsafe due to
mixing of sanitary and sewage systems. About nine hundred out of eleven hundred
water samples collected from different pipelines and hotels by Karachi Metropolitan
Corporation Laboratory were found unfit for human consumption (SEGMITE, 1999).
Sadeghi et al. (2007) investigated the quality of rural drinking water supplies
in Iran and Data showed that 30.2% of the villages under study had contaminated
water resources. Okafo et al. (2003) indicates urban and farm runoffs, discharges from
sewage treatment facilities, failing septic systems, wildlife, farm animals and direct
faecal contamination by humans and animals as the major sources of contamination.
Oxygen levels in water can be reduced through over fertilization, by run-off
from farm fields and sewages containing phosphates and nitrates, as to stabilize
nitrogenous wastes to ammonia then to nitrite and nitrate, bacteria consume high
amount of oxygen. Tehounwou et al. (1997) conducted studies to assess the physical,
chemical and bacteriological qualities of drinking water Mbandjock, Cameroon. Their
results indicated that vast majority of drinking water sources possess acceptable
physical and chemical qualities as per WHO standards. However bacteriological
analysis revealed that only the water treated by Cameroon National Water Company
and Sugar Processing Company were acceptable for human consumption. All spring
and well waters presented evidences of faecal contamination from human and/or
animal origin.
Study by Crabill et al. (1999) on physical and chemical parameters (including
stream flow, pH, temperature, dissolved ion concentrations and biological oxygen
76
demand) indicated that the water of Oak Creek, Argentina was of high quality.
However faecal coliform enumerations of Oak Creek demonstrated an annual
deterioration of water quality during the summer season of 1994, 1995, 1996.
Edberg et al. (1997) stressed on the biological monitoring coupled with
physicochemical monitoring to establish a long term history of the source. Colour in
natural water may be due to organic matter which originates from soil, peat and
decaying vegetation or inorganic ions. Iron, copper and manganese present in ground
and surface water may impart red, blue and black hue, respectively, which may be
enhanced by bacteriological processes. Furthermore, colour producing organic
substances can react with chlorine to produce undesirable levels of chlorination
byproducts (WHO, 1996). Objectionable odours and flavours in drinking water are a
constant concern to consumers and public water suppliers. The organoleptic
properties of drinking water can be naturally induced or manmade. There are
substantial grounds to support the possibility that unfamiliar drinking water odours
might reveal the presence of substance, which pose a potential health risk (Jardine et
al., 1997). Compounds in water that are perceived as giving it a taste, are generally
inorganic substances present in concentrations higher than organic pollutants. The salt
concentrations in water are approximately the same as in saliva for the water to taste
neutral. Abundance of blue-green algae can cause drinking water taste and odour
problems, in treatment plants during the summer months. Cyanobacterial toxins are
produced by terrestrial, fresh, blackish and seawater cyanobacteria of cosmopolitan
occurrence. These toxins bring acute and chronic hazards to human and animal health.
Human health problems are associated with the ingestion of and contact with
77
cyanobacterial blooms and their toxins (Szewzyk et al., 2000; Codd et al., 1997).
According to Ling (2000) eutrophication due to excess of nitrogen and phosphorus in
sources of drinking water leads to massive proliferation of cyanobacteria. The
dominant species of cyanophyta can produce microcystins, a potent liver cancer
promoter.
Boulay and Edwards (2001) reported the role of temperature and chlorine in
copper corrosion byproduct released in soft water. Soft, low alkalinity drinking water
tends to cause relatively high copper corrosion byproduct release in plumbing
systems. Long term tests (6-8 months) in a synthetic, microbial stable soft tap water
confirmed that lower pH and higher temperature increase release of copper in water.
Momba and Kaleni (2002) performed an experiment to test the drinking water,
stored in polyethylene and galvanized steel containers by rural communities of South
Africa and found that both types of containers support growth and survival of
indicator bacteria. Bio-films in the drinking water distribution system can protect
pathogens from disinfection and provide the inocula for periodic infestations (Smith
et al., 2000).
Systematic analysis of fluoride research reveals that presence of low level of
fluoride in drinking water does reduce dental caries, but surely adds to dental
fluorosis. The latest estimates suggest that around 200 million people, from among 25
nations the world over, are under the dreadful fate of fluorosis. India and China, the
two most populous countries of the world, are the worst affected (Ayoob and Gupta,
2006). Groundwater fluoride in high level has been reported (Agrawal et al., 1997;
78
Maithani et al., 1998; and Datta et al., 1999) in all the 31 districts of Rajasthan with a
serious health related issue in 23 districts. Several studies have indicated a possible
link between arsenic and fluoride in drinking water (Wyatt et al., 1998). Their study
showed a positive correlation. 52 districts out of 64 covering an area of 118.012Km2
and approx. 40 million people show arsenic occurrences in groundwater in
Bangladesh (Karim, 2000). The groundwater in 7 districts of West Bengal, India,
covering an area of 37,000 Km2 with the population of 34 million, has been found
contaminated with arsenic. Groundwater of Rajnandgaon district of Madhya Pradesh
was also found contaminated with arsenic at 880 ppb (Chakkraborti et al., 1999).
According to Sisti et al. (1998) the effect of chlorine is markedly influenced
by temperature. At a summer water temperature (20oC) the efficacy of the chlorine
concentration was found to be two to three times lower than that at winter temperature
(5oC). According to Sharma (2001) the ideal temperature of water for drinking
purpose is 5-12oC. Above 25oC, water is not recommended for drinking. The increase
in temperature decreases palatability, because at elevated temperatures, carbon
dioxide and some other volatile gases, which impact taste, are expelled. The chemical
and biological activity of water, disinfection, coagulation and sedimentation processes
are affected by temperature.
Nebbache et al. (2001) suggested that turbidity and nitrate concentrations peak
during heavy rain episodes and are short term events. In terms of management it
implies that water pollution caused by such events is also short time and can,
therefore, be addressed at a local scale.
79
Betancourt et al. (2000) detected coliforms and high turbidity (6 NTU) in the
finished water indicating poor operation of the filters and the subsequent interference
with disinfection. Diarrheal diseases are major causes of morbidity and mortality
among children in developing countries (Ansaruzzaman et al., 2000; Thevos et al.,
2000). Diarrheal disease is one of the most important health problems related to water
borne pathogens (Van Leeuwen, 2000). Germani et al. (1994) found water to be the
potential source of contamination for diarrhoeal disease. Atef and Al-Kharabsheh
(1999) monitored the Water quality of nine representative springs in the wadi
Kufranja basin (Jordan). The chemical and biological contents of the spring water
showed cyclic values due to water consumption and recharge during summer and
winter. Electrical conductivity (547-1030 µS/cm), Nitrates (100 mg/L), faecal
coliform bacteria (100 colonies/100ml) was found.
Saleh et al. (2001) reported that tap water from both Cairo and Giza, Egypt,
was of higher quality than any of the bottled water with regard to analyzed anionic
and cationic chemical constituents and within the permissible limits of WHO.
In a study of groundwater wells in agricultural southwestern Ontario (Canada),
35% of the wells tested positive for pesticides on at least one occasion (Lampman,
1995). Studies by Schottler et al. (1994) indicate that 55-80% of the pesticide runoff
occurred in the month of June. The Netherlands National Institute of Public Health
and Environmental Protection (RIVM, 1992) concluded that groundwater is
threatened by pesticides in all European states. Wyatt et al. (1998) analyzed water
samples taken from wells or storage tanks, direct sources for domestic supply in
Northern Mexico, for the presence of lead, copper, cadmium, arsenic and mercury.
80
43% samples were found exceeding the limit for lead, 42% exceed the limit for
mercury and 9% exceed the limit for arsenic.
Oeziuerk and Yilmaz (2000) conducted a preliminary study on trace elements
(arsenic, mercury, lead, cadmium, copper, chromium, iron, manganese and zinc) in
drinking water. The obtained results showed that, in general, the trace elements
concentrations did not increase WHO limits. Ryan et al. (2000) also proved that
drinking water is a well recognized pathway of exposure to these metals. Another
interesting health based work done by Vahter et al. (2002) aimed at reviewing
exposure and health effects of cadmium, nickel, lead, mercury and arsenic manifested
differently in women than men.
Somashekhara et al. (2000) presented the date on the chemistry on forty eight
tube wells’ water collected from Channapatana town, India and surroundings.
According to them quality of 80% of wells was unsuitable for drinking in terms of
hardness, 50% in terms of magnesium and 20% in terms of nitrates and calcium.
Gupta et al. (1999) assessed the fluoride concentration and other parameters in
658 groundwater samples from villages in tehsil Kheragarh of Agra district and found
27% of the samples in range of 0.0 to 1.0 mg/L and 16% above 3.0 mg/L. Prasad et
al. (2008) studied the pH, electrical conductivity, TDS, TH, TA, calcium, magnesium,
sodium, potassium, chloride, nitrate, sulphate and fluoride of 18 water samples
collected from Lalsot urban area in Dausa district of Rajasthan and found the pH
values in the study area range from 7.3 to 8.7 with the mean value of 7.93, Electrical
conductivity from 402 to 2077 with a mean value of 1146.44 μ mhos/cm. TDS ranged
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from 265 to 1370 with a mean of 756.5 mg/L. The hardness of water samples ranged
from 130 to 730 with a mean of 327.22 mg/L. TA, SO42- and fluorides ranged from
110 to 620 mg/L, 6.0 to 85 mg/L and 0.06 to 0.68 mg/L.
Fotedar et al. (2008) studied the physico-chemical parameters in and around
Shivkhori Area, Rajouri district, J&K and found all the elements except Si and Al
within permissible limits in all the samples according to Bureau of Indian Standard
and WHO. Nitrates, sulphates, chlorides, bicarbonates, TDS and total hardness (TH)
were also found within permissible limits and hence with respect to all these
parameters, the water of the study areas were found safe to be used for human
consumption and for agricultural use.
Kaushik et al. (2002) assessed the groundwater quality for drinking purpose
in the districts Hisar and Panipat of Haryana, on the parameters like pH, EC,
Turbidity, TDS, alkalinity, total hardness, calcium, magnesium, sodium, potassium,
chloride, nitrate, phosphate, sulphate and fluoride with respect to different land use
area viz. residential, industrial, commercial and agricultural and reported that at
Panipat groundwater in all the land use zones was fit for consumption, whereas at
Hisar, water in agricultural areas was good in quality, but in other areas varied in
magnitude of pollution.
Gupta et al. (2009) assessed water quality in seventeen villages of Ambala
district and found fluoride concentration higher than the maximum permissible limit
of 1.0ppm as per WHO Standards, and higher than the maximum permissible limit of
1.5ppm as per ICMR and BIS Standards. Garg et al. (1998a) conducted an extensive
82
study regarding fluoride distribution in well waters in Jind district and showed that
89% of the studied well water samples had fluoride content more than the permissible
limits.
Garg et al. (1998b), studied fluoride content carried out in Uklana town, district
Hisar. They reported that fluoride content in Uklana town varies from 0.18 to 8 mg/L
and fluoride has been found to be negatively correlated with total hardness and
positively correlated with total alkalinity.
Singh et al. (2006) conducted a study regarding fluoride distribution in
groundwater in Pataudi block of District Gurgaon. The mean fluoride concentration in
drinking water samples of Pataudi, Haily Mandi and Harsaru villages was 1.68, 3.22
and 1.78 mg/L, respectively. It was concluded from the result that people in the study
area were chronically exposed to higher levels of fluoride from drinking water. The
latest estimates suggest that around 200 million people, from among 25 nations the
world over, are under the dreadful fate of fluorosis. India and China, the two most
populous countries of the world, are the worst affected (Ayoob and Gupta, 2006).
Groundwater fluoride in high level has been reported (Agrawal et al., 1997; Maithani
et al., 1998; and Datta et al., 1999) in all the 31 districts of Rajasthan with a serious
health related issue in 23 districts.
There are some reports which indicate that heavy metals pollution including
Ni in soils arises as a result of various anthropogenic activities such as continuous use
of sewage water (Brar et al., 2002; Kumari et al., 2006; Krishnan et al., 2007), sewage
sludge (Singh and Sakal, 2001) and fertilizers (Tiller, 1992; Indra and Sivaji, 2006).
83
Ahmad and Alam (2003) evaluated the impact of different types of chemical,
electroplating, textile and dyeing industry waste water on the river and groundwater.
Water samples from the localities located on the side of Yamuna River and other
areas in Delhi and industrial effluents of different types of industries were collected
and analyzed. Water quality parameters were very poor, except the samples collected
from upstream.
Physico-chemical and micro-biological studies of sugar mill effluent polluted
groundwater in Eraiyur area of Permbalur District, Tamil Nadu by Amathussalam et
al. (2002) indicated that EC, TDS, total hardness, BOD, COD and ions level values
are on the higher side of permissible limits of WHO standards. Microbiological
studies revealed the presence of specific fungal species which are capable of growing
in higher concentrations of bicarbonate and nitrates.
Dixit et al. (2003) evaluated the final water supply of four treatment plants and
80 tube-wells at Delhi for heavy metals. The levels of manganese, copper, selenium
and cadmium were found marginally above the Indian Standards (IS) specification
regulated for drinking water. Guru Prasad (2003) calculated the Water Quality Index
(WQI) of groundwater for Tadepalli mandal of Guntur district, AP and assessed the
impact of pollutants due to agriculture and human activities on its quality and found
that water of the study area was not safe for human use.
Islam and Gyananath (2002) studied the implications of chemical fertilizers
(mean sulphate, phosphate and nitrate concentration) on ground water quality of
Nanded. The mean recorded values of sulphate, phosphate and nitrate levels were
84
found 10.26-34.83 mg/L, 0.052-0.194 mg/L and 3.43-11.37 mg/L, respectively.
Sulphate and nitrate levels were within permissible limits but phosphate levels higher
than the permissible limits.
Gulab Sagar, a sewage polluted pond at the mid of Jodhpur city was studied
by Jakher and Rawat (2003) for two parameters - nitrate and most probable number
(MPN). The relationship between both the parameters was noted as highly significant.
The correlation co-efficient for nitrate and MPN was found to be 0.91 and the
empirical parameters were determined to be a = 46.25 and b = 12.48.
Jena et al. (2003) conducted a field survey to study the coastal water quality of
the Sagar Island, which plays a decisive role in coastal resource management. Some
physicochemical parameters and nutrients of the coastal water during the post-
monsoon season were studied. Coastal waters associated with mangroves represented
salinity range of 4-7% more than average values of dissolved oxygen (5.84 mg/L)
observed in the mangrove patches.
Kaushik et al. (2003) studied the heavy metal pollution in the water of major
canals originating from the river Yamuna in Haryana and found all heavy metals
except Zn in the Western Yamuna Canal exceeding the maximum permissible limits.
Concentrations of the metals were, however, relatively less in the highly
eutrophicated waters of Agra canal and Gurgaon canal as compared to that in WYC
but Fe concentration were much higher.
Khedkar and Dixit (2003) analyzed the physicochemical characteristics of the
wastewater generated by the vast population of Amravati and found the majority of
85
the parameters within permissible limits, but the sodium concentration in the
wastewater exceeded the standards recommended by CPCB or WHO.
Manjapa et al. (2003) analyzed 61 different bore-well samples, selected from
different areas of Davanagere taluk and found 26% of the samples contain fluorides
less than safe limit prescribed by BIS and 11.5% of the samples are found to contain
more than safe limit. Further, 16% of the bore-well samples analyzed were found to
contain more than safe limit prescribed by BIS. The values of fluorides and nitrates
observed in different samples were in the range of 0.19-2.06ppm and 0.08-308ppm,
respectively.
Matkar and Gangotri (2002) studied the sugar industrial effluents toxicity to
aquatic fauna and human health and found pH of the effluent at 4.00, BOD 43000
mg/L and COD 89760mg/L which is beyond the tolerance limit of the water, causing
shifting of the algal forms towards more tolerant zone, leading to decrease in
biodiversity. Total dissolved solids and total suspended solids were also considerably
high.
Maya (2003) studied the bacterial quality of water along with seasonal
analysis of certain important physicochemical parameters of some temple tanks in
Kerala. The overall analysis indicates poor quality of water of temple tanks with
organic pollution and faecal contamination.
Meenakumari and Hosmani (2003) assessed the total coliform and E. coli level
of ground water (open-wells, bore-wells) in various parts of Mysore city and found
the values of total coliform from 3 to 2400/100 ml. The high values of E. coli were
86
observed in north and east parts of city. The study concluded that large amount of
unplanned release of sewage water into subsurface water is largely responsible for
bacteriological pollution of ground water in area.
Patel et al. (2003) carried out a survey around major industrial cities to study
the level of contamination in water-soil-plant system and found all major polluting
elements in the industrial effluents. Further, TSS, COD, BOD values were found
above the standard permissible limits for irrigation. The well-water from Bharuch site
was found contaminated with Cr and Mn whereas Ankleshwar site contained Fe
above the standard limit for irrigation, besides salinity and alkalinity hazards.
Hydro-geochemical investigations carried out by Sujatha and Rajeswara
(2003) in the south-eastern part of the Ranga Reddy district, Hyderabad to assess the
quality of groundwater for domestic and irrigation purposes showed the
concentrations of NO3-, Cl-, and F- ions above the permissible limits and found that
the extensive use of fertilizers and large-scale discharge of municipal wastes into the
open drainage system of the area, may be the possible cause.
Pathade et al. (2003) Studied microbiological analysis of drinking water
samples from some hotels and schools in Karad, Maharashtra for coliforms and water
borne enteropathogenic bacteria. Enteropathogenic bacteria like Pseudomonas
aeruginosa, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Staphylococcus aureus, Shigella species and
E.coli were commonly found in school and hotel drinking water samples. More than
40% samples showed more than 240 coliforms/100 mL and pathogenic isolates
showed resistance to many antibiotics of common use.
87
Purandara et al. (2003) studied samples of water from Bellary nala (Belgaum
city) which was once a freshwater stream and now turned into a waste stream and
revealed that the surface water is completely deteriorated as indicated through
dissolved oxygen concentration. It was also observed that in industrial patches and
adjoining areas of nala, increase in salinity contents may turn into saline water in
years to come if not properly cared.
Rawat (2003) studied the direct and indirect factors affecting microbial fauna
of the two water bodies of Jodhpur region and found that the water to be
unsatisfactory for drinking and other purposes throughout the year. The coliform
number was found maximum in June and July at Gulab Sagar and Takhat Sagar
respectively, with a trend of the fall of coliform number in winters, rise in summers
and again maximum in rains.
Sharma et al. (2003) studied the water quality of Hathli stream in Hamirpur
district of Himachal Pradesh in lower Himalayan region and revealed that the water in
the stream is heavily polluted as BOD, TDS, hardness and alkalinity exceed the
permissible limits and also observed presence of coliforms in excessive numbers.
Sharma and Verma (2003) analyzed water samples collected from natural
springs in Hamirpur area of Himachal Pradesh and found the physicochemical
parameters within the maximum permissible limits of drinking water standards.
However, low fluoride and iron is observed in all the spring water samples. The study
also revealed that water of the area is very hard and highly alkaline and is dominated
by bicarbonates, calcium and magnesium.
88
Sikdar and Banerjee (2003) found arsenic above permissible limit of 0.05mg/L
in groundwater samples in parts of seventy-three blocks and eleven municipalities of
eight districts of West Bengal and discussed that the hypothesis of geological source
of arsenic has certain drawbacks and also highlighted the alternative anthropogenic
sources of arsenic.
Srinivas et al. (2002) studied the various physicochemical characteristics of
water samples collected from in and around dumping yards in the Visakhapatnam city
found significant increase in the iron concentration. A study by Sujatha (2003) found
the concentrations of fluoride in the groundwater vary from 0.7 to 4.80 mg/L and
from 0.4 to 4.20 mg/L during the pre and post-monsoon seasons respectively, in the
Ranga Reddy district, Andhra Pradesh. By contrast, the fluoride concentration in
many places was relatively high during the post-monsoon period. This indicates
contamination of groundwater from surface pollutants.
Kumar and Sinha (2010) studied the twelve drinking water quality parameters
of the twelve water samples of hand pumps at Moradabad and found the water quality
of study area polluted. Tripathy (2003) analyzed the groundwater samples in and
around Bhanja Bihar, Orissa to determine total dissolved solids and concentration of
major ions. Analysis results found the groundwater fit for human consumption and the
Cl-/HCO3-, and Mg++ / Ca++ values indicated that the aquifers are free from any salt
water ingress from the sea as is the case with several localities along the coast.
Umar and Absar (2003) collected twenty-nine dug-well samples from the
Gambhir River basin in the Bharatpur District of Rajasthan for hydro-geochemical
89
study to understand the sources of dissolved ions and assess the chemical quality of
the water and found that the groundwater has chemical composition within the
permissible limits suggested for drinking water. Nitrate was found higher than the
acceptable limit in some samples, due to the use of fertilizers.
The chemical characteristics of groundwater in Malaprabha Sub-basin of
Belgaum District, Karnataka have been studied by Varadarajan and Purandara (2003)
during the pre-monsoon and post-monsoon seasons to evaluate the suitability of water
for domestic and irrigation purpose and found the quality of groundwater in the
upstream region of the sub basin quite acceptable for both the uses, whereas in the
downstream region various parameters exceeds the acceptable limits due to excessive
irrigation by excess application of fertilizers and pesticides. In addition to this fluoride
was observed in excess along the downstream region of the sub basin.
Physicochemical studies by Yadav et al. (2003) regarding the water quality
assessment of some villages of Behror tehsil indicated the high values of inorganic
salts, nitrate, fluoride and hardness showing the water quality totally unfit for drinking
purpose and harmful for the health of the consumer.
Sabal et al. (2008) analyzed the 100 groundwater samples collected from 25
villages of Amber tehsil of Jaipur district for physico-chemical parameters like
Fluoride, pH, electrical conductivity, total dissolved solid, total hardness, calcium,
chloride and alkalinity and revealed considerable variations in the chemical
composition of water samples and Fluoride concentration varies from 0.91 to 4.20
90
mg/L. Yadav et al. (2011) examined fluoride and other parametric status of ground
water samples at various locations of Rewari.
Analysis of groundwater samples collected from various locations of
Bhavnagar region by Mishra et al. (2009) revealed that turbidity, manganese, zinc and
copper were within permissible limits but TDS, total hardness, chloride, fluoride and
chromium were observed beyond permissible limits in some samples and iron in
almost all the samples and concluded that groundwater in Bhavnagar region requires
precautionary measures before drinking to avoid adverse health effects.
The investigations by Dayal (1992) indicated a high degree of pollution in
groundwater of Agra city. Though much of the variables were within the standard
limit of potable water, a few heavy metals recorded a concentration much beyond the
permissible limits set by the WHO (1984). The water sources around septic tanks and
sewage channels showed a high contamination of coliforms.
Twenty two ground water samples from Hubli city, Dharwad district
Karnataka analyzed by Hegde and Puranik (1992) for Fe, Mn, Cu, Ni, Pb and Cd
indicated high concentrations probably because of industries and highway
contamination.
Study done by Kaur et al. (1992) to investigate seasonal variations of various
water quality parameters and to investigate correlations amongst Bicarbonates,
chlorides, electrical conductivity, pH, sulphates and total hardness show a downward
trend in their concentrations from April to June (summer season) whereas their
91
concentrations increase during August to October due to monsoon rains, indicating
potential for contamination due to acid rain.
Study by Anand et al. (2006) revealed the impact of diverse anthropogenic
activities as well as the monsoon effects on the bacterial population of river Yamuna
in Delhi stretch. Microbial population contributed mainly through human activities
prevailed there. The degree of trace elements pollution and the suitability of
groundwater for drinking purpose were assessed by Barik et al. (2005). The
concentration of lead and iron was found above maximum permissible limit.
Experiments carried out at by Das et al. (2006) indicated that electrical
conductivity has a linear relationship with Total Dissolved Solids, which is validated
by the findings at various other lakes throughout the world. High fluoride
contamination and high concentrations of SO42- has been observed by Dutta et al.
(2006) in the groundwater of areas having ancient alluvial red soil and Precambrian
metamorphic rock complex basement in the Kapili-Jamuna sub-basin. TDS and total
hardness was found above the desirable limit by Jadeja et al. (2006) in all the
groundwater samples collected from Dharampur industrial area Porbandar city.
From the analytical data of physicochemical parameters, Misra et al. (2005)
found river and groundwater contaminated and indicated that it might be due to the
industrial and municipal effluents. Pawar et al. (2006) analyzed the bore-well and
dug-well water samples from a highly polluted industrial area of Nacharam,
Hyderabad for physicochemical parameters and found those unfit compared with
drinking water standards.
92
Natural spring-water and dug-well water from Lote Industrial Area and nearby
villages was analyzed by Raje et al. (2005) and found the groundwater with varying
degrees of trace metals contamination that may cause a serious health problem to
domestic animals and human beings. Ground water quality of industrial area of
Kishangarh, Rajasthan was studied by Sharma et al. (2005) for various
physicochemical parameters seasonally and from the study it was clear that these
parameters increase with the addition of marble slurry leading to deterioration of the
overall quality of the groundwater.
Total coliform and faecal coliform bacteria in water from two channels at
Okhla in the southern part of Delhi monitored by Mohapatra et al. (1992) were found
to be infected with high count of coliform bacteria. Total coliform and faecal coliform
counts had the highest values in the month of March while the lowest values were
obtained in December. Patel (1992) found groundwater quality of the Garhkalika,
Bharathari caves, southern side of Runmuktheswar and Solah sagar region, Nagar Kot
Ke Rani region, Rudhra sagar and Jaisinghpura region and eastern side of Hira and
Binod Mills regions unsuitable for irrigational purpose as groundwater samples of the
these region indicated high salinity.
Water samples from 30 rivers in northern and northeastern hilly states of India
analyzed by Pathak et al. (1992) for bacteriological and physicochemical parameters
along with metals and pesticide residues indicated 34% of samples with > 50
coliforms/ 100 ml, 24% of samples demonstrated > 50 thermo-tolerant (faecal)
coliforms/100 ml. Among the metals, iron was found to be above maximum
permissible limits in the rivers of all the states, while manganese was found to be
93
above the maximum permissible limits in the rivers of Tripura and some northern
states.
Sharma et al. (1992) analyzed Fifty three water samples from different wells
used for irrigation within Chambal command area and found that the majority of
waters are high in salinity and sodium. Dissolved nutrients estimated by Shibu et al.
(1990) in the surface and bottom waters of five selected stations of the Evaravur Lake
during February 1987 to January 1988 revealed distinct seasonal variations. Rainfall
and land drainage play significant roles in the nutrient economy, particularly NO3-N
and SiO4-Si of this water body. Abnormally high values of PO4-P indicated extremely
polluted condition at the retting zone of the lake during the pre-monsoon season.
Water of River Ganga was studied by Shukla et al. (1992) at four sampling
sites at Ghazipur, U.P., from May 1987 to April 1988 and found high bacteriological
count, besides depletion in the dissolved oxygen, and increase in ECE, BOD, COD,
pH, nitrate N, phosphate P, sodium, potassium and calcium contents.
Physicochemical and bacterial parameters of 23 bore wells and dug wells of
23 villages of Challapalli Mandal were assessed by Somasekhara et al. (1992) and
found that there is high incidence of fluoride. Hydrological and sediment transport
characteristics are two main fluvial parameters affecting the Aggradation/degradation
behavior of the river systems (Sinha, 2005). Mass bathing in sacred water bodies is an
age-old ritual in India. Study by Semwal and Akolkar (2006) deals with water quality
assessment of rivers in Uttaranchal, in view of their religious importance and
ecological sustainability. The physicochemical water quality in most of the rivers of
94
Uttaranchal remained unchanged except total dissolved solids ranged from 90.23 to
121.33mg/L, total suspended solids varying from 126.5 to 236.5mg/L and total
alkalinity of 37.0 to 96.0mg/L. Significant levels of sulphates (1.66 to 20.0mg/L)
were also observed at the religious places. Traces of iron, zinc and copper metals,
Endosulfan, Dieldrin and DDT in water and sediments have been observed in clean
water quality stretches. Krishnaswami and Singh (2005) observed total dissolved
solids in Himalayan Rivers ranged from 35 to 151 mg/L.
Singh et al. (1962) reported that the average fluoride content of 60 water
samples of village Bajekhana of district Bathinda ranged from 2.4 to 16.2ppm with a
mean of 8.4ppm. From an analysis of large number of well-waters of Bathinda
district, they reported a mean value of 0.30 to 14.00ppm of fluorine in these waters.
A study conducted by Joia et al. (1978) on residues of DDT and HCH/BHC in
Wheat Flour in Punjab detected 124 and 116 samples affected, respectively out of 140
samples of wheat flour. Brar et al. (1984) have studied hydro-chemistry of ground
water of Bhawanigarh block in Sangrur district of Punjab and reported fluoride
concentration in the study area in the range from 0.28 to 4.00 mg/L except one sample
from the Bimberi village exceeding the critical limit of 1.0 mg/L and concluded that
there is no problem of fluoride hazard in the ground water of the block.
A study was undertaken by Singh et al. (1990) on the effects of sewage
irrigation from Ganda Nallah (Hakimwala drain) and Tung Dhab Drain on the soil
and crops in Amritsar during 1986 to1990. It was observed that copper and zinc
accumulated in the soil with prolonged sewage irrigation. The contents of these two
95
heavy metals were found up to 270µg/g and 412.8µg/g, respectively, which were very
high for cultivated lands.
Dhillion and Dhillion (1997) found four-fold increase of selenium content in
the areas of Hoshiarpur and Jalandhar districts of Punjab due to following of rice-
wheat cropping pattern as compared to when maize-wheat cropping pattren was
practiced. Sood et al. (1998) reported that electrical conductivity of water samples
collected from 88 villages of Talwandi Sabo tehsil of Bathinda district, varied from
0.55 to 13.74 dS/m. Soluble carbonates, bicarbonates and residual sodium carbonates
of these waters varied from 0.0 to 3.2, 2.0 to 17.7 and 0.0 to 14.6 me/L respectively.
Results of a study conducted by Khurana et al. (2003), in districts Ludhiana,
Jalandhar, Amritsar and Sangrur showed elevated levels of DTPA (Diethylene
triamine penta-acetic acid) extractable heavy metals in sewage irrigated soils as
compared to tube-well irrigated soils. Dhillon et al. (2004) has reported selenium in
groundwater of north-east parts of Punjab in the range of 2.54 to 69.53 µg/L (safe
limit is 10 µg/L), especially in parts of Hoshiarpur and Nawanshahr districts.
A study by Kumar (2005) indicated higher pesticide contents as well as higher
concentrations of mercury, chromium and selenium in groundwater of Chamkaur
Sahib of Rup Nagar district as compared to tap water while Battu (2005) found
residents of Talwandi Sabo, Bathinda using canal water brought from the other areas
instead of using groundwater and assessed that the pesticides in all the samples were
below detection limits. However, Mathur et al. (2005) found high level of pesticide
residues in human blood samples taken from villages of Punjab.
96
According to a study conducted by Sharma et al. (2005) in Jalandhar and
Moga districts to find out the awareness level of the farmers regarding the
implications caused due to excessive use of pesticides, indicated that 28% of the
respondents were not aware about instructions written on pesticide containers, 64.5%
respondents were not aware about recommended dose of inputs, 48.5% respondents
were unaware of the need to keep pesticides in original containers and 54% were
careless about their safe storage. Majority of the farmers (75.5%) did not dispose off
empty containers; rather they were reusing them in household activities. Persistence
of some pesticides was known to a majority of farmers (67%), but only 36%
respondents were aware about the hazardous effects of their excessive use. About
54% of farmers were unaware of the ill effects like respiratory and skin diseases and
allergies caused by pesticides in human beings.
Minakshi et al. (2006) studied the groundwater quality of Rupnagar district of
Punjab and found that Kharar block has 46.7 percent of the total geographic area
under marginally sodic water as compared to the Anandpur Sahib block with 8.5
percent of its area under marginally sodic waters. Hundal et al. (2007) assessed the
arsenic contents groundwater samples of north-eastern, central and south-western
districts of Punjab and found 41%, 46% and 54% samples with high arsenic (>50ppb)
contents, respectively. Tiwana et al. (2007) indicated that residue of chemical
pesticides in human beings, milk, water, vegetables and other food products are at
levels which are dangerous for human health. After the ecstasy of the green
revolution, Punjab is now to battle with residual effects of extensively used chemical
pesticides in air, water, environment and food products.
97
Industrial and agricultural activities in urban areas of Punjab (Saxena et al.,
2007) have led to a considerable increase in heavy metal levels in different
environmental compartments, especially in soils over the course of recent decade. A
study by Thakur et al. (2008) found level of As, Se, Hg in ground water at Talwandi
Sabo more than the permissible level where as at Chamkaur Sahib the level of Se
were above the permissible level. Similarly, As, Se were also above permissible level
in tap water at Talwandi Sabo whereas as in Chamkaur Sahib only As levels were
more than the permissible limit in tap water.
Khurana and Bansal (2008) evaluated the effects of irrigation with
contaminated sewage water in soils and its accumulation in crops in four major
industrial towns of Punjab namely Jalandhar, Ludhiana, Amritsar and Mandi
Gobindgarh. Garba et al. (2012) analyzed samples of drinking water from wells and
boreholes from eight local governments of district of Kaduna state, Northern Nigeria
and found that samples were contaminated with abnormal concentration of arsenic
and consumers are vulnerable to severe health hazards. Jinwal and Dixit (2013)
examined various physic-chemical parameters of ground water to assess water quality
during Monsoon at different areas in the city of lakes, Bhopal. Gajendran et al. (2013)
analysed the water samples of rural area of Tirunelveli district, Tamil Nadu and found
a linear relationship among different pairs of ground water quality parameters.
Sorlini et al. (2013) analysed the water samples throughout the villages of
Lagone valley (Chad-Cameroon mostly from boreholes, open wells, rivers and lakes
and found significant lead contamination. Chaurasia et al. (2013) collected water and
blood samples fromBallia region, the samples were prepared for testing with the help
98
of HGAAS.Chaturvedi et al. (2013) investigated the effects of pesticides on human
beings and farm animals and suggested that consumption of eggs and meat is also a
significant source of exposure to the majority of organochlorine chemicals and
pesticides. Satyanarayana et al. (2013) examined water smaples from 21 bore wells
for urban groundwater quality assessment of Greater Visakhapatnam Municipal
Corporation, Andhra Pradesh, India and analyzed for their physicochemical
characteristics.
Bawa et al. (2013) assessed the impact of sewage and industrial wastewater on
the water quality of Godavari River at Nashik, India. Wasim et al. (2014) studied the
hydrochemistry of groundwater in Aligarh city of Uttar Pradesh, India by collecting
samples from open wells as well as hand pumps and found that major reason for the
decline in water quality is the dumping of large amount of acid wastes by illegal lock
factories, and another important source of pollution is slaughterhouse where at least
2500 buffaloes are slaughtered daily.
Upadhyay and Chandrakala (2014) analysis of bore well water of
Machenahalli village, Tumkur district, Karnataka and found that municipal waste is
dumped in surrounding areas and as aresult, ground water is getting polluted even in
rural areas in the vicinity of big cities.
Kumar et al. (2015) investigated the arsenic distribution in groundwater and its
effect on health of people of 5 different blocks of Kishanganj, Bihar and found that 6
% patients diagnosed with clinical features of arsenicosis characterized by arsenical
dermal lesion. Bariki et al. (2015) investigated the physicochemical quality of
drinking water in Araku valley mandal of Visakhapatnam District, Andhra Pradesh
99
and found that the well water and spring is more contaminated than the bore. The
results showed that, the water in this area is not safe and needed treatment before it is
consumed by the local tribal people.
Taiwo et al. (2015) conducted groundwater quality assessment in Akungba
Akoko, Ondo State, Nigeria and It has been shown that anthropogenic inputs can
continually ruin the suitability of the water for safe drinking purpose. Meride and
Ayenew (2016) investigated the drinking water quality assessment and its effects on
residents health in Wondo genet campus, Ethiopia and found that drinking water were
consistent with World Health Organization standards for drinking water. Lakshmi et
al. (2016) studied the Physico-chemical parameters of water by sampling Hand
pumps, Bore wells, Vagu and Cheruvu water of different sites of Polkampally,
Ghanapuram, Kodhandapuram, Mallaiahpallem, Nemalipuram, Pinnavura of
Nalgonda district of Telangana, India. All parameters were within the permissible
limits.
Singh and Hussian (2016) carried out study on groundwater from 25 blocks of
Greater Noida city, India. The WQI values from present study indicate the very poor
quality water in the area dominated by industrial and construction activities. The
ground water of the Greater Noida needs a degree of treatment before consumption
and needs to be protected from further contamination.
Malviya et al. (2016) investigated effect of municipal solid waste dump on
ground water quality at Pipariya, Madhya Pradesh and found that total dissolved
solids (TDS), electrical conductivity (EC), exceeded the World Health Organization
(WHO) tolerance levels for drinking water. Magadum et al. (2017) studied the
100
physicochemical parameters and water quality index of Vishwamitri River, Gujarat.
Prior to its entry into the Vadodara city, quality of water was good with low pollution
however, discharge of untreated sewage and dumping of solid waste in or on the bank
of the river contributed to poorwater quality in the downstream locations.
Lone et al. (2017) investigate some physico-chemical parameters from five
basins of Dal Lake of Kashmir. Telebal and Jogilankar basins are having deteriorated
water qualities and possible reason for this could be the increasing eutrophication
resulting from agricultural practices in the nearby catchment area or tourism activity.
Bhuyan and Bakar (2017) conducted study to assess the surface water quality of
Halda River have and revealed significant anthropogenic pollutant intrusions in water.
Assessment of the water quality was carried out for different lakes in the City
of Udaipur by Chittora et al. (2017). Daud et al. (2017) observed that about 20% of
the whole population of Pakistan has access to safe drinking water.The remaining
80% of population is forced to use unsafe drinking water due to the scarcity of safe
and healthy drinking water sources. The primary source of contamination is sewerage
(fecal) which is extensively discharged into drinking water system supplies.
Anthropogenic activities cause waterborne diseases that constitute about 80% of all
diseases and are responsible for 33% of deaths.
Gupta eta al. (2017) studied the effect of physicochemical and biological
parameters on the qualityof river water of Narmada, Madhya Pradesh. It was observed
that the water quality is good in the season summer and winter but poor and
unsuitable for human consumption in the monsoon. Tyagi et al. (2017) analysed the
water quality in and around Bhagwanpur industrial area, Uttra Khand and observed
101
that water pollution in this area has significantly reduced, due to fact that the effluents
are treated regularly for the last few years.
Jena V and Sinha (2017) examined the physical and chemical characteristics
of groundwater determine its suitability for agricultural, industrial and domestic
usages. Patel et al. (2017) collected ground water samples from diverse spaces of
Bhanvad taluka of Jamnagar district (India) for investigation of their physicochemical
parameters and found water uality is poor and unfit for drinking purposes.
Hydrochemical study of surface and ground water were performed by Kumar
et al. (2017) for determining its suitability for drinking, industrial and agricultural
purposes. The rapid urbo-industralization activities, increase in population with
change of life style, excess use of chemical fertilizers, pesticides in soil to meet the
increasing demand in the market has destroyed the water quality of ecologically rich
state of Uttarakhand, India.
Anbarasu and Anbuselvan (2017) carried out study to analyse physico-
chemical parameters of ground and surface water of Musiri Taluk, Tamil Nadu and
revealed that the quality of water of Cauvery water is suitable for drinking purposes
but, the well water and bore well water samples are unfit for drinking and utility
purpose. Nongmaithem and Basudha (2017) investigated water samples from Senapati
district of Manipur, India and found suitable for domestic purposes.
Elmorsi et al. (2017) studied physicochemical properties of Manzala Lake,
Egypt and oserved that the south eastern region showed worst water quality
parameters. Lukubye and Andama (2017) investigated boreholes, springs, wells and
102
rainwater to check physico-chemical quality water in Mbarara municipality, Uganda
and found that increased human activities especially croplands, latrines, landfills,
transportation, animal and municipal wastes at the vicinity of the water sources has
deterioted the water quality.
Abhilash et al. (2017) analysed the ground water for Ranebennur City. The
prominent sources of pollutants and natural agencies that are responsible for
contamination in the study area are domestic/ municipal sewage and over exploitation
of ground water to meet the demand for fresh water. Sharma and Walia (2017)
investigated the physicochemical parameters of Satluj River, Himachal Pradesh. The
analysis of data reveals that turbidity, chemical oxygen demand, biological oxygen
demand and chlorides were found to be higher than the acceptable limit prescribed by
Bureau of Indian standards (BIS), WHO standards. Higher values of these parameters
reveal that the pollution in Satluj River is due to siltation, domestic & municipal
sewage, industrial sewage and surface run-off that affect the water quality directly or
indirectly.
103
DRINKING WATER
QUALITY PARAMETERS
Groundwater represents an important source of drinking water but its quality
is currently threatened by over-abstraction and microbiological and physicochemical
contamination (Reid et al., 2003; Pedley and Howard, 1997).
4.1. Water and its Contamination
Being universal solvent, water dissolves almost all, including toxic and
hazardous substances, producing polluted water. Many physicochemical parameters
may be of interest for water quality assessment like, temperature, colour, odour, pH,
turbidity, salinity, hardness, nitrates, phosphates and certain trace elements.
Temperature has a marked influence on the chemical and biochemical reactions that
occur in water bodies. High temperature increases toxicity of many substances and
sensitivity of living organisms (Dojlido and Best, 1993). Low pH accelerates the
corrosion of metals. Presence of suspended matter in water is termed as turbidity
which absorbs and scatters the incoming light. WHO set the maximum permissible
limit of turbidity at 5 NTU (Nephalometric Turbidity Unit). Lawson and Mason
(2001) studied a strong correlation between metals like lead, arsenic, cadmium etc.
and suspended particulate concentration. Hardness in water is caused by dissolved
calcium, and to a lesser extent, by magnesium. Acceptable hardness ranges between
100 and 200 mg CaCO3 per litre. Hardness above 200 can result in scale deposition
104
and below 100 leads to low buffering capacity. Intake of very soft waters may have an
adverse effect on mineral balance and can cause cardiovascular diseases, rectal and
esophageal cancer and even mortalities (Sauvant and Pepin, 2000; WHO, 1996; Yang
et al., 1999a; 1999b; Dojlido and Best, 1993). Nickel allergy and hand eczema due to
exposure to nickel, kidney damage due to cadmium, motor-neuron disease and poor
verbal and visual memory due to high manganese have been reported (Vahter et al.,
2002; Woolf et al., 2002; Iwami et al., 1994). Acute lead leads to tiredness, lassitude,
slight abdominal discomfort, irritability, anaemia, neuro-physiological effects and
behavioral changes in children. Zinc toxicity symptoms include vomiting,
dehydration, electrolyte imbalance, abdominal pain, nausea, lethargy, dizziness and
lack of muscular coordination. Acute renal failure caused by zinc chloride has been
reported (WHO, 1991). Nitrates in groundwater are often associated by farming,
fertilizers, pesticides or poor sanitary activities (Jacinthe et al., 2000; Neal et al.,
2000; Nolan and Stoner, 2000; Huang et al., 1994). WHO guidelines for nitrates in
drinking water is established to prevent methaemoglobinaemia (blue babies) which is
lethal in babies and can be potentially hazardous with health risks for considerable
groups of people who live near shallow or dug wells or springs where nitrate
concentration is high (Squillace et al., 2002; Lehloesa and Muyima, 2000). The
condition can progress rapidly to coma and death if it is not recognized and treated
appropriately (Knobeloch et al., 2000). Trace elements of interest in drinking water of
non-industrial areas are cadmium and lead. Cadmium accumulates in kidneys and
damages it. Growth of algae, the blue-green algae in particular, can produce toxins as
byproduct of photosynthesis in water supply reservoirs (WHO, 1996; Dojlido and
Best, 1993; Zakova, 1993). Lehloesa and Muyima (2000) have studied the adverse
105
effects of lead. Lead is toxic to both the central and peripheral nervous system (WHO,
1993). Clement et al. (2000) claims to estimate the exposure of a population to lead
contaminated by drinking water supply. When water is run from a tap, the first
fraction of water collected carries the highest lead concentration, since the water was
standing in the lead pipe. Well or storage tanks also have high levels of lead in
addition to tap waters and springs (Clement et al., 2000; Wyatt et al., 1998, Leroyer et
al., 2000). Srikanth et al. (2002), Shivashankara et al. (2000), and many others have
studied the ill effects of fluoride on teeth and bones. The major observed health effect
of sulphate is its laxative action (WHO, 1996). Chloride concentration in excess of
about 250 mg/L can give rise to detectable taste to water (Kim et al., 2002).
Microorganisms’ threat to safety of drinking water is a growing peril even in
industrialized nations that have long regarded themselves as immune to wide spread
water borne illness and carriers so common in developing countries (Young, 1996;
WHO, 1991). Microbial pathogens including bacteria, viruses, cyanobacteria and
protozoa are major health risks associated with water and wastewater (Eynard et al.,
2000; Maurer and Stuerchler, 2000; Szewzyk et al., 2000; Toze, 1999; Pathak and
Gopal, 1994). In the developing world, drinking water is an important route for
transmission of diarroheal disease, especially in rainy season (Dangendorf et al.,
2002; Thevos et al., 2000; Musa et al., 1999). Microbiologically contaminated
drinking water is a cause of community acquired infection, especially water borne
nosocomial pneumonias caused by Pseudomonas aeruginosa (Anaissie et al., 2002;
Dangendorf et al., 2002). Rainfall is major factor affecting vertical and horizontal
movements of bacteria in soil. Surface runoff carries bacteria significant distances
106
downstream causing serious threats to surface and ground water. Soil texture plays an
important role; E. coli survives in semi-arid areas for a long time and increases
potential of contamination (Ashour and Hung, 2000).
It is impossible to test the water supply for all pathogens related to water borne
diseases because of the complexity of the testing, the time and cost related to it (Lee
and Kim, 2002; Toze, 1999). It is therefore preferable to use indicator systems which
are able to index the presence of pathogens in water and wastewaters. The presence of
pathogens is usually accompanied by the presence of classic indicators of
contamination such as E. coli, Enterococci and other aerobic bacteria (Schaffter and
Parriaux, 2002; Charriere et al., 1994).
Toxic chemicals if found in drinking water may cause either acute or chronic
health effects. An acute effect usually follows a large dose of a chemical and occurs
almost immediately. Examples of acute health effects are nausea, lung irritation, skin
rash, vomiting, dizziness, and, in the extreme, death. The levels of chemicals in
drinking water, however, are rarely high enough to cause acute health effects. They
are more likely to cause chronic health effects, effects that occur after exposure to
small amounts of a chemical over a long period. Examples of chronic health effects
include cancer, birth defects, organ damage, disorders of the nervous system, and
damage to the immune system. The possible health effects of a contaminant in
drinking water differ widely, depending on whether a person consumes the water over
a long period, briefly, or intermittently.
107
Water quality is the combination of properties of water that are manifested in
relation to human ans other living creatures. Due to the diversity of the natural forms
of the existence of water and diversity of forms of water using by humans (biological
and technical), the vast multiplicity of water properties was explored (physical,
chemical, biological, and technological). Every specific sort of water requires a
special method of quality analysis. However, in practice, general methods of analysis
of large groups of water are used: natural water for potable water supply, industrial
for use in the production processes, and waste water for discharge into water basins or
for further use. Depending on the field of application of the water, the specific
requirements are presented for its quality along predetermined parameters.
4.2. Maximum Contaminant Levels
Standards set by National Drinking Water Authority are called Maximum
Contaminant Levels (MCL). MCL is the highest amount of a specific contaminant
allowed in the water delivered to any consumer. An MCL may be expressed in
milligrams per liter (mg/L), which is the same for the purposes of water quality
analysis as parts per million (ppm) or as micrograms/liter (μg/L) equivalent to parts
per billion (ppb). MCL have been set by the USEPA and the BIS (in India) to provide
a margin of safety to protect the public health.
Impurities in drinking water that are regulated and have an adverse health
impact are grouped into six categories: inorganic chemical contaminants, volatile
organic chemical contaminants, synthetic organic chemical contaminants,
microbiological contaminants, radiological contaminants, and disinfection by-
108
products. The process of setting MCL for drinking water contaminants is based on
three criteria:
➢ Adverse health effects of contaminant
➢ Instruments available to detect the contaminant
➢ Source of contaminant
Experts use available chronic and sub-chronic animal studies and human
clinical or epidemiological data to estimate the concentration of a drinking water
contaminant that may be toxic and the concentrations, if any, which may cause no
adverse effects. Acceptable Daily Intake called the Reference Dose is used to
establish a Maximum Contaminant Level for a contaminant. In 1987, USEPA
published MCL for eight volatile organic chemicals. Setting drinking water standards
is an imperfect process, rarely based on conclusive human evidence. In addition,
regulatory decisions frequently incorporate economic, political, and social
considerations. The judgment of safety or what is an acceptable level of risk in
particular circumstances is a matter in which society as a whole has a role to play.
4.3. Specifications of drinking water
World Health Organization showed that in 1975, some 1, 230 million people
were without safe water supplies. On account of these appalling facts, United Nations
decided to declare an International Drinking Water Supply and Sanitation decade,
beginning in 1981. The 5th Five Year Plan of India had made a special provision for
availability of safe drinking water for the masses. Therefore, the standard was
formulated with the objective of assessing the quality of water resources, and to check
109
the effectiveness of water treatment and supply by the concerned authorities. As per
the eleventh five year plan document of India (2007-12), there are about 2.17 lakh
quality affected habitations in the country with more than half affected with excess
iron, fluoride, salinity, nitrate and arsenic. Further ~ 10 million cases of diarrhoea,
more than 7.2 lakh typhoid cases and 1.5 lakh viral hepatitis cases occur every year a
majority of which are contributed by unclean water supply and poor sanitation.
According to Bureau of Indian Standards, drinking water shall comply with the
requirements given in Table 4.1.
Table 4.1: Drinking Water – Specifications for some of the important parameters
Bureau of Indian Standards, IS 10500 – 2012.
S. No. Characteristic Unit Requirement Permissible Limit

(Acceptable Limit) in the absence of
alternate source
1 Colour Hazen 5 15
2 Total Dissolved Solids mg/L 500 2000
3 Turbidity NTU 1 5
4 Total Hardness mg/L 200 600
5 pH 6.5-8.5 No relaxation
6 Chloride mg/L 250 1000
7 Fluoride mg/L 1.0 1.5
8 Arsenic mg/L 0.01 0.05
9 Iron mg/L 0.3 No relaxation
10 Nitrate mg/L 45 No relaxation
11 Sulphate mg/L 200 400
12 Calcium mg/L 75 200
13 Magnesium mg/L 30 100
14 Free Chlorine mg/L 0.2 1.0
15 Total alkalinity as CaCO3 mg/L 200 600
110
Table 4.2: Drinking Water Specifications (Source: Bureau of Indian Standards,

New Delhi, 2003)
BIS Standards
IS:10500:1991 Undesirable Effects outside the Desirable
Desirable Permissible Limit

Parameters
Limit Limit
Taste, Odour Unobjectionable and Agreeable
Affects mucous membrane; bitter taste;

pH 6.5 – 8.5 6.5 – 8.5
corrosion; affects aquatic life
Electrical Conductivity - - -
Undesirable taste; gastro intestinal irritations;

Total Dissolved Solids 500 2000
corrosion or incrustation
Taste becomes unpleasant, Boiled rice turns

Total Alkalinity 200 600 hard and yellowish, and Pulses become hard
after boiling.
Poor lathering with soap; deterioration of the

Total Hardness 300 600 quality of clothes; scale forming; skin irritation;
boiled meat and food become poor in quality
Poor lathering and deterioration of the quality of

Calcium 75 200
clothes; incrustation in pipes; scale formation
Poor lathering and deterioration of clothes; with

Magnesium 30 75
sulfate laxative
Dental and skeletal fluorosis; non-skeletal

Fluoride 1.0 1.5
manifestations
Chloride 250 1000 Taste, corrosion and palatability are affected.
Sulphate 250 Undesirable salty taste
Blue baby disease (methemoglobineamia); algal

Nitrate 45 100
growth
111
4.4. Sampling of the Drinking Water
Drinking water samples were collected from villages of all the seven i.e.
Alewa, Jind, Julana, Narwana, Pilukhera, Safidon, and Uchana blocks of Jind district.
Convenient non-probability sampling method was employed to choose the water
samples. A total of 663 samples of 314 villages were analyzed for different quality
parameters like Depth of sample, Temperature, pH, Electrical Conductivity, Total
dissolved solids, Total hardness, Calcium, Magnesium, Total Alkalinity, Chloride,
Fluoride, Sodium, Potassium, Sulphate, Phosphate and Nitrate.
The samples were collected in pre-cleaned, sterilized, polyethylene bottles of
one litre capacity. It was ensured every time that bottle satisfies the following
requirements: Free from contamination, resistant to any internal pressure and do not
affect water characteristics. The water was left to run from the sampling source for
4-6 minutes and then collected in the bottles. For sampling of the water, cluster
sampling method was employed. Five samples of one litre each were collected from
the village, considering distance and source and then samples were mixed and one
litre of that was used for analysis. It was needed keeping in mind the village people
habits of drinking water from various sources.
Sampling was done in the months of April 2015 for Alewa and Jind block,
September 2015 for Julana and Narwana block, April 2016 for Pilukhera, Safidon and
Uchana block. Hand pumps or tube wells generally extract water from the top water
bearing strata. The depth of the hand-pumps installed by rural people was less than
100feet, private tube-wells depth was approx. 300feet and the depth of tube-wells
112
installed by government to supply drinking water in some of the rural areas was
approx. 700-1100feet. The sampling bottles were numbered as given below:
4.4.1. Alewa Block
A total of 30 water samples from different sites in this block were studied. The
site for water samples is coded as follows:
S. No. Site Code S. No. Site Code

1) Alewa A-1 16) Kheri Naguran A-16
2) Badhana A-2 17) Khunga A-17
3) Bighana A-3 18) Kuchrana Kalan A-18
4) Bohatwala A-4 19) Kuchrana Khurd A-19
5) Chudh Pur A-5 20) Majra Pegan A-20
6) Dalamwala A-6 21) Naguran A-21
7) Deohala A-7 22) Pega A-22
8) Dhiluwala A-8 23) Pega Harijan Basti A-23
9) Durana A-9 24) Rai Chandwala A-24
10) Gohian A-10 25) Sandeel A-25
11) Hasanpur A-11 26) Shahpur A-26
12) Jiwan Pur A-12 27) Shamdo A-27
13) Katwal A-13 28) Sri Raj Khera A-28
14) Khanda A-14 29) Thua A-29
15) Kheri Bulanwali A-15 30) Shamdo A-30
4.4.2. Jind Block
For this block, a total of 72 water samples different sites of this block were
studied viz.

1) Ahirka J-1 37) Jitgarh J-37
2) Amarheri J-2 38) Julani J-38
3) Anoopgarh J-3 39) Kandela J-39
4) Asrafgarh J-4 40) Ker Kheri J-40
113
5) Assan J-5 41) Kharak Ramji J-41

6) Baganwala J-6 42) Khema Kheri J-42
7) Bahbalpur J-7 43) Kheri Taloda J-43
8) Barodi J-8 44) Khokhri J-44
9) Baroli J-9 45) Kinana J-45
10) Barsana J-10 46) Kishan Pura J-46
11) Barsola J-11 47) Lakhmirwala J-47
12) Bhairu Khera J-12 48) Lalit Khera J-48
13) Bibipur J-13 49) Lohchab J-49
14) Bir Barban J-14 50) Mando Kheri J-50
15) Bishanpura J-15 51) Manoharpur J-51
16) Brah Kalan J-16 52) Nidana J-52
17) Brah khurd J-17 53) Nidani J-53
18) Brar Khera J-18 54) Nirjan J-54
19) Chabri J-19 55) Padana J-55
20) Dariyawala J-20 56) Pindari J-56
21) Dhanda Kheri J-21 57) Ponkari Kheri J-57
22) Dhigana J-22 58) Ponkari/Sirsa Kheri J-58
23) Ghimana J-23 59) Radhana J-59
24) Gobindpura J-24 60) Rajpura J-60
25) Gulkani J-25 61) Ramrai J-61
26) Habatpur J-26 62) Ramrai Khera J-62
27) Igrah J-27 63) Ramgarh J-63
28) Ikash J-28 64) Ramkali J-64
29) Intal Kalan J-29 65) Rupgarh J-65
30) Intal Khurd J-30 66) Sangatpura J-66
31) Jajwan J-31 67) Shamlo Kalan J-67
32) Jalal Pura Kalan J-32 68) Shamlo Khurd J-68
33) Jalal Pura Khurd J-33 69) Sidhvi Khera J-69
34) Jhanj Kalan J-34 70) Siwaha J-70
35) Jhanj Khurd J-35 71) Taloda J-71
36) Jind Urban J-36 72) Teg bahadur J-72
4.4.3. Julana Block
114
A total of 31 water samples from different sites of this block were studied in
this block viz.
S.No. Site Code S.No. Site Code

1) Akalgarh Ju-1 17) Karela Ju-17
2) Barahmanwas Ju-2 18) Karsola Ju-18
3) Buana Ju-3 19) Kharenti Ju-19
4) Budhakhera Latheer Ju-4 20) Khera Bakhta Ju-20
5) Bhura Dehar Ju-5 21) Kila Zafargarh Ju-21
6) Devrar Ju-6 22) Laijwana Kalan Ju-22
7) Desh Khera Ju-7 23) Laijwana Khurd Ju-23
8) Fatehgarh Ju-8 24) Malvi Ju-24
9) Garwali Ju-9 25) Mehrada Ju-25
10) Ghatauli Ju-10 26) Nandgarh Ju-26
11) Gosain Khera Ju-11 27) Pouli Ju-27
12) Hathwala Ju-12 28) Rajgarh Ju-28
13) Jaijaiwanti Ju-13 29) Rajgarh Khera Ju-29
14) Jhamola Ju-14 30) Shadipur Ju-30
15) Julana Ju-15 31) Sirsa Khera Ju-31
16) Kamach Khera Ju-16
4.4.4. Narwana Block
A total of 71 water samples from different sites in this block were studied viz.

1) Amargarh N-1 37) Julehera N-37
2) Ambarsar N-2 38) Kaloda Kalan N-38
3) Badanpur N-3 39) Kaloda Khurd N-39
4) Badowala N-4 40) Kalwan N-40
5) Barta N-5 41) Kanha Khera N-41
6) Belarkha N-6 42) Karamgarh N-42
7) Bhana Brahman N-7 43) Khanpur N-43
8) Bhikewala N-8 44) Kharal N-44
9) Bidhrana N-9 45) Kharalwal N-45
115
10) Chak Ujhana N-10 46) Koyal N-46

11) Dablain N-11 47) Loan N-47
12) Danoda Kalan N-12 48) Lohchab N-48
13) Danoda Khurd N-13 49) Lodhar N-49
14) Data Singhwala N-14 50) Mohal Khera N-50
15) Dhobi Tek Singh N-15 51) Napewala N-51
16) Dakkal Bus Stand N-16 52) Naraingarh N-52
17) Dhamtan Sahib N-17 53) Narwana Urban N-53
18) Dhandoli N-18 54) Nehra N-54
19) Dhanori N-19 55) Padarth Khera N-55
20) Dharodi N-20 56) Phulian Kalan N-56
21) Dumarkhan Kalan N-21 57) Phulian Khurd N-57
22) Dumarkhan Khurd N-22 58) Pipal Tha N-58
23) Frain Kalan N-23 59) Rajgarh Dhobi N-59
24) Frain Khurd N-24 60) Rasidan N-60
25) Garhi N-25 61) Rewar N-61
26) Ghaso Khurd N-26 62) Sacha Khera N-62
27) Ghaso Kalan N-27 63) Sainthli N-63
28) Ghaso N-28 64) Singhwal N-64
29) Gurthali N-29 65) Sinsar N-65
30) Gurusar N-30 66) Sudkain Kalan N-66
31) Hamirgarh N-31 67) Sudkain Khurd N-67
32) Hans Dehar N-32 68) Sulehra N-68
33) Harnam Pura N-33 69) Sunderpura N-69
34) Hatho N-34 70) Surja Khera N-70
35) Ismail pur Booster N-35 71) Ujhana N-71
36) Jajanwala N-36
4.4.5. Pilukhera Block

1) Ahlan Jogi Khera P-1 16) Jamni Khera P-16
2) Amarawali Khera P-2 17) Kalawati P-17
3) Beri Khera P-3 18) Kalwa P-18
116
4) Bhag Khera P-4 19) Kharak Gadian P-19

5) Bhambewa P-5 20) Kharak Gagar P-20
6) Bhartana P-6 21) Ludana P-21
7) Burain P-7 22) Malsari Khera P-22
8) Bitani P-8 23) Mandi Khurd P-23
9) Budha Khera P-9 24) Mohamad Khera P-24
10) Dharoli P-10 25) Morkhi P-25
11) Dhatrath P-11 26) Pillukhera P-26
12) Gangoli P-12 27) Rajana Kalan P-27
13) Hadhwa P-13 28) Rajana Khurd P-28
14) Hoshiarpura P-14 29) Retoli P-29
15) Jamni P-15
4.4.6. Safidon Block

1) Aftabgarh S-1 23) Kurar S-23
2) Anchar kalan S-2 24) Malar S-24
3) Anchar Khurd S-3 25) The Malikpur S-25
4) Anta S-4 26) Muana S-26
5) Bagru Kalan S-5 27) Nimnabad S-27
6) Bagru Khurd S-6 28) Paju Kalan S-28
7) Bahadarpur S-7 29) Paju Khurd S-29
8) Bahadurgarh S-8 30) Ram Nagar S-30
9) barod S-9 31) Ram Pura S-31
10) Basini S-10 32) Ratta Khera S-32
11) Bhuslana S-11 33) Rodh S-33
12) Chhapar S-12 34) Rojhala S-34
13) Dharamgarh/Bolidhar S-13 35) Safindon Bus Stand S-35
14) Didwara S-14 36) Sahanpur S-36
15) Harigarh/Haatkheri S-15 37) Sariffabad S-37
16) Hatt S-16 38) Silla Kheri S-38
17) Jaipur S-17 39) Singhana S-39
18) Karkhana S-18 40) Singhpura S-40
117
19) Karsindhu S-19 41) Siwanamal S-41

20) Kharkhara S-20 42) Tito Kheri S-42
21) Khatla S-21 43) Todi Kheri S-43
22) Khera Khemwanti S-22
4.4.7. Uchana Block

1) Alipura U-1 22) Kalta U-22
2) Baroda U-2 23) Karsindu U-23
3) Buliyawali Kheri U-3 24) Khapar U-24
4) Bhagwanpura U-4 25) Kharak Bhuran U-25
5) Bhongran U-5 26) Khatkar U-26
6) Bhonsla U-6 27) Kheri Masnia U-27
7) Budain U-7 28) Kheri Suffa U-28
8) Chhatar U-8 29) Makhand U-29
9) Daroli Khera U-9 30) Mandi Kalan U-30
10) Darond Khera U-10 31) Mangalpur U-31
11) Dhankhari U-11 32) Mohan Garh U-32
12) Dohana Khera U-12 33) Nachar Khera U-33
13) Durjan Pura U-13 34) Palwan U-34
14) Ganda Khera U-14 35) Roz Khera U-35
15) Ghaso Kalan U-15 36) Sedha Majra U-36
16) Ghaso Khurd U-16 37) Surbrah U-37
17) Ghoghriya U-17 38) Tarkha U-38
18) Jheel Morpatti U-18 39) Uchana Kalan U-39
19) Kabararchha U-19 40) Uchana Khurd U-40
20) Kahsoon U-20 41) Udaypur U-41
21) Kakrod U-21
118
4.5. Physicochemical Analysis Methods
In the present study, 663 water samples of 314 villages were collected from
seven blocks of Jind district using convenient non-probability sampling method from
the various villages of Jind district. Sampling areas are mostly affected by agricultural
and other anthropogenic activities besides effects of dumping industrial wastes into
the land or nearby water source. For effective maintenance of water quality through
appropriate control measures, continuous monitoring of large number of quality
parameters is essential.
However it is very difficult and laborious task for regular monitoring of all the
parameters even if adequate manpower and laboratory facilities are available
(Bhandari and Nayal, 2008). The samples collected were analyzed for various water
quality parameters like Temperature, pH, Electrical Conductivity, Total Dissolved
Solids, Total Alkalinity, Total Suspended Solids, Total Hardness, Calcium,
Magnesium, Fluoride, Chloride, Nitrate and Arsenic following the ASTM (1972) and
APHA (1989) standard methods.
4.5.1. Taste, Odour and Appearance
Taste and odour can originate from natural inorganic and organic chemical
contaminants, biological sources, contamination by synthetic chemicals, corrosion or
as a result of water treatment (chlorination). Taste and odour may also develop during
storage and distribution due to microbial activity. Taste and odour in drinking water
may be indicative of some form of pollution or of a malfunction during water
treatment or distribution. It may therefore be an indication of the presence of
potentially harmful substances.
119
4.5.2. Temperature
Cool water is generally more palatable than warm water, and temperature will
impact on the acceptability of a number of other inorganic constituents and chemical
contaminants that may affect taste. High water temperature enhances the growth of
microorganisms and may increase taste, odour, colour and corrosion problems. In
analysis of the physicochemical quality of pipe water samples, temperature is
considered as a critical parameter. It has an impact on many reactions, including the
rate of disinfectant decay and by-product formation (Volk et al., 2002). As the water
temperature increases the disinfectant demand and by product formation, nitrification,
microbial activity, algal growth, taste and odour episodes, lead and copper solubility
increases. The turbidity and colour are indirectly related to temperature as the
efficiency of coagulation is strongly temperature dependent. Thermometers were used
for taking temperatures at the sampling sites.
4.5.3. pH
pH is one of the most important operational parameters for water treatment
such as disinfection or coagulation-flocculation and pH adjustment is a common
practice in water treatment. Chlorination tends to lower the pH, where as water
softening using the excess lime/soda ash process raises the pH level. Thus for
disinfection with chlorine, control of pH is critical. As a consequence, an increasing
pH of the potable water requires rising amounts of chlorine for the same disinfection
efficacy. pH affects the various processes in water treatment that contribute to the
removal of viruses, bacteria and other harmful organisms, it could be claimed that pH
has an indirect effect on health. If the pH of the water is high, chlorine is less effective
120
in killing pathogens. It is claimed that at high pH levels drinking water acquires a
bitter taste. WHO237 (1984a) recommended guideline value for pH is 6.5-8.5.
Microprocessor based Bench type pH meter of ELICO India Limited instruments was
used. The pH meter was first calibrated with buffer solutions of pH 4.0, 7.0 and 9.2
and then pH of samples was determined.
4.5.4. Electrical Conductivity
Conductivity reflects mineral salt contents of water and is an expression of its
ability to conduct an electric current. As this property is related to the ionic content of
the sample which is in turn a function of the dissolved (ionisable) solids
concentration, the relevance of easily performed conductivity measurements is
apparent. In itself conductivity is a property of little interest to a water analyst but it is
an invaluable indicator of the range into which hardness and alkalinity values are
likely to fall, and also of the order of the dissolved solids content of the water. The
conductivity values can be used to find the Total Dissolved Solids.
The electrical conductivity (dS/m) of the water samples was estimated by
using a Conductivity meter (Model Tds Scan-I Meter). The EC meter was calibrated
with standard KCl solution (0.1M). The standard KCI solution of 0.1 M was prepared
by dissolving 0.7474 g of KCl (AR Grade) in 100 ml distilled water. The EC of
standard solution was set at 12.88 mS at 25 °C. After calibration of the instrument,
EC of the samples was recorded.
4.5.5. Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)
121
The principal ions contributing to TDS are carbonate, bicarbonate, chloride,
sulphate, nitrate, sodium, potassium, calcium and magnesium. TDS in water may be
originated from natural sources, sewage effluent discharges, urban runoff and
industrial discharges. TDS is linked to taste, hardness, corrosion properties and
tendency to incrustation. TDS in drinking water may even have beneficial health
effects. Water with extremely low TDS levels may also be unacceptable because of its
flat, insipid taste. WHO recommended 1000 mg/L TDS as guideline value.
TDS were calculated indirectly making use of Electrical Conductivity (EC).
To calculate the TDS, the following formula is used:
TDS (mg/L) = 640 × EC (in dS/m) (Hem, 1970)
4.5.6. Total Alkalinity
Alkalinity may be defined as, "the capacity of some of its components to
accept protons i.e. to bind an equivalent amount of a strong acid." Guideline value of
alkalinity is not available in WHO
Procedure
100 ml of water sample was taken in a flask and 2 drops of phenolphthalein
indicator were added, if pink colour appeared, titrated it against standard H2SO4
solution until sample became colourless. The volume of acid used is ‘A’ ml. To the
same solution, added 2-3 drops of methyl orange indicator and again titrated against
standard H2SO4 until colour changed from light yellow to pink. Suppose the volume
of acid consumed is ‘B’ ml. The experiment was repeated to get three concordant
readings.
122
Calculations
N 2  V2 1000  EW
Total alkalinity in mg/L (as CaCO3) =
V1
Where
N2 = Normality of standardized H2SO4
V2 = Volume (A+B) of acid used
V1 = Volume of sample taken (100 ml)
EW = Equivalent weight of CaCO3 = 50
4.5.7. Total Hardness (TH) (as CaCO3)
Hardness of water is the capacity to destroy the lather of soap by precipitation,
to form precipitates on boiling due to the presence of calcium, magnesium or ferrous
(iron salts) as chloride, sulphate or bicarbonates. The degree of hardness has been
classified in terms of its equivalent CaCO3 concentration in water viz. Soft (0-60
mg/L), moderately hard (60-120 mg/L) Hard (120-180 mg/L), Very hard (>180
mg/L). The co-relation with hardness and the calcium content of water was high. Hard
water can be a nuisance and an economic burden to the consumer. The water with the
hardness above approximately 200 mg/L may cause scale deposition in the
distribution system as well as increased soap consumptionThe water with hardness
less than about 100 mg/L has a greater tendeney to cause corrosion of pipes.
The hardness of water was determined formerly by titration with soap
solution. Nowadays, the analysis comprises the determination of calcium and
magnesium which are the main constituents of hardness. Although barium, strontium
and iron can also contribute to hardness, their concentrations are normally so low in
123
this context that they can be ignored. Thus, total hardness is taken to comprise the
calcium and magnesium concentrations expressed as mg/L as CaCO3. The widespread
abundance of these metals in rock formations leads often to very considerable
hardness levels in surface and groundwaters. Total hardness of water samples was
determined by using EDTA titration method.
Requirements
1) Standard EDTA solution (0.01M)
3.723g of EDTA disodium salt was dissolved in double distilled water to
make the volume one litre.
2) Ammonium buffer solution
16.9g of NH4Cl was dissolved in 143 ml of NH4OH and made the volume
250 ml using double distilled water.
3) Inhibitor solution
4.5g of hydroxylamine and hydrochloride (NH2OH.HCl) was dissolved in
absolute alcohol to make the solution 100 ml.
4) Erichrome Black-T (EBT) indicator
0.5g of EBT was dissolved in 100 ml of 80% ethyl alcohol.
Procedure
25 ml of water sample was taken in a titration flask. To this, 2 ml of ammonia
buffer solution, 1 ml of inhibitor and 3-5 drops of EBT indicator were added. It was
titrated against standard EDTA solution till wine red colour changed to blue. The
experiment was repeated to get three concordant readings.
Standardization of EDTA solution
124
Prior to titration of EDTA with water samples, EDTA solution was
standardized by using standard hard water (CaCO3 solution) to find the actual
molarity of EDTA solution.
Calculations
M 2  V2  1000  MW
Total hardness (as CaCO3) = mg/L
V1
Where
M2 = Molarity of standardized EDTA solution
V2 = Volume of EDTA solution used
V1 = Volume of sample taken
M.W. = Molecular weight of CaCO3 (100).
4.5.8. Calcium
Calcium is a mineral needed for numerous body functions, including blood
clotting, the transmission of nerve impulses and the regulation of the heart's rhythm.
The presence of calcium in water supplies results from passage through or deposits of
limestone, dolomite and gypsum. According to WHO, the calcium content may range
from zero to several hundred mg/L depending on source and treatment of the water.
Calcium content of water samples was estimated by using the complexometric
titration method (EDTA).
Requirements
1) Standard EDTA solution (0.01M)
125
3.723g of EDTA disodium salt was dissolved in double distilled water to
make the volume one litre. EDTA solution was standardized as given in
total hardness estimation.
2) Standard NaOH solution (1 M)
4g of NaOH was dissolved in double distilled water to make 100 ml
solution.
3) Murexide Indicator (solid)
Procedure
25 ml of water sample was taken in titration flask. To this, added 1 ml of 1M
NaOH solution to raise the pH and a pinch of solid murexide. It was titrated with
standard EDTA solution till the colour changed from pink to purple. The experiment
was repeated to get three concordant readings.
Calculations
M 2  V2  1000  MW
Ca2+ (mg/L) = =
V1
Where
M2 = Molarity of standardized EDTA solution
V2 = Volume of EDTA solution used
M.W. = Molecular weight of CaCO3 (100)
V1 = Volume of sample taken
4.5.9. Magnesium
The magnesium like calcium is found in abundance under natural land and
water environments so is a common constituent of natural water with a similar
126
property to produce hardness in water. Magnesium content of the water samples was
calculated indirectly using Ca2+ and TH content of water samples by following
formula:
Mg2+ (mg/L) = [Total hardness - (Ca2+ × 2.5)] × 0.243
4.5.10. Fluoride
Fluoride is an essential element for the human body to have a significant
mitigation effect against dental caries and it is accepted that some fluoride presence
around 1 mg/L in drinking water is beneficial. Prolonged exposure to 10-20mg
fluoride/person/day for 10-20 years can lead to crippling skeletal fluorosis, in which
Osteosclerosis, Ligamentous and Tendinous calcification and extreme bone deformity
result. In addition, fluoride has an effect on the kidneys, muscular and nervous system
and there are also some reports about the relationship between erythrocyte
abnormalities and serum fluoride where fluoride intake is high. BIS and WHO
suggest desirable limit for Fluoride around 1.0 mg/L. At levels markedly over 1.5
mg/L an adverse effect occurs and mottling of teeth (or severe damage at gross levels)
will arise. Fluoride was estimated by using Orion Selective Ion-electrode.
Principle
The fluoride electrode is an ion-selective sensor. The key element in the
fluoride electrode is the laser type doped lanthanum fluoride crystal across which a
potential is established by fluoride solutions of different concentrations. The fluoride
electrode can be used with a standard calomel reference electrode and almost any
modern pH meter having an expanded milli-volt scale. The fluoride electrode
measures the ion activity of fluoride in solution which depends on the total ionic
127
strength of the solution. It does not respond to bond or complexed fluoride. Addition
of a buffer solution of high total ionic strength (TISAB) overcomes these difficulties.
Requiremnets
1) Stock Fluoride solution
A standard solution of 1000 mg/L was prepared by dissolving 221.0mg
anhydrous sodium fluoride in double distilled water and diluted to 100 ml.
2) Standard fluoride solution
Standard solution of 100 mg/L was prepared from stock fluoride solution.
3) Total ionic strength adjustment Buffer (TISAB)
57 ml glacial acetic acid, 58gm NaCl and 4.0g 1, 2-cyclohexylenediamine
tetracetic acid (CDTA disodium salt) was dissolved in 500 ml distilled water
in a beaker. The beaker was placed in a cold water bath and 6M NaOH (about
125 ml) was added with stirring until pH was 5.4 ± 0.1 was achieved. The
final volume was made one litre with double distilled water.
Procedure
A series of standard solutions with fluoride concentration 0.1, 1.0, 10.0 and
100 mg/L was prepared. 10 ml of the standard solution was taken in a beaker and
diluted to 1:1 with TISAB. The electrodes were immersed in the solution and the
developed potential was measured (in mV). A standard curve potential measurement
(mV) vs. fluoride concentrations was prepared on two-cycle semi-logarithmic graph
paper. Potential measurements were made for the collected water samples and
fluoride concentration was calculated from the standard curve.
4.5.11. Chloride
128
A normal 70 kg human body contains approximately 81.7 g of chloride.
Chloride is the abundant anion in human body and contributes significantly, along
with its associated cations, to the osmotic activity of extra cellular fluid. The high
chloride content has a deleterious effect on metallic pipes and structures, as well as on
vegetation. WHO has recommended 250 mg/L as the guideline value. Chloride was
determined by argentometric titration method:
Requirements
1) Standard AgNO3 solution (0.0141M)
2.397 g of AgNO3 was dissolved in one litre double distilled water.
2) 5% potassium chromate indicator solution
5 g K2CrO4 was dissolved in 100 ml distilled water.
Procedure
25 ml water sample was taken in a titration flask and 3-4 drops of K2CrO4
indicator were added. It was titrated with standard AgNO3 solution till yellow colour
changed to light brick red. The titration was repeated to get three concordant readings.
Calculations
M 2  V2  35.5  1000
Cl– (mg/L) =
V1
Where M2 = Molarity of standard AgNO3 solution (0.141M)
V2 = Volume of AgNO3 solution used in ml
V1 = Volume of sample taken (25 ml)
4.5.12. Sulphate
129
Dissolved sulphate is considered to be permanent solute of water. The
majority of sulphate compounds are soluble in water, the exception being the
sulphates of lead, barium and strontium. Sulphates are used in the manufacturing of
numerous chemicals, dyes, glass, paper, soaps, textiles, fungicides, insecticides,
astringents and cosmetics. WHO has set guideline values for sulphate as 250 mg/L in
drinking water above which consumer may feel salty taste.
Procedure
Few drops of methyl red are added in 100 ml of sample. Solution was boiled and
BaCl2 was added. The precipitate was filtered through ash less filter paper and dried at
800oC for one hour and weighed.
Calculation
Sulphate (mg/ L) = BaSO4 (mg) × 411.5
4.5.13. Nitrate
Relatively little of the nitrate found in natural waters is of mineral origin, most
coming from organic and inorganic sources, the former including waste discharges
and the latter comprising chiefly artificial fertilizers. However, bacterial oxidation and
fixing of nitrogen by plants can both produce nitrates. Interest is centered on nitrate
concentrations for various reasons. Most importantly, high nitrate levels in waters to
be used for drinking will render them hazardous to infants as they induce the "blue
baby" syndrome (methaemoglobinaemia). The nitrate itself is not a direct toxicant but
is a health hazard because of its conversion to nitrite which reacts with blood
haemoglobin to cause methaemoglobinaemia.
130
Requirements
1) Copper-cadmium granules
Washed 25g meshes Cadmium granules with 6N HCI and then rinsed with
water. Swirled Cd with 100 ml 2% CuSO4 solution for 5 min or until blue
color partially fades. Decanted and repeated with fresh CuSO4 until a brown
colloidal precipitate begin to develop. Then gently flushed with water to
remove all precipitated Cu
2) Ammonium chloride-EDTA solution
Dissolved 13g NH4Cl and 1.7g disodium ethylenediamine tetraacetate in 900
ml water and adjusted the pH to 8.5 with conc NH4OH and dilute to 1 litre
3) Dilute ammonium chloride-EDTA solution
Dilute 300 ml NH4Cl-EDTA solution to 500 ml with water
4) Hydrochloric acid, HCl, 6N
5) Copper sulfate solution 2%
Dissolved 20g CuSO4.5H20 in 500 ml water and dilute to 1 litre
6) Color reagent
To 800ml water added 100ml 85% phosphoric acid and 10g sulfanilamide.
After disssolving sulfanilamide completely, added 1g N-(1-naphthyl)-
ethylenediamine dihydrochloride. Mixed to dissolve, then diluted to 1 litre
with water
7) Nitrate free distilled water
8) Spectrophotometer
Procedure
131
Inserted a glass wool plug into bottom of reduction column and filled it with
water. Then sufficient Cu-Cd granules were added to produce a column of 18.5cm
long. Maintained water level was above Cu-Cd granules to prevent entrapment of air.
Then the column was washed with 200 ml dilute NH4Cl-EDTA solution. Column was
activated by passing through it at least 100ml of a solution, composed of 25% 1.0 mg
nitrate-N standard and 75% NH4Cl-EDTA solution, at 7 to 10 ml/min.
pH of the sample water was adjusted to 7-9 by adding HCl or NaOH to ensure pH
of 8.5 after adding NH4Cl- EDTA solution. To 25ml sample, added 75ml NH4Cl-
EDTA solution and poured sample into column and collected at a rate of 7 to
10ml/min. Discarded first 25 ml. Collected the rest in flask. Then added 2ml color
reagent to 50ml sample and measured absorbance at 543 nm against a distilled water-
reagent blank.
Calculations
A standard curve was obtained by plotting absorbance of standard solutions
against nitrate-N concentrations and computed sample concentrations directly from
the standard curve.
10 g/L nitrate-nitrogen (NO3-N) = 44.3 mg/L nitrate (NO3-)
4.6. Statistical Interpretations
Water quality parameters were analyzed for the samples collected and
statistical interpretations were carried out. All Mathematical and Statistical
Calculations like Mean, Standard Deviation, Variance and Correlation Coefficients
were implemented using Microsoft Office Excel 2007.
132
DRINKING WATER
QUALITY ANALYSIS OF
DISTRICT JIND
Total 663 samples have been taken from 314 villages of Jind District to
analyze thePhysico-chemcial properties of ground water quality. For the sake of
simplicity and convenience, the observations and results have been studied blockwise.
Jind district is sub divided into 4 sub districts (Tehsils), 7 blocks and comprises 314
villages. Jind district has 6 major cities. The 7 blocks in Jind district are Alewa, Jind,
Julana, Narwana, Pillukhera, Safidon and Uchana. The map of Jind is presented in
Figure 5.1.
Figure 5.1: Geographical map of Jind District.
133
The Block-Wise Study of Jind district is classified as under:
1) Water quality monitoring in Alewa Block
2) Water quality monitoring in Jind Block
3) Water quality monitoring in Julana Block
4) Water quality monitoring in Narwana Block
5) Water quality monitoring in Pillukhera Block
6) Water quality monitoring in Safidon Block
7) Water quality monitoring in Uchana Block
5.1. Water Quality Monitoring in Alewa Block
Different drinking water parameters of 30 villages of Alewa block have been
studied on the basis of monitoring water characteristics by examining total 55 samples
which are presented in Table 5.1 and Table 5.2 respectively.
The pH indicates the intensity of acidity and alkalinity and measures the
hydrogen ion concentration in water. The relative proportion of hydrogen ions is
measured on a negative logarithmic of hydrogen (H+) concentration which is termed
as pH. The pH ranges from from 1 to 14. Neutral water has a pH of 7. The pH is
related and liable to change with temperature and pressure. In pure water, a decrease
in pH of about 0.45 occurs with rise in temperature by 25°C. Though pH has no direct
effect on human health but all the biochemical reactions are sensitive to variation in
pH. For most of the reactions as well as for human beings, pH value of 7 is considered
best and ideal. The BIS permissible limits for drinking water are 6.5-8.5. In the
present study regarding Alewa block, the pH values in the drinking water samples of
134
the study area ranged from 7.20 to 8.63 with the mean value of 7.89 and standard
deviation 0.36 indicating slightly alkaline nature of water.
Electrical conductivity signifies the amount of total dissolved salts, which in
turn indicates the inorganic pollution load of the water. Electrical conductivity ranges
from 0.708 to 3.870 dS with a mean value of 1.676 dS and standard deviation 0.758.
Total Dissolved Solids indicate the saline behavior of the water. BIS accepts 500 with
a permissible limit of 2000 while WHO consider water up to 500 with a permissible
value of 1500 safe. Alewa block showed values from 484 to 2440 with a mean value
of 1075 and standard deviation 472. Two villages Kuchran Kalan and Kuchran Khurd
have shown TDS values higher than the permissible limits.
For its use in domestic sector for drinking, bathing and washing, Total
Hardness of water plays a vital role. Externally hard water does not form lathers with
soap leading to wastage of much quantity of soap and internally, if used for longer
times, can be one of the causes of stone formation in the human body. Mainly the
hardness of water is due to carbonates, bicarbonates, sulphates and chlorides of
calcium and magnesium. The totak hardness of water of Alewa block ranged from
200 to 1350 mg/L of CaCO3 with a mean value of 557 and standard deviation 281.
Concentrations of calcium ranged from 38 to 288 with a mean value of 114, standard
deviation 58 and concentrations of magnesium ranged from 24 to 151 with a mean
value of 65, standard deviation 31. Deohala, Hasanpur, Jiwan pur, Kuchran Kalan,
Kuchran Khurd, Naguran, Sandeel, and Thua have shown Total Hardness above the
permissible limits.
135
Total Alkalinity mainly arises due to carbonate, bicarbonate, hydroxide etc.
These compounds result from dissolution of minerals present in the soil and
atmosphere (Mittal and Verma, 1997) ro by microbial decomposition of organic
matter. Alkalinity is big problem for industries, as if alkaline water is used in boilers
for steam generation, it may lead to precipitation of sludges, deposition of scales and
causes caustic embrittlement. The acceptable BIS limit of total alkalinity in drinking
water is 200 mg/L with permissible limit 600. In present study Total Alkalinity ranged
from 195 to 870 with a mean value of 382 and standard deviation 158.
Chloride contents in the water of Alewa block ranged from 111 to 493 with a
mean value of 259 and standard deviation 98. Fluoride contents ranged from 0 to 11.0
with a mean value of 2.0 and standard deviation 2.2. Nitrate contents ranged from 2.0
to 85 with a mean value of 25 and standard deviation 19. Sodium, Potassium,
Sulphate and Phosphate contents of Alewa block have been found within the
permissible limits.
5.2. Water Quality Monitoring in Jind Block
Water quality parameters of 72 villages of Jind block are given in Table 5.3
and Table 5.4. A total of 151 samples were studies from this clock.
The pH ranges from 7.40 to 8.80 with a mean value of 7.96 indicating alkaline
nature of water. The pH shows standard deviation 0.305. Electrical Conductivity
signifies the amount of total dissolved solids, which in turn indicates the inorganic
pollution load of the water. Jind block shows EC values ranges from 0.503 to 2.604
with a mean value of 1.363 and standard deviation 0.553. Total dissolved solids
136
indicate the saline behavior of water. World Health Organization considers 500 as
desirable and 1500 as maximum permissible limit for drinking water. In Jind block
TDS values ranged from 321 to 1649 with a mean value of 856 and standard deviation
337.
Total Alkalinity values of the water samples of this block ranged from 130 to
720 with a mean value of 340 and standard deviation 129. Total Hardness is from 120
to 825 with a mean value of 412 and standard deviation 166. Calcium ranged from 28
to 162 with a mean value of 82, standard deviation of 33 and Magnesium ranged from
12 to 106 with a mean value of 50, standard deviation of 20.
Fluoride concentration varied from 0 to 5.0 with a mean value of 2.0, standard
deviation 1.2 and Chloride contents were 30 to 556, mean value of 208 and standard
deviation of 131. Nitrate concentrations vary from 1.5 to 95 with a mean value of 19
and standard deviation of 20.
Sodium concentration varied from 30 to 369 with a mean value of 158,
standard deviation of 76, Potassium concentration varied from 2 to 75 with a mean
value of 13, standard deviation of 13, Sulphate concentration varied from 18 to 332
with a mean value of 149, standard deviation of 77, Phosphate concentration varied
from 0.3 to 5.4 with a mean value of 2.1, standard deviation of 1.1. Sodium,
Potassium, Sulphate and Phosphate contents of Jind block have been found within the
permissible limits.
137
5.3. Water Quality Monitoring in Julana Block
Water quality parameters of ground water in Julana block are presented in
Table 5.5 and Table 5.6. Julana block comprises of 31 villages and a total of 64
sample of Julana have been analysed to examine the quality of ground water.
The Julana block showed pH ranged from 7.41 to 8.41 with a mean value of
7.93, standard deviation 0.23 indicating alkaline nature of water. Electrical
Conductivity varied from 0.452 to 2.539 with a mean value of 1.369 and standard
deviation 0.585. Total Dissolved Solids in this block ranged from 305 to 1630 with a
mean value of 873 and standard deviation 365.
Total Alkalinity ranged from 125 to 540 with mean value of 307, standard
deviation 104 and Total Hardness ranged from 173 to 1062 mg/L with a mean value
of 469 and standard deviation 239. Calcium values ranged from 35 to 217 mg/L with
a mean value of 95 and Magnesium values ranged from 23 to 129 mg/L with a mean
value of 56. Standard deviations for calcium and magnesium were 49 and 28
respectively.
The Chloride values ranged from 58 to 440 with a mean value of 221, standard
deviation of 93; however Fluoride values varied from 0.4 to 5.0 with a mean value of
1.9, standard deviation of 1.1. Fluoride exceeded the permissible limits of BIS and
WHO, it is therefore, an urgent issue to be taken care of. The Sodium values ranged
from 27 to 276 with a mean value of 156, standard deviation of 67; however
Potassium values varied from 1.3 to 43 with a mean value of 10, standard deviation of
11.
138
The Nitrate values of ground water of this block varied from 1.9 to 55 with a
mean value of 22 and standard deviation of 15. Sulphate values of ground water of
this block varied from 16 to 410 with a mean value of 190 and standard deviation of
101. However, Phospahte values of ground water varied from 0.8 to 17.1 with a mean
value of 2.7 and standard deviation of 3.2.
5.4. Water Quality Monitoring in Narwana Block
Water quality parameters of ground water in Narwana block are presented in
Table 5.7 and Table 5.8. Narwana block comprises of 68 villages and a total of 183
samples of Narwana block have been analysed to examine the quality of ground
water.
The Narwana block showed pH ranged from 7.32 to 8.73 with a mean value of
Total Alkalinity ranged from 80 to 485 with mean value of 249, standard
deviation 87 and Total Hardness ranged from 88 to 1205 mg/L with a mean value of
370 and standard of deviation 161. Calcium values ranged from 19 to 314 mg/L with
a mean value of 78 and Magnesium values ranged from 10 to 142 mg/L with a mean
value of 45. Standard deviations for calcium and magnesium were 43 and 20
respectively.
139
The Chloride values ranged from 38 to 350 with a mean value of 152, standard
deviation of 76; however Fluoride values varied from 0.0 to 9.0 with a mean value of
1.5, standard deviation of 2.2. Fluoride exceeded the permissible limits of BIS and
WHO, it is therefore, an urgent issue to be taken care of. The Sodium values ranged
from 32 to 281 with a mean value of 102, standard deviation of 61; however
Potassium values varied from 0.5 to 51 with a mean value of 11, standard deviation of
9.
The Nitrate values of ground water of this block varied from 2.0 to 73 with a
mean value of 23 and standard deviation of 16. Sulphate values of ground water of
5.5. Water Quality Monitoring in Pillukhera Block
Water quality parameters of ground water in Pillukhera block are presented in
Table 5.9 and Table 5.10. Pillukhera block comprises of 29 villages and a total of 50
samples of Pillukhera block have been analysed to examine the quality of ground
water.
The Pillukhera block showed pH ranged from 7.65 to 8.47 with a mean value
of 8.07, standard deviation 0.23 indicating alkaline nature of water. Electrical
140
Total Alkalinity of Pillukhera block ranged from 100 to 560 with mean value
of 278, standard deviation 113 and Total Hardness ranged from 97 to 815 mg/L with a
mean value of 389 and standard of deviation 187. Calcium values ranged from 20 to
163 mg/L with a mean value of 79 and Magnesium values ranged from 11 to 100
mg/L with a mean value of 47. Standard deviations for calcium and magnesium were
37 and 22 respectively.
The Chloride values of Pillukhera block ranged from 45 to 400 with a mean
value of 191, and standard deviation of 101; however Fluoride values varied from 0.0
to 6.3 with a mean value of 1.8, and standard deviation of 2.2. Fluoride exceeded the
permissible limits of BIS and WHO, it is therefore, an urgent issue to be taken care of.
The Sodium values ranged from 32 to 287 with a mean value of 151, standard
deviation of 78; however Potassium values varied from 3 to 65 with a mean value of
13, standard deviation of 16.
The Nitrate values of ground water of Pillukhera block varied from 1.3 to 108
with a mean value of 13 and standard deviation of 22. Sulphate values of ground
water of this block varied from 15 to 255 with a mean value of 85 and standard
deviation of 52. However, Phospahte values of ground water varied from 0.1 to 5.2
with a mean value of 1.2 and standard deviation of 1.3.
5.6. Water Quality Monitoring in Safidon Block
Water quality parameters of ground water in Safidon block are presented in
Table 5.11 and Table 5.12. Safidon block comprises of 43 villages and a total of 56
samples of Safidon block have been analysed to examine the quality of ground water.
141
The Safidon block showed pH ranged from 7.49 to 8.78 with a mean value of
Total Alkalinity of Safidon block ranged from 120 to 650 with mean value of
302, standard deviation 130 and Total Hardness ranged from 90 to 830 mg/L with a
171 mg/L with a mean value of 80 and Magnesium values ranged from 11 to 97 mg/L
with a mean value of 46. Standard deviations for calcium and magnesium were 42 and
25 respectively.
The Chloride values of Safidon block ranged from 43 to 470 with a mean
deviation of 87; however Potassium values varied from 0.4 to 55 with a mean value of
The Nitrate values of ground water of Safidon block varied from 0.9 to 66
with a mean value of 16 and standard deviation of 17. Sulphate values of ground
water of this block varied from 20 to 287 with a mean value of 114 and standard
142
deviation of 66. However, Phospahte values of ground water varied from 0.1 to 3.8
with a mean value of 1.1 and standard deviation of 0.8.
5.7. Water Quality Monitoring in Uchana Block
Water quality parameters of ground water in Uchana block are presented in
Table 5.13 and Table 5.14. Uchana block comprises of 41 villages and a total of 104
samples of Safidon block have been analysed to examine the quality of ground water.
The Uchana block showed pH ranged from 6.98 to 8.57 with a mean value of
Total Alkalinity of Uchana block ranged from 55 to 890 with mean value of
368, standard deviation 150 and Total Hardness ranged from 90 to 1147 mg/L with a
233 mg/L with a mean value of 98 and Magnesium values ranged from 10 to 140
mg/L with a mean value of 46. Standard deviations for calcium and magnesium were
39 and 25 respectively.
The Chloride values of Uchana block ranged from 60 to 850 with a mean
143
deviation of 91; however Potassium values varied from 2 to 220 with a mean value of
The Nitrate values of ground water of Uchana block varied from 4 to 132 with
a mean value of 35 and standard deviation of 26. Sulphate values of ground water of
144
Table 5.1: Water quality parameters of villages of Alewa Block of Jind District.
Depth Temp. pH EC TDS TH Ca2+ Mg2+ TA Cl- F- Na+ K+ SO42- PO43- NO3-
Code
Feet oC dS mg/L mg/L mg/L mg/L mg/L mg/L mg/L mg/L mg/L mg/L mg/L mg/L
A-1 347 30.1 7.71 0.902 555 312 65 35 202 111 0.9 98 7 47 3 8
A-2 170 32.2 7.86 0.801 553 260 52 32 195 133 0.5 120 3 107 4 44
A-3 175 30.9 7.92 1.106 707 360 73 48 255 175 0.5 160 41 34 7 29
A-4 212 28.8 7.20 1.050 676 410 88 46 250 215 1.0 201 9 59 5 3
A-5 325 27.5 7.73 0.924 593 365 75 43 230 120 0.8 112 8 73 0 15
A-6 120 28.7 7.85 1.662 1002 495 118 67 295 155 1.8 276 12 63 2 15
A-7 130 28.3 7.72 2.253 1528 978 197 116 470 403 1.8 356 20 146 1 31
A-8 160 26.7 8.41 1.795 1152 515 105 60 540 407 4.8 310 20 149 2 29
A-9 530 32.0 7.42 1.763 1103 610 115 75 360 275 0.8 246 28 153 4 24
A-10 120 28.2 7.78 1.461 911 440 88 49 360 220 0.9 163 17 114 3 3
A-11 165 32.0 7.75 2.920 1795 1100 224 129 450 240 1.0 216 26 325 5 8
A-12 160 28.8 7.82 2.310 1484 820 172 100 430 190 1.0 114 29 180 2 13
A-13 215 26.3 7.81 1.624 1095 605 119 75 345 280 0.8 232 26 156 2 11
A-14 220 29.0 7.30 1.279 797 405 84 49 295 270 1.5 226 79 80 3 2
A-15 95 27.3 7.95 1.372 872 495 98 61 340 300 1.5 258 6 61 1 32
A-16 250 26.5 7.46 1.025 797 350 72 42 250 195 1.5 154 7 135 0 32
A-17 120 29.2 8.30 1.254 785 360 73 43 390 310 5.0 274 6 61 2 8
A-18 120 21.1 8.06 3.105 1950 1046 205 105 760 493 1.5 284 18 276 1 49
A-19 120 30.3 8.63 3.870 2440 1350 288 151 870 430 11.0 386 30 284 1 37
A-20 120 28.0 8.12 1.310 829 465 88 52 320 290 2.0 256 15 108 1 53
A-21 145 28.1 7.66 2.052 1313 685 141 82 398 298 2.3 217 51 202 3 85
A-22 120 28.1 8.39 1.713 1056 450 90 55 390 220 5.0 96 121 80 1 17
A-23 120 28.2 8.27 2.260 1390 620 130 75 520 380 5.0 119 26 144 0 8
A-24 120 27.5 7.64 2.102 1304 530 111 66 440 325 2.0 283 13 115 5 35
A-25 120 29.6 7.57 2.360 1526 773 158 92 493 287 1.2 230 20 241 1 44
A-26 150 30.1 8.29 0.802 522 246 50 30 216 138 0.4 113 13 66 1 19
A-27 250 27.8 8.60 0.809 572 210 40 25 240 180 0.0 136 10 48 0 42
A-28 110 28.1 7.99 0.708 484 200 38 24 220 150 1.0 125 5 100 2 4
A-29 120 28.2 8.03 2.144 1490 800 157 88 545 325 1.0 236 17 168 0 15
A-30 205 26.3 7.56 1.529 979 450 96 51 380 270 1.5 228 16 115 0 31
145
Table 5.2: Comparison of drinking water samples of Alewa Block

BIS Standards
Parameters
Range of Samples
IS:10500:1991 WHO
Limit
Standard Desirable Permissible
Min. Max. Mean Variance
Deviation Limit Limit
Temperature, Odour, Taste and Appearance: Unobjectionable and Agreeable
pH 7.20 8.63 7.89 0.36 0.13 6.5 – 8.5 6.5 – 8.5 6.5 – 6.8
EC 0.708 3.870 1.676 0.758 0.575 - - 0.30

TDS 484 2440 1075 472 223135 500 2000 500
TH 200 1350 557 281 78982 300 500 100
Ca2+ 38 288 114 58 3385 75 200 75
Mg2+ 24 151 65 31 980 30 100 30
TA 195 870 382 158 24857 200 600 100

Cl– 111 493 259 98 9671 250 1000 250
F– 0.0 11.0 2.0 2.2 4.9 1.0 1.5 1.5
Na+ 96 386 207 79 6214 200
K+ 3 121 23 24 585 - - 100
SO42– 34 325 130 75 5642 150 400 500

PO43– 0.0 6.9 2.1 1.8 3.2 5
NO3– 2 85 25 19 355 45 - 50
146
Table 5.3: Water quality parameters of Jind Block of Jind District, Haryana
Code
J-1 120 27.5 7.41 0.914 599 248 46 32 280 163 2.8 167 9 64 1.5 17
J-2 145 27.8 8.10 0.903 589 256 52 29 308 103 2.8 127 9 55 1.2 90
J-3 120 27.3 7.80 1.375 847 410 83 49 310 273 0.5 196 5 114 2.2 35
J-4 110 28.3 7.60 1.903 1137 535 107 64 470 318 1.0 126 6 144 1.2 13
J-5 458 27.1 8.09 1.545 989 555 112 67 395 345 3.3 326 8 209 2.7 5
J-6 160 29.1 8.75 0.843 540 280 48 39 220 105 2.0 45 4 64 1.0 6
J-7 85 27.2 8.13 2.604 633 375 77 44 250 133 4.3 144 5 82 3.5 29
J-8 110 28.2 7.60 1.360 858 370 80 41 290 245 3.0 235 11 100 1.3 7
J-9 140 27.8 7.60 1.684 1069 613 123 74 422 360 0.9 228 5 167 1.8 46
J-10 175 27.7 7.68 2.118 1340 610 115 80 565 350 1.5 288 6 199 1.4 20
J-11 48 29.5 7.94 0.871 552 253 46 34 255 152 1.0 100 9 42 0.8 9
J-12 95 27.7 8.48 1.018 651 385 80 48 265 196 1.5 83 26 132 1.3 7
J-13 70 27.3 7.72 1.675 1071 610 122 74 370 227 2.0 56 7 201 2.8 37
J-14 120 27.2 8.03 0.621 398 260 45 38 130 45 1.5 30 18 18 1.1 5
J-15 135 26.7 7.82 2.420 1613 785 139 106 720 518 1.0 256 5 142 1.2 49
J-16 50 27.2 8.21 2.078 1330 660 156 66 480 305 3.0 138 11 165 3.5 4
J-17 50 27.4 7.89 1.865 1194 630 124 71 310 305 5.0 170 75 70 3.5 9
J-18 34 27.1 7.60 1.347 863 503 88 69 340 252 1.9 176 10 148 0.8 20
J-19 30 26.0 7.78 1.317 843 480 77 47 360 130 5.0 203 16 84 3.8 8
J-20 95 28.1 7.80 1.078 690 305 52 42 315 174 0.0 199 5 188 2.1 19
J-21 68 28.4 7.63 1.652 1057 463 83 61 523 386 1.3 243 52 140 2.6 6
J-22 30 28.4 7.90 0.595 385 175 36 19 165 63 1.3 88 8 142 2.5 14
J-23 300 28.1 7.90 1.698 1087 675 134 82 316 188 2.0 169 7 107 5.4 33
J-24 120 27.7 7.84 1.813 1106 530 96 70 440 315 3.0 106 6 176 1.0 6
J-25 247 27.2 7.80 1.715 1092 475 85 64 255 541 1.0 149 11 232 3.9 24
J-26 250 28.0 8.38 1.713 1096 350 68 46 550 130 3.0 238 6 236 1.1 8
J-27 63 27.8 7.60 1.583 1013 583 142 70 365 341 1.0 141 6 110 3.5 7
J-28 75 27.9 7.82 0.632 410 238 44 31 163 97 1.8 104 6 62 2.9 5
J-29 200 27.7 7.80 1.490 957 622 119 78 385 232 2.0 248 11 148 2.6 46
J-30 75 27.6 7.80 2.371 1649 434 78 58 495 556 3.3 99 7 256 2.2 19
J-31 70 28.3 7.75 2.060 1318 497 80 72 485 440 1.5 194 9 292 0.9 2
147
Table 5.3. Contd…………….

J-32 153 27.5 7.96 1.662 1066 280 60 32 593 400 4.3 280 5 128 4.3 39
J-33 180 27.8 7.96 0.605 497 248 47 31 248 70 1.3 163 12 40 5.3 61
J-34 75 27.8 8.40 1.057 664 375 70 49 255 240 1.0 127 25 89 0.3 24
J-35 88 29.4 7.55 1.086 693 354 70 43 285 213 1.8 77 9 120 0.4 4
J-36 136 31.2 7.40 1.414 667 340 68 41 301 205 2.4 133 9 102 1.7 36
J-37 110 29.2 7.77 1.562 986 410 84 50 480 180 1.0 239 12 118 1.0 8
J-38 190 29.1 7.80 2.258 1445 480 82 67 585 303 2.3 244 17 266 3.8 9
J-39 115 26.7 8.66 0.883 575 175 36 21 280 85 3.5 115 6 68 0.9 95
J-40 120 28.4 8.58 0.715 490 285 48 22 200 100 0.5 140 9 25 1.0 14
J-41 50 26.1 7.70 0.717 486 230 50 26 190 40 1.0 107 7 58 2.1 4
J-42 20 27.8 8.30 0.840 570 290 62 38 245 105 2.5 173 2 208 1.6 2
J-43 50 28.4 8.75 0.601 409 180 54 33 210 58 3.0 174 5 35 2.4 2
J-44 180 26.7 8.10 1.675 1072 400 90 42 370 175 5.0 112 6 284 1.2 3
J-45 56 27.9 8.20 0.942 603 350 63 46 243 162 4.3 155 5 149 2.3 36
J-46 150 28.3 7.92 2.567 1553 825 161 99 615 536 2.3 369 8 286 1.2 26
J-47 120 25.2 8.00 1.560 999 455 88 57 415 150 1.5 128 7 292 0.7 9
J-48 20 28.4 7.40 1.060 684 310 76 29 300 100 1.0 188 16 60 2.4 3
J-49 95 27.9 7.90 2.120 1328 695 129 88 470 290 2.0 255 28 96 3.5 15
J-50 200 25.4 8.36 0.679 435 170 34 21 260 30 0.5 250 5 96 3.8 6
J-51 180 28.2 7.84 1.187 660 335 60 45 340 147 1.5 254 6 192 1.1 33
J-52 80 28.6 8.30 0.914 587 270 59 34 180 95 1.5 50 12 148 1.5 10
J-53 40 28.5 7.57 1.071 699 270 67 25 245 140 1.1 82 3 215 1.3 6
J-54 140 26.0 8.80 1.421 892 305 64 35 340 115 3.5 76 10 200 2.6 7
J-55 25 26.7 8.66 0.503 321 120 28 12 190 45 3.0 34 43 150 1.9 3
J-56 90 28.5 8.22 1.161 725 415 84 56 310 121 1.8 104 6 276 0.9 1.5
J-57 120 28.5 7.80 1.528 978 557 116 62 370 139 1.0 44 5 168 1.3 46
J-58 70 29.2 8.23 1.976 1265 620 124 63 535 250 1.5 148 16 208 2.2 16
J-59 71 26.5 7.70 0.891 580 360 77 41 213 162 0.5 254 68 111 1.4 3
J-60 68 28.5 7.80 1.464 939 430 85 49 388 205 1.5 114 6 182 1.5 24
J-61 66 28.4 8.00 0.861 569 284 60 34 214 150 1.1 111 16 138 2.7 52
J-62 170 28.2 7.86 0.820 540 248 49 30 240 35 4.0 163 7 194 4.2 17
J-63 300 27.5 8.14 0.850 544 263 54 31 273 69 3.0 260 7 120 2.5 6
J-64 120 28.6 8.09 1.130 735 456 92 54 255 190 1.5 79 6 236 1.4 6
148
Table 5.3. Contd…………….

J-65 110 28.1 8.43 0.641 439 200 80 24 220 55 0.5 76 11 100 1.3 7
J-66 93 27.4 7.50 2.312 1472 743 162 82 561 417 1.2 205 32 97 2.5 22
J-67 75 28.4 7.80 1.591 1019 638 132 75 285 186 0.8 109 4 261 2.7 64
J-68 20 26.7 7.80 0.950 530 300 60 48 203 175 1.0 129 31 119 2.1 2
J-69 30 28.1 8.03 1.565 986 584 116 72 350 150 2.0 92 10 332 1.8 12
J-70 116 27.8 7.80 2.050 1344 570 128 59 500 390 1.0 178 13 311 1.8 16
J-71 80 28.0 8.10 1.864 1150 460 84 61 380 230 0.5 287 17 52 2.4 2
J-72 130 26.0 8.05 0.554 435 210 40 24 185 68 3.5 63 7 84 1.0 20
149
Table 5.4: Comparison of drinking water samples of Jind Block

BIS Standards
Parameters
Range of Samples
IS:10500:1991 WHO
Limit
pH 7.40 8.80 7.96 0.34 0.11 6.5 – 8.5 6.5 – 8.5 6.5 – 6.8
EC 0.503 2.604 1.363 0.553 0.305 - - 0.30
TDS 321 1649 856 337 113814 500 2000 500
TH 120 825 412 166 27618 300 500 100
Ca2+ 28 162 82 33 1105 75 200 75
Mg2+ 12 106 50 20 419 30 100 30
TA 130 720 340 129 16594 200 600 100
Cl– 30 556 208 131 17189 250 1000 250
F– 0.0 5.0 2.0 1.2 1.5 1.0 1.5 1.5
Na+ 30 369 158 76 5717 200
K+ 2 75 13 13 179 - - 100
SO42– 18 332 149 77 5980 150 400 500
PO43– 0.3 5.4 2.1 1.1 1.3 5
NO3– 1.5 95 19 20 392 45 - 50
150
Table 5.5: Water quality parameters of Julana Block of Jind District, Haryana
Code
Ju-1 45 27.7 8.12 0.529 360 173 35 23 133 91 0.4 62 5 130 2.7 22
Ju-2 80 27.4 7.47 2.015 1267 798 173 56 440 318 1.3 218 43 134 1.2 27
Ju-3 30 27.4 8.41 0.669 449 215 43 30 210 135 3.0 108 5 90 1.9 11
Ju-4 26 27.2 8.01 1.432 905 460 92 55 331 251 1.0 206 19 205 1.5 35
Ju-5 75 27.0 7.41 1.375 882 500 102 60 340 200 1.5 111 2 316 3.2 20
Ju-6 26 28.2 7.71 1.140 724 305 63 38 273 185 3.0 159 3 168 1.4 29
Ju-7 60 28.0 7.70 2.020 1293 520 104 58 380 300 2.0 259 7 144 0.9 10
Ju-8 80 28.2 7.78 2.047 1297 835 163 104 330 240 1.5 195 1 298 0.9 33
Ju-9 126 28.0 8.15 1.480 921 420 85 52 245 208 1.3 125 5 238 1.4 2
Ju-10 26 27.7 7.80 1.650 1033 635 120 76 331 236 1.4 147 5 193 2.1 8
Ju-11 55 28.2 8.21 1.030 663 293 63 38 300 248 3.0 175 7 206 1.8 40
Ju-12 30 27.3 8.06 2.216 1421 830 171 98 470 380 5.0 276 8 340 5.5 39
Ju-13 65 28.0 7.98 0.990 618 310 64 36 300 280 4.0 166 5 302 1.5 3
Ju-14 120 28.1 7.68 1.412 903 490 102 61 345 268 1.3 219 41 146 0.8 12
Ju-15 55 27.6 7.58 2.124 1320 893 179 107 350 237 1.8 201 11 146 2.3 46
Ju-16 20 28.1 7.68 1.844 1181 580 117 72 430 295 1.9 215 8 410 1.7 6
Ju-17 35 27.6 7.98 2.539 1630 1062 217 129 370 297 1.2 170 28 326 1.8 36
Ju-18 60 27.2 7.86 1.078 674 340 68 36 255 193 0.9 122 6 176 1.2 53
Ju-19 48 28.0 7.84 1.536 953 525 102 66 375 240 0.5 207 5 228 6.3 4
Ju-20 72 28.1 8.11 2.104 1295 720 158 93 480 370 2.3 270 7 376 1.0 12
Ju-21 68 27.7 7.78 0.675 438 203 46 27 193 138 3.0 116 6 96 7.7 5
Ju-22 85 27.7 8.28 0.916 590 288 58 35 213 135 2.0 92 3 119 5.9 32
Ju-23 48 28.0 8.13 0.904 596 280 57 37 250 58 1.5 37 3 134 1.1 30
Ju-24 30 27.5 7.97 0.778 499 228 44 31 175 120 1.3 96 4 94 1.4 30
Ju-25 40 27.3 8.06 0.578 377 200 40 24 130 95 2.0 66 9 75 17.1 20
Ju-26 25 28.0 7.99 0.452 305 190 39 23 125 85 1.3 27 5 102 1.6 21
Ju-27 21 27.8 8.10 0.811 530 240 45 28 235 153 3.9 133 34 158 4.0 9
Ju-28 65 28.2 8.02 2.193 1404 655 129 79 540 440 1.5 236 9 16 1.2 55
Ju-29 80 28.3 8.15 1.295 826 440 84 53 330 250 1.0 166 5 55 1.2 6
Ju-30 42 27.3 7.79 1.096 755 390 78 47 335 140 1.0 83 6 320 1.1 11
Ju-31 118 27.6 7.97 1.524 966 538 109 64 310 283 1.3 168 8 160 2.0 19
151
Table 5.6: Comparison of drinking water samples of Julana Block

BIS Standards
Parameters
Range of Samples
IS:10500:1991 WHO
Limit
pH 7.41 8.41 7.93 0.23 0.06 6.5 – 8.5 6.5 – 8.5 6.5 – 6.8
EC 0.452 2.539 1.369 0.585 0.342 - - 0.30
TDS 305 1630 873 365 132880 500 2000 500

TH 173 1062 469 239 57178 300 500 100
Ca2+ 35 217 95 49 2407 75 200 75

Mg2+ 23 129 56 28 772 30 100 30
TA 125 540 307 104 10824 200 600 100

Cl– 58 440 221 93 8638 250 1000 250
F– 0.4 5.0 1.9 1.1 1.2 1.0 1.5 1.5

Na+ 27 276 156 67 4507 200
K+ 1.3 43 10 11 121 - - 100

SO42– 16 410 190 101 10211 150 400 500
PO43– 0.8 17.1 2.7 3.2 10.2 5
NO3– 1.9 55 22 15 230 45 - 50
152
Table 5.7: Water quality parameters of Narwana Block of Jind District, Haryana
Code
N-1 56 26.1 7.32 1.230 788 428 93 43 290 315 0.7 118 21 178 0.9 8
N-2 293 25.9 7.62 1.250 803 316 62 39 290 118 0.7 96 5 165 0.5 5
N-3 165 29.6 7.64 0.592 388 235 49 26 123 50 1.0 33 21 62 0.5 5
N-4 25 25.5 8.27 0.965 650 350 71 44 225 180 0.5 53 3 87 0.2 11
N-5 68 28.5 8.66 0.634 438 190 40 22 155 65 0.5 55 3 58 0.1 17
N-6 33 26.2 8.45 0.461 334 165 33 20 135 75 0.5 52 4.2 109 1.0 5
N-7 115 27.3 8.08 1.030 670 335 71 39 205 70 0.5 43 22 104 0.4 57
N-8 35 29.2 8.27 0.579 377 225 48 27 135 114 2.0 61 3 78 1.2 5
N-9 70 28.1 7.81 1.259 794 420 84 51 360 250 1.2 226 6 280 2.2 13
N-10 65 27.4 8.34 0.750 574 235 45 30 260 55 5.0 45 9 12 0.3 5
N-11 56 27.2 7.98 0.780 501 246 53 29 196 106 1.3 48 7 164 0.2 12
N-12 60 25.9 7.95 1.331 866 440 92 52 323 191 1.0 201 11 145 0.7 33
N-13 60 26.2 7.86 1.310 822 468 110 47 245 215 1.0 166 13 121 6.2 15
N-14 110 27.7 8.73 0.892 544 245 55 52 200 185 0.5 90 6 19 1.5 56
N-15 185 27.1 7.70 0.549 357 158 36 17 148 108 1.0 78 3 100 1.1 7
N-16 103 27.1 7.89 1.322 850 520 112 55 253 129 0.9 105 9 153 0.7 21
N-17 73 24.5 7.81 1.200 771 393 82 46 256 131 3.8 124 5 119 0.5 21
N-18 168 27.6 8.12 0.830 533 255 55 27 200 135 0.8 71 14 50 0.5 53
N-19 120 27.9 7.71 1.434 917 423 94 47 245 126 0.5 92 12 147 0.5 37
N-20 30 24.6 8.40 0.303 191 88 21 10 98 38 0.3 32 0.5 78 0.8 2
N-21 30 25.2 8.07 0.754 478 266 60 30 153 102 4.4 73 6 100 0.3 18
N-22 35 26.0 8.32 0.463 189 90 19 11 80 60 0.0 52 0.6 44 6.2 5
N-23 60 27.2 8.08 0.691 437 256 59 26 165 130 1.0 81 8 70 0.6 18
N-24 40 25.7 8.27 1.466 940 485 92 62 310 95 1.5 41 9 166 0.4 14
N-25 108 27.5 7.57 1.527 758 340 69 41 270 135 1.0 89 11 87 0.2 22
N-26 66 25.2 7.86 3.140 2018 626 126 84 415 303 1.0 260 27 337 3.5 55
N-27 65 23.0 7.98 1.015 650 380 90 38 200 95 1.2 57 0.9 284 0.4 4
N-28 455 32.7 7.57 1.185 759 375 79 43 230 100 1.4 84 0.6 73 0.2 20
N-29 150 27.9 7.69 0.571 370 205 46 22 165 68 0.5 44 3 108 2.2 38
N-30 48 30.7 8.44 0.717 464 203 38 26 205 100 0.5 67 2 174 0.2 14
N-31 120 25.3 8.03 2.349 1504 495 109 57 468 325 2.0 281 23 347 0.7 16
153
Table 5.7 Contd…………..

N-32 150 26.3 7.78 2.683 1720 1205 249 142 250 155 2.0 81 12 274 0.0 15
N-33 35 26.0 8.33 1.034 664 415 81 52 165 125 1.0 63 3 109 0.3 24
N-34 98 30.0 7.75 0.671 442 255 53 31 135 55 0.8 47 51 92 0.1 27
N-35 50 26.5 8.36 1.294 725 385 77 45 230 175 1.8 49 13 90 0.2 23
N-36 35 26.0 7.36 1.123 716 360 76 36 320 250 0.5 61 16 76 0.0 73
N-37 350 29.7 7.70 1.570 992 505 98 56 270 205 2.0 162 17 110 0.4 31
N-38 55 27.6 7.79 0.988 623 330 68 38 223 140 0.4 77 11 185 1.1 9
N-39 120 27.9 7.91 1.244 782 379 71 49 270 210 1.1 70 10 203 0.5 17
N-40 70 29.9 7.76 1.005 643 365 72 45 265 180 0.6 161 8 194 0.8 12
N-41 83 26.9 8.26 0.907 548 289 60 34 180 96 2.5 48 9 97 0.5 17
N-42 38 31.3 7.87 1.710 1092 505 112 58 435 245 9.0 162 13 257 0.7 22
N-43 600 31.0 8.18 1.446 896 415 85 48 295 125 1.8 79 12 112 0.3 53
N-44 120 26.2 7.57 1.647 1045 581 110 74 330 256 3.0 95 15 188 0.1 38
N-45 60 29.6 7.69 1.152 732 370 72 45 258 95 0.8 60 7 146 0.5 20
N-46 59 27.4 7.39 1.126 731 390 77 46 265 171 2.4 141 12 132 1.2 40
N-47 38 26.1 8.37 0.911 607 333 67 40 200 84 0.8 58 2 126 0.7 14
N-48 70 28.5 8.31 0.817 519 298 59 37 200 90 1.4 70 9 97 1.1 27
N-49 70 29.1 7.99 1.724 1087 620 314 81 485 188 0.0 174 3 386 0.0 23
N-50 53 26.4 7.63 1.363 819 442 91 52 295 191 2.2 152 20 213 0.7 21
N-51 38 26.4 8.38 0.653 434 230 46 28 150 83 0.8 53 4 134 0.6 15
N-52 120 28.3 7.67 1.252 802 430 85 53 355 150 0.5 124 7 182 1.6 21
N-53 43 29.3 8.09 1.280 832 430 81 55 238 205 0.7 207 16 92 1.3 17
N-54 65 28.8 7.86 0.681 436 255 51 31 130 58 3.6 53 21 94 1.0 8
N-55 218 29.0 7.71 1.007 635 343 63 42 267 185 1.2 149 10 103 1.1 55
N-56 45 28.1 7.63 2.017 1261 665 127 85 390 350 2.1 249 7 295 1.3 25
N-57 156 27.3 8.47 0.844 520 270 55 32 267 101 0.3 65 14 96 0.6 31
N-58 150 29.2 7.59 1.235 791 400 80 49 270 200 1.5 175 8 172 1.5 65
N-59 75 26.7 7.96 1.009 625 330 63 42 235 230 0.8 63 8 69 0.2 37
N-60 84 26.4 7.87 1.458 906 518 100 64 258 281 1.1 121 15 83 0.2 15
N-61 85 28.1 7.59 1.736 788 426 81 55 197 77 1.0 60 2 151 2.1 16
N-62 65 28.1 7.69 1.013 652 273 58 33 297 205 1.2 163 7 173 0.5 13
N-63 105 25.3 7.99 1.593 1020 590 115 74 365 263 1.3 153 48 234 0.5 23
N-64 65 27.7 8.04 1.120 717 275 57 33 245 83 3.3 63 2 209 0.3 11
154
Table 5.7 Contd…………..

N-65 151 29.8 8.32 1.880 1190 370 74 48 440 253 1.0 223 11 135 1.8 37
N-66 99 26.9 8.16 0.891 570 242 52 32 298 208 6.3 137 3 209 0.9 9
N-67 90 25.8 8.30 1.258 790 365 70 47 215 138 1.0 129 8 186 0.3 41
N-68 72 27.5 7.48 1.207 745 436 87 66 217 78 0.5 54 9 140 1.0 25
155
Table 5.8: Comparison of drinking water samples of Narwana Block

BIS Standards
Parameters
Range of Samples
IS:10500:1991 WHO
Limit
pH 7.32 8.73 7.96 0.33 0.11 6.5 – 8.5 6.5 – 8.5 6.5 – 6.8
EC 0.303 3.140 1.163 0.503 0.253 - - 0.30
TDS 189 2018 733 315 99471 500 2000 500
TH 88 1205 370 161 25915 300 500 100
Ca2+ 19 314 78 43 1868 75 200 75
Mg2+ 10 142 45 20 398 30 100 30
TA 80 485 249 87 7552 200 600 100
Cl– 38 350 152 76 5725 250 1000 250
F– 0.0 9.0 1.5 1.5 2.2 1.0 1.5 1.5
Na+ 32 281 102 61 3699 200
K+ 0.5 51 11 9 85 - - 100
SO42– 12 386 145 78 6034 150 400 500
PO43– 0.0 6.2 0.9 1.1 1.3 5
NO3– 2 73 23 16 262 45 - 50
156
Table 5.9: Water quality parameters of Pillukhera Block of Jind District, Haryana
Code
P-1 650 28.8 7.89 1.632 1010 520 107 63 345 280 1.0 219 65 141 1.0 23
P-2 120 27.7 8.16 1.088 696 390 78 47 280 240 2.0 217 5 79 0.3 9
P-3 70 27.8 7.80 1.218 780 515 102 62 230 190 1.5 177 7 60 0.3 12
P-4 35 27.6 8.44 1.428 904 505 95 54 290 163 6.3 101 13 148 1.1 4
P-5 30 27.3 8.36 0.238 247 97 20 11 145 83 0.0 63 5 28 0.8 3
P-6 18 27.9 7.97 0.634 406 222 45 27 180 75 0.3 68 10 28 2.8 4
P-7 110 26.7 8.30 1.461 915 440 88 52 400 290 0.5 273 5 95 1.1 7
P-8 120 28.8 7.99 1.986 1285 690 141 84 440 400 3.0 287 7 95 0.4 7
P-9 95 28.9 8.47 1.435 910 530 105 65 366 305 0.5 157 62 101 1.0 `
P-10 1025 28.3 8.05 0.618 425 205 47 28 205 147 1.3 131 3 45 1.0 6
P-11 190 27.5 7.82 0.595 397 200 40 24 170 119 1.2 104 4 40 1.8 7
P-12 38 27.6 8.11 1.147 733 315 66 41 295 240 1.5 205 6 95 1.5 8
P-13 30 27.8 8.31 1.510 949 480 102 56 480 310 3.0 261 13 115 1.1 7
P-14 20 27.5 7.82 0.677 657 395 80 47 210 100 5.0 93 5 42 0.9 6
P-15 120 30.6 8.02 0.324 221 110 22 13 100 45 0.5 42 9 20 0.9 5
P-16 120 27.9 8.31 0.542 363 125 26 15 216 180 2.0 153 3 50 0.9 1
P-17 25 28.0 8.13 0.442 290 142 30 17 110 92 1.1 75 3 57 1.4 3
P-18 60 28.0 8.39 4.445 397 190 39 23 164 105 2.5 82 9 15 2.1 3
P-19 90 27.0 8.15 1.059 680 400 80 48 230 95 3.3 50 6 88 2.0 7
P-20 30 27.2 7.77 0.687 440 260 50 31 170 80 0.0 70 6 34 2.0 4
P-21 32 27.9 7.65 1.140 730 400 82 47 295 188 0.8 148 42 61 2.4 4
P-22 30 30.1 8.02 2.310 1422 815 163 100 560 395 1.0 281 10 140 0.1 41
P-23 120 29.0 8.02 2.060 1288 700 140 84 350 320 1.0 242 24 255 5.2 13
P-24 118 27.4 7.67 1.620 1003 400 81 48 365 220 2.3 186 9 83 4.5 6
P-25 32 28.6 8.11 1.531 980 475 96 58 410 262 3.9 223 7 135 1.2 7
P-26 110 27.6 8.02 1.250 781 397 82 48 320 241 2.0 195 8 83 1.8 9
P-27 60 28.6 7.96 0.915 573 296 60 32 236 128 0.5 100 33 120 1.3 49
P-28 160 30.0 8.19 0.897 619 425 85 52 180 180 1.0 153 7 70 0.4 108
P-29 120 32.9 8.26 1.763 1113 630 132 73 310 55 2.5 32 3 155 0.3 11
157
Table 5.10: Comparison of drinking water samples of Pillukhera Block

BIS Standards
Parameters
Range of Samples
IS:10500:1991 WHO
Limit
pH 7.65 8.47 8.07 0.23 0.05 6.5 – 8.5 6.5 – 8.5 6.5 – 6.8
EC 0.238 4.445 1.264 0.814 0.662 - - 0.30
TDS 221 1422 732 326 106456 500 2000 500
TH 97 815 389 187 34819 300 500 100
Ca2+ 20 163 79 37 1400 75 200 75
Mg2+ 11 100 47 22 504 30 100 30
TA 100 560 278 113 12881 200 600 100
Cl– 45 400 191 101 10145 250 1000 250
F– 0.0 6.3 1.8 1.5 2.2 1.0 1.5 1.5
Na+ 32 287 151 78 6087 200
K+ 3 65 13 16 271 - - 100
SO42– 15 255 85 52 2725 150 400 500
PO43– 0.1 5.2 1.4 1.2 1.3 5
NO3– 1.3 108 13 22 465 45 - 50
158
Table 5.11: Water quality parameters of Safidon Block of Jind District

Code
S-1 1200 28.2 8.78 0.558 378 90 19 11 240 190 2.0 177 2 25 0.3 25
S-2 650 31.4 8.08 1.369 867 390 89 43 320 185 1.0 157 6 166 1.0 2
S-3 30 27.4 7.92 0.627 431 215 46 26 190 180 0.5 167 5 55 1.1 3
S-4 60 28.2 7.92 0.958 618 300 64 31 305 290 0.0 242 31 128 2.0 42
S-5 30 26.7 8.00 2.500 1600 790 144 97 480 320 0.0 298 12 287 0.8 6
S-6 35 27.5 8.12 1.168 745 370 80 50 340 250 3.5 228 3 55 0.8 3
S-7 120 28.7 7.79 0.782 508 260 48 27 230 215 0.5 180 8 140 0.3 30
S-8 120 28.2 8.05 0.435 296 140 29 17 130 60 1.5 41 55 80 0.3 4
S-9 170 28.6 7.88 1.024 662 325 72 32 300 280 3.0 265 14 136 0.1 8
S-10 230 28.4 7.88 0.620 400 210 42 23 190 180 1.5 160 23 108 1.0 10
S-11 120 29.3 8.34 1.265 806 315 68 35 360 250 2.0 226 7 168 1.8 11
S-12 120 28.3 8.40 0.383 258 110 26 13 120 95 0.5 61 19 40 0.3 6
S-13 150 28.6 8.03 1.612 1006 480 97 97 300 280 0.5 256 10 75 0.6 66
S-14 350 27.8 8.13 1.140 725 305 70 32 320 270 1.5 226 24 108 1.0 10
S-15 1185 34.7 8.06 0.832 532 210 52 22 240 200 2.5 182 0.4 48 0.4 1
S-16 88 28.6 7.79 1.850 1260 600 125 62 420 305 1.5 235 28 110 3.8 19
S-17 120 27.7 8.50 2.532 1621 730 170 75 640 470 3.0 344 19 178 1.5 32
S-18 122 27.6 7.65 2.385 1476 665 131 79 650 347 3.0 260 9 219 1.6 14
S-19 150 27.4 7.49 0.490 343 193 40 24 135 87 2.3 66 9 42 1.2 14
S-20 280 28.4 7.86 0.966 645 420 83 50 210 190 0.5 184 6 144 1.0 18
S-21 200 28.0 8.31 0.967 607 290 63 36 300 295 1.5 282 9 148 2.1 8
S-22 150 27.2 7.99 1.360 856 460 87 43 300 290 7.5 279 6 32 1.1 5
S-23 170 27.6 7.89 2.060 1282 630 146 64 455 240 0.5 199 9 78 1.1 57
S-24 180 28.1 7.64 1.360 861 546 112 65 280 265 10.0 255 4 153 1.0 6
S-25 150 27.8 7.77 2.335 1458 830 171 88 465 400 1.3 335 49 178 2.0 47
S-26 30 28.6 8.09 1.545 980 510 101 62 300 265 1.3 238 17 128 1.7 65
S-27 180 28.6 8.31 0.913 584 230 52 41 240 165 1.5 150 4 72 2.1 4
S-28 180 29.1 8.31 1.920 1189 605 120 86 360 300 0.5 268 8 280 0.7 5
S-29 1280 35.8 8.26 0.660 406 215 48 25 180 145 1.5 120 7 68 0.8 1
S-30 120 28.2 7.94 1.787 1144 590 108 77 470 305 0.5 211 10 188 3.1 4
S-31 100 28.4 8.16 0.603 411 220 45 24 180 175 3.0 163 8 20 0.3 4
159
Table 5.11 Contd……….

S-32 400 27.2 8.03 1.562 969 425 88 50 340 225 1.5 215 7 100 1.2 32
S-33 120 28.7 8.63 2.560 1550 450 92 53 540 420 10.0 398 10 158 1.9 14
S-34 1250 28.4 8.08 0.603 412 170 36 21 220 200 1.5 188 1 33 0.5 2
S-35 250 28.3 8.00 0.584 383 208 42 24 162 98 0.5 76 12 55 0.8 14
S-36 150 27.2 7.70 1.470 940 565 170 66 330 190 1.0 173 1 180 1.2 7
S-37 100 26.9 7.60 1.413 905 460 94 56 340 245 5.3 217 5 149 1.2 7
S-38 180 28.2 7.98 0.563 385 150 30 18 200 95 0.5 65 8 60 0.5 6
S-39 60 27.3 8.77 0.662 426 190 40 23 200 125 1.5 95 10 30 0.4 5
S-40 185 27.8 8.00 1.225 776 400 84 45 340 220 1.1 159 8 138 0.6 16
S-41 38 27.0 8.15 0.681 467 215 45 23 150 43 5.0 21 9 66 1.5 4
S-42 120 28.7 7.51 0.624 400 245 49 30 130 50 3.0 29 5 68 1.1 6
S-43 150 28.9 7.71 1.660 1079 660 120 88 380 270 2.5 252 6 196 1.1 36
160
Table 5.12: Comparison of drinking water samples of Safidon Block

Parameters BIS Standards
Range of Samples
IS:10500:1991 WHO
Limit
pH 7.49 8.78 8.03 0.30 0.09 6.5 – 8.5 6.5 – 8.5 6.5 – 6.8
EC 0.383 2.560 1.224 0.635 0.404 - - 0.30
TDS 258 1621 782 392 153843 500 2000 500
TH 90 830 381 197 38780 300 500 100
Ca2+ 19 171 80 42 1728 75 200 75
Mg2+ 11 97 46 25 609 30 100 30
TA 120 650 302 130 16831 200 600 100
Cl– 43 470 225 97 9355 250 1000 250
F– 0.0 10.0 2.2 2.3 5.3 1.0 1.5 1.5
Na+ 21 398 194 87 7497 200
K+ 0.4 55 12 11 130 - - 100
SO42– 20 287 114 66 4419 150 400 500
PO43– 0.1 3.8 1.1 0.8 0.6 5
NO3– 0.9 66 16 17 301 45 - 50
161
Table 5.13: Water quality parameters of Uchana Block of Jind District, Haryana
Code
U-1 40 30.0 7.76 0.692 481 210 41 27 216 170 2.0 90 4 34 0.6 11
U-2 60 26.9 7.64 2.002 1232 556 113 68 383 363 1.3 210 35 83 0.4 18
U-3 95 26.5 7.95 1.351 872 445 88 55 345 303 1.4 278 6 120 0.9 32
U-4 66 28.7 7.36 2.435 1490 750 145 89 563 416 3.3 318 12 140 0.6 30
U-5 153 28.3 7.55 1.604 879 425 85 51 248 211 1.2 156 14 108 0.5 48
U-6 82 27.1 7.97 1.039 679 345 71 37 305 165 3.3 155 18 22 0.4 30
U-7 75 28.4 7.52 1.680 1076 460 90 57 405 153 1.3 114 20 108 0.9 25
U-8 110 29.3 7.68 1.804 1146 582 116 68 435 252 2.8 188 31 57 0.4 45
U-9 45 29.1 8.21 2.478 1586 480 100 58 515 335 3.5 286 2 140 1.0 31
U-10 70 27.8 7.43 3.220 1998 680 142 79 890 850 3.5 500 220 328 2.4 132
U-11 130 28.2 6.98 1.225 784 400 82 48 300 170 0.1 131 11 34 0.0 48
U-12 60 28.0 7.82 1.218 662 425 65 40 265 175 5.5 135 11 128 2.3 15
U-13 105 29.3 8.57 2.249 1504 720 146 87 620 325 1.8 244 61 86 0.1 61
U-14 96 28.5 7.69 0.737 516 306 68 22 196 145 2.5 132 10 85 0.3 14
U-15 75 30.3 7.92 1.492 1035 655 127 77 395 245 1.3 223 19 120 0.4 68
U-16 80 30.1 8.34 0.506 324 200 44 22 120 60 4.0 44 13 56 1.3 12
U-17 96 25.0 7.78 2.267 1446 815 173 96 575 414 1.3 302 43 258 2.4 41
U-18 100 29.4 7.97 1.709 1094 593 109 78 420 280 2.3 209 2 208 0.0 70
U-19 104 27.5 8.17 2.142 1336 577 112 67 446 374 0.8 277 26 209 1.5 46
U-20 153 28.0 8.09 0.826 563 260 59 31 230 100 1.3 85 25 64 1.4 91
U-21 116 28.6 7.77 1.594 1048 663 134 80 346 285 1.5 176 14 180 0.4 71
U-22 100 27.4 7.84 1.260 807 370 68 37 320 140 0.0 105 35 40 0.0 17
U-23 110 27.9 7.92 1.368 729 365 72 41 223 119 1.5 87 19 59 0.3 12
U-24 80 28.4 7.82 1.383 890 380 74 48 383 300 1.2 316 19 77 0.8 49
U-25 118 26.7 7.72 0.734 553 263 83 52 266 148 1.2 127 8 87 0.4 18
U-26 68 28.6 8.03 1.824 1157 618 124 71 391 271 1.2 216 9 125 0.5 43
U-27 90 28.5 7.98 1.719 1087 625 125 76 370 326 2.5 219 21 108 0.2 10
U-28 120 25.7 8.26 1.201 790 340 69 39 315 140 1.5 112 64 74 0.5 16
U-29 300 28.2 8.20 0.246 162 90 18 10 55 75 0.7 47 5 40 11.0 4
U-30 51 26.9 7.92 1.873 1093 631 120 76 465 336 1.2 204 16 185 0.8 36
U-31 75 30.0 7.54 1.514 969 497 105 60 333 218 0.9 154 10 212 0.4 33
162
Table 5.13 Contd………..

U-32 75 27.3 8.07 2.262 1415 645 124 78 530 323 3.0 223 12 154 0.6 11
U-33 45 29.0 7.48 1.082 764 495 80 47 345 223 2.8 214 10 134 1.6 7
U-34 103 25.3 8.04 1.532 972 533 107 65 363 250 0.9 147 13 161 0.7 25
U-35 80 28.5 8.15 1.042 726 440 89 53 280 250 1.0 166 51 55 0.3 6
U-36 120 28.2 8.29 1.360 845 400 78 50 290 215 0.5 171 12 44 10.0 28
U-37 95 29.2 8.18 0.661 426 150 30 18 182 70 1.0 55 13 127 0.4 53
U-38 95 29.3 7.93 1.609 1003 585 110 79 350 300 1.5 202 16 92 0.4 8
U-39 90 29.7 8.33 2.978 1887 1147 233 140 605 519 5.5 349 13 88 1.1 37
U-40 78 29.2 7.93 2.064 1321 495 97 62 428 300 0.9 220 30 183 1.1 34
U-41 90 28.6 8.03 1.504 963 475 97 56 360 223 0.5 184 38 128 0.3 32
163
Table 5.14: Comparison of drinking water samples of Uchana Block

BIS Standards
Parameters
Range of Samples
IS:10500:1991 WHO
Limit
pH 6.98 8.57 7.90 0.31 0.10 6.5 – 8.5 6.5 – 8.5 6.5 – 6.8
EC 0.246 3.220 1.548 0.644 0.415 - - 0.30
TDS 162 1998 983 398 158319 500 2000 500
TH 90 1147 490 198 39099 300 500 100
Ca2+ 18 233 98 39 1556 75 200 75
Mg2+ 10 140 58 25 603 30 100 30
TA 55 890 368 150 22586 200 600 100
Cl– 60 850 257 140 19554 250 1000 250
F– 0.0 5.5 1.8 1.3 1.7 1.0 1.5 1.5
Na+ 44 500 190 91 8279 200
K+ 2 220 25 35 1198 - - 100
SO42– 22 328 116 66 4368 150 400 500
PO43– 0.0 11.0 1.2 2.2 4.9 5
NO3– 4 132 35 26 670 45 - 50
164
5.8. Water Quality Monitoring in District Jind as a Whole
District Jind includes a total of seven blocks viz. Alewa, Jind, Julana,
Narwana, Pillukhera, Safidon and Uchana. Maximum area of the district is used for
agriculture. Water development is very high as compared to the state. In this part of
the study, various physic-chemcial parameters of ground water have been examined in
order to see the suitability of water for agriculture and domestic usage. Correlation
Coefficients among different drinking Water Quality Parameters of all the villages
studied of the district Jind is presented in Table 5.19. The discussion on various
parameters is as under:
5.8.1. pH
Mean pH for the district was found to be 7.96 with minimum value of 6.98
and maximum value of 8.80 and standard deviation of 0.31 indicating slightly alkaline
nature of water. The value obtained was within the desirable limit suggested by BIS
(6.5 to 8.5) and WHO (7.0 to 8.5).
pH of Jind District was negatively correlated with EC (r = -0.1521), TDS (r = -
0.1829), TA (r = -0.1215), Total Hardness (r = -0.2325), Calcium (r = -0.2085),
Magnesium (r = -0.2105), Chloride (r = -0.1829), Fluoride (r = -0.1485), Sodium (r =
-0.1241), Potassium (r = -0.0998), Suplhate (r = -0.1578), Phosphate (r = -0.0484),
Nitrates (r = -0.0951). pH of Jind District was positively correlated with fluoride (r = -
0.1485).
5.8.2. Electrical Conductivity
165
Mean Electrical Conductivity for the Jind district was found to be 1.346 dS
with minimum value of 0.238 dS and maximum value of 4.445 dS and standard
deviation of 0.634. The value obtained exceeded the desirable limit suggested by
WHO i.e. 0.3 dS.
Electrical Conductivity of Jind District is positively correlated with TDS (r =
0.9230), TH (r = 0.8416), Calcium (r = 0.7981), Magnesium (r = 0.8278), TA (r =
0.8230), Chloride (r = 0.7331), Fluoride (r = 0.2253), Sodium (r = 0.1263), Potassium
(r = 0.2595), Suplhate (r = 0.5092), Phosphate (r = 0.0096), Nitrates (r = 0.2444).
Electrical Conductivity of Jind District is negatively correlated with pH (r = -0.1521).
5.8.3. Total Dissolved Solids
Mean value of Total Dissolved Solids obtained in Jind District is 847 with
standard deviation 378 indicating more value than desirable limit set by BIS (500) and
WHO (500). Although BIS suggests that water up to TDS value 2000 can be
consumed if no alternative source is available but high TDS may change the taste of
water and may also induce gastro-intestinal troubles. The minmum and maximum
value TDS observed were 162 and 2440 mg/L respectively.
In the present study, Total Dissolved Solids positively correlated with EC (r =
0.9230), TH (r = 0.9099), Total Alkalinity (r = 0.8945), Calcium (r = 0.8637),
Magnesium (r = -0.8946), Chloride (r = 0.7955), Fluoride (r = 0.2166), Sodium (r =
0.6699), Potassium (r = 0.2807), Sulphate (r = 0.5685), Nitrate (r = 2762) and
negatively correlated with pH (r = -0.1829), Phosphate (r = -0.0103).
5.8.4. Total Hardness
166
The mean value of Total Hardness obtained for Jind District is 426 with
standard deviation 204 which is within the limit suggested by BIS (Desirable up to
300 but permissible up to 600) and much above WHO (100). Besides difficulty in
lathering of soaps, high Total Hardness (TH) of water is responsible for deteriorating
the quality of clothes and skin irritation.
Total Hardness is positively correlated with Electrical Conductivity (r =
0.8416), Total Dissolved Solids (r = 0.9099), Total Alkalinity (r = 0.7582), Calcium (r
= 0.9535), Magnesium (r = 0.9721), Chloride (r = 0.6844), Fluoride (r = 0.1637),
Sodium (r = 0.5768), Potassium (r = 0.2188), Sulphate (r = 0.5262), and Nitrate (r =
0.2522) and negatively correlated with pH (r = -0.2325), and Phosphate (r = -0.0233).
5.8.5. Calcium
The mean value of Calcium in Jind district is found to be 87 with standard
deviation 43 which is within the limits suggested by BIS (Desirable up to 75 but
permissible up to 200) and WHO (75). High Calcium contents leads to poor lathering
of soaps and deteriorate the quality of cloths.
Calcium in the present study positively correlated with Electrical Conductivity
(r = 0.7981), Total Dissolved Solids (r = 0.8637), Total Hardness (r = 0.9539),
Magnesium (r = 0.9230), Total Alkalinity (r = 0.7275),Chloride (r = 0.6302), Fluoride
(r = 0.1420), Sodium (r = 0.5416), Potassium (r = 0.2021), Sulphate (r = 0.5396), and
Nitrate (r = 0.2312) and negatively correlated with pH (r = -0.2085), and Phosphate (r
= -0.0367).
5.8.6. Magnesium
167
The mean value obtained for Magnesium in Jind district is 51 with standard
deviation 24 which is within the limits prescribed by BIS (Desirable up to 30 but
permissible up to 75) and WHO (50). High Magnesium contents leads to poor
lathering of soaps and deteriorate the quality of cloths and with sulphate, Magnesium
acts like laxative.
Magnesium in the present study positively correlated with Electrical
Conductivity (r = 0.8278), Total Dissolved Solids (r = 0.8946), Total Hardness (r =
0.9721), Calcium (r = 0.9230), Total Alkalinity (r = 0.7386),Chloride (r = 0.6795),
Fluoride (r = 0.1312), Sodium (r = 0.5724), Potassium (r = 0.1910), Sulphate (r =
0.5308), and Nitrate (r = 0.2571) and negatively correlated with pH (r = -0.2105), and
Phosphate (r = -0.0226).
5.8.7. Total Alkalinity (TA)
The mean value obtained for Total Alkalinity in Jind District is found to be
314 with standard deviation 131 which is within the limits set by BIS (Desirable up to
200 but permissible up to 600). It is known that Total Alkalinity above 200 changes
the taste of water to unpleasant and colour of the boiled rice to yellowish. It also
hardens the rice and pulses after boiling.
In the present study, Total Alkalinity is positively correlated with Electrical
0.7582), Calcium (r = 0.7275), Magnesium (r = 0.7386), Chloride (r = 0.8287),
Fluoride (r = 0.2558), Sodium (r = 0.7447), Potassium (r = 0.3006), Sulphate (r =
168
0.4963), and Nitrate (r = 0.2635) and negatively correlated with pH (r = -0.1215), and
5.8.8. Chloride
In the present study, the mean value for Chloride was found to be 209 with
standard deviation 113 which is within the limits prescribed by BIS (Desirable up to
250 but permissible up to 1000). Chloride in this study is positively correlated
with Electrical Conductivity (r = 0.7331), Total Dissolved Solids (r = 0.7955), Total
Hardness (r = 0.6844), Calcium (r = 0.6302), Magnesium (r = 0.6795), Total
Alkalinity (r = 0.8287), Fluoride (r = 0.1897), Sodium (r = 0.7795), Potassium (r =
0.3493), Sulphate (r = 0.4046), Phosphate (r = 0.0088) and Nitrate (r = 0.2680) and
negatively correlated with pH (r = -0.1829).
5.8.9. Fluoride
The mean value obtained for Fluoride in this cluster is 1.8 with standard
deviation 1.6 which is slightly above the limits suggested by BIS (Desirable up to 1.0
but permissible up to 1.5). High Fluoride leads to dental and skeletal fluorosis, so
fluoride contents should remain as low as possible. Fluoride in this study is
positively correlated with pH (r = 0.1485), Electrical Conductivity (r = 0.2253), Total
Dissolved Solids (r = 0.2166), Total Hardness (r = 0.1637), Calcium (r = 0.1420),
Magnesium (r = 0.1312), Total Alkalinity (r = 0.2558), Chloride (r = 0.1897), Sodium
(r = 0.2328), Potassium (r = 0.0329), Sulphate (r = 0.0898), Phosphate (r = 0.0028)
and negatively correlated with only Nitrate (r = -0.0793).
5.8.10. Sodium
169
The mean value for Sodium was found to be 159 with standard deviation 83
which is within the limits prescribed by BIS (Desirable up to 250 but permissible up
to 1000). Sodium in this study is positively correlated with Electrical Conductivity (r
= 0.1263), Total Dissolved Solids (r = 0.6699), Total Hardness (r = 0.5768), Calcium
(r = 0.5416), Magnesium (r = 0.5724), Total Alkalinity (r = 0.7447), Chloride (r =
0.7795), Fluoride (r = 0.2328), Potassium (r = 0.2590), Sulphate (r = 0.2917),
Phosphate (r = 0.0684), Nitrate (r = 0.2111) and negatively correlated with only pH (r
= -0.1241).
5.8.11. Potassium
The mean value for Potassium was found to be 14 with standard deviation 19
which is within the limits prescribed by BIS (permissible up to 100). Potassium
in this study is positively correlated with Electrical Conductivity (r = 0.2595), Total
Dissolved Solids (r = 0.2807), Total Hardness (r = 0.2188), Calcium (r = 0.2021),
Magnesium (r = 0.1910), Total Alkalinity (r = 0.3006), Chloride (r = 0.3483),
Fluoride (r = 0.0329), Sodium (r = 0.2590), Sulphate (r = 0.0548), Phosphate (r =
0.0108), Nitrate (r = 0.2557) and negatively correlated with only pH (r = -0.0998).
5.8.12. Sulphate
The mean value obtained for Sulphate in Jind district is 135 with standard
deviation 79 which is within the prescribed limits by WHO (permissible limit is 500
mg/L). Sulphate in this study is positively correlated with Electrical Conductivity (r =
0.5092), Total Dissolved Solids (r = 0.5685), Total Hardness (r = 0.5262), Calcium (r
= 0.5396), Magnesium (r = 0.5308), Total Alkalinity (r = 0.4863), Chloride (r =
0.4046), Fluoride (r = 0.0898), Sodium (r = 0.2917), Potassium (r = 0.0548),
170
Phosphate (r = 0.0090), Nitrate (r = 0.0776) and negatively correlated with only pH (r
= -0.1578).
5.8.13. Phosphate
The mean value obtained for Phosphate in Jind district is 1.6 mg/L with
standard deviation 1.7 which is within the prescribed limits by WHO (permissible
limit up to 5 mg/L). Phosphate in thi study positively correlated with Electrical
Conductivity (r = 0.0096), Chloride (r = 0.40088), Fluoride (r = 0.0028), Sodium (r =
0.0684), Potassium (r = 0.0108), Sulphate (r = 0.0090) and negatively correlated with
only pH (r = -0.0484), Total Dissolved Solids (r = -0.0103), Total Hardness (r = -
0.0233), Calcium (r = -0.0367), Magnesium (r = -0.0266), Total Alkalinity (r = -
0.0309), and Nitrate (r = -0.0535).
5.8.14. Nitrate
The mean value obtained for Nitrate in Jind district is 22 with standard
deviation 20 which is within the prescribed limits by BIS (Desirable up to 45 but
permissible up to 100). Nitrate in this study is positively correlated with Electrical
0.2522), Calcium (r = 0.2312), Magnesium (r = 0.2571), Total Alkalinity (r = 0.2635),
Chloride (r = 0.2680), Sodium (r = 0.2111), Potassium (r = 0.2557), Sulphate (r =
0.0776), and negatively correlated with only pH (r = -0.0951) Fluoride (r = -0.0793),
5.9. Water Quality Parameters of General Importance
171
Two major quality parameters, namely Total Hardness (Table 5.15 and Figure
5.2) and Total Dissolved Solids (Table 5.16 and Figure 5.3) are of general
importance. On the basis of physicochemical monitoring of the samples studied, it
may be concluded that the water of all the samples studied is of hard type and none of
the samples showed soft or moderately hard type water quality. Water with Total
Hardness below 75 is considered soft, 75 to 150 is moderately hard, 151 to 300 is hard
and water with Total Hardness above 300 is termed as very hard (Matalas and Reiher,
1967 & Sawyer and McCarthy, 1967). Table 5.16 and Figure No. 5.2 indicate that
Alewa block has 13.3 % hard water and 86.7% very hard water. Jind block has 31.9 %
hard water and 66.7% very hard water. Water of Julana block can be classified as
32.3% hard and 67.7% very hard. Narwana block has 32.4% hard and 64.7% very
hard water. Pillukhera block has 20.7% hard and 65.5% very hard water. Safidon
block contains 34.9% hard and 55.8% very hard water. Water of Uchana block can be
classified as 9.8% hard and 85.4% very hard. Consumption of very soft and very hard
water is not good for human beings. Very soft water does not contain much solids
dissolved, needed to digest the food while very hard water contains much solids
dissolved in it and can create problems. So the water samples come under soft and
moderately hard category, can be consumed safely, if otherwise found suitable. As far
as Total Dissolved Solids are concerned, safe and desirable limit as prescribed by BIS
and WHO is 500, but water with Total Dissolved Solids up to 1500 (WHO) and 2000
(BIS) can be consumed if no other alternative is available.
On the basis of physicochemical monitoring of the samples studied (Table
5.17 and Figure 5.3), it may be concluded that none of the samples showed Total
172
Dissolved Solids below 300 means no water can be termed as good. Water with Total
Dissolved Solids 300 to 500 can be considered fair, 500 to 900 average, 900 to 1200
poor, 1200 to 2000 very poor and water with Total Dissolved Solids above 1200 is
termed as unacceptable (Matalas and Reiher, 1967). On the basis of Total Dissolved
Solids, it was found that none of the water samples in Alewa, Jind, and Julana blockis
good for drinking. However, 2.9% water samples in Narwana block, 10.3% water
samples in Pillukhera block, 4.7% water samples in Safidon block, and 2.4% water
samples in Uchana block are in good category. 15.3% water samples in Jind block,
19.4% water samples in Julana block, 17.6% water samples in Narwana block, 20.7%
water samples in Pillukhera block, 27.9% water samples in Safidon block, and 7.3%
water samples in Uchana block may be termed as fair. Average category water
includes 40% water samples in Alewa block, 40.3% water samples in Jind block,
32.3% water samples in Julana block, 60.3% water samples in Narwana block, 31%
water samples in Pillukhera block, 32.6% water samples in Safidon block, 36.6%
water samples in Uchana block. 56.7% water samples in Alewa block, 44.4% water
samples in Jind block, 48.4% water samples in Julana block, 19.1% water samples in
Narwana block, 37.9% water samples in Pillukhera block, 34.9% water samples in
Safidon block, 53.7% water samples in Uchana block is of poor, very poor category.
As a whole, 2.5% water of Jind district is good, 16.2% is fair, 41.4% is average,
22.9% is poor, 16.2% is very poor and 0.6% water comes under unacceptable
category. Total hardness andtotal dissolved solids in Jind district is presented in
Figure 5.4 and 5.5 respectively.
173
Table 5.15: Classification of Drinking Water in Villages of different Blocks of

District Jind on the basis of Total Hardness.
(Scale based on Matalas and Reiher, 1967 & Sawyer and McCarthy, 1967)
TH Number of Samples Block-wise
Mg/L Description
Alewa Jind Julana Narwana Pillukhera Safidon Uchana Jind
District
< 75 Soft 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Moderately
75-150 0 1 0 2 4 4 2 13
Hard
151-300 Hard 4 23 10 22 6 15 4 84
> 300 Very Hard 26 48 21 44 19 24 35 217
TOTAL 30 72 31 68 29 43 41 314
Uchana
Safidon
Pillukhera
below 75
75-150
Narwana
151-300
Julana above 300
Jind
Alewa
0 20 40 60 80
Figure 5.2: Ratio of Water Samples in Villages of different Blocks of district Jind
on the basis of Total Hardness.
174
Table 5.16: Classification of Drinking Water in Villages of different Blocks of

District Jind on the basis of Total Dissolved Solids.
(Scale based on Matalas and Reiher, 1967)
TDS Description Number of Samples Block-wise
Mg/L
Alewa Jind Julana Narwana Pillukhera Safidon Uchana
< 300 Good 0 0 0 2 3 2 1
300-500 Fair 1 11 61 12 6 12 3
500-900 Average 12 29 10 41 9 14 15
900-1200 Poor 7 21 7 9 8 8 12
1200-2000 Very Poor 9 11 8 3 3 7 10
>2000 Unacceptable 1 0 0 1 0 0 0
TOTAL 30 72 30 68 29 43 41
Uchana
Safidon
Pillukhera
Below 300
Narwana 300-500
Julana 500-900
900-1200
Jind
Alewa
0 20 40 60 80
Figure 5.3: Ratio of Water Samples in Villages of different Blocks of district Jind
on the basis of Total Dissolved Solids.
175
0%
4%
27%
Soft
Moderate Hard
Hard
Very Hard
69%
Figure 5.4: Drinking water quality of Jind District on the basis of Total Hardness.
1%
3%
16%
16%
Good
Fair
Average
Poor
23%
Very Poor
Unacceptable
41%
Figure 5.5: Drinking water quality of Jind District on the basis of Total Dissolved
Solids.
176
Table 5.17: Mean Values of different parameters of drinking water

of villages studied of the district Jind
Mean Values of different Parameters in Villages studied (Block-wise and Standard
Parameter Jind District) Deviation
Jind
District
pH 7.89 7.96 7.93 7.96 8.07 8.03 7.90 7.96 0.31

EC 1.676 1.363 1.369 1.163 1.264 1.224 1.548 1.346 0.634
TDS 1075 856 873 733 732 782 983 847 378
TH 557 412 469 370 389 381 490 426 204
Ca2+ 114 82 95 78 79 80 98 87 43
Mg2+ 65 50 56 45 47 46 58 51 24
TA 382 340 307 249 278 302 368 314 131
Cl– 259 208 221 152 191 225 257 209 113
F– 2.0 2.0 1.9 1.5 1.8 2.2 1.8 1.8 1.6
Na+ 207 158 156 102 151 194 190 159 83
K+ 23 13 10 11 13 12 25 14 19
SO42– 130 149 190 145 85 114 116 135 79
PO43– 2.1 2.1 2.7 0.9 1.4 1.1 1.2 1.6 1.7
NO3– 25 19 22 23 13 16 35 22 20
Units of all the parameters are mg/L except EC (µS)
177
8.1
8.05
7.95
7.9
7.85
7.8
Figure 5.6: Comparison of Mean pH values of Drinking Water in Different

Blocks of district Jind
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
Figure 5.7: Comparison of Mean Elecrical Conductivity values of Drinking Water

178
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
Figure 5.8: Comparison of Mean Total Dissolved Salts values of Drinking Water
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
Figure 5.9: Comparison of Mean Total Hardness values of Drinking Water in

179
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
Figure 5.10: Comparison of Mean Calcium ions values of Drinking Water in

70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Figure 5.11: Comparison of Mean Magnesium ions values of Drinking Water in

180
450
400
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
Figure 5.12: Comparison of Mean Alkalinity values of Drinking Water in

300
250
200
150
100
50
0
Figure 5.13: Comparison of Mean Chloride ion values of Drinking Water in

181
2.5
1.5
0.5
0
Figure 5.14: Comparison of Mean Fluoride ions values of Drinking Water in

250
200
150
100
50
0
Figure 5.15: Comparison of Mean Sodium ions values of Drinking Water in

Different Blocks of district Jind.
182
30
25
20
15
10
0
Figure 5.16: Comparison of Mean Potassium ions values of Drinking Water in

200
180
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
Figure 5.17: Comparison of Mean Sulphate ions values of Drinking Water in

183
2.5
1.5
0.5
0
Figure 5.18: Comparison of Mean Phosphate ions values of Drinking Water in

40
35
30
25
20
15
10
0
Figure 5.19: Comparison of Mean Nitrate ions values of Drinking Water in

184
9
8
7
6
5 Min
4 Max
3 Mean
S. D.
2
1
0
Figure 5.20: Comparison of Min, Max, Mean and S. D. of pH values of Drinking

Water in Different Blocks of district Jind.
4.5
3.5
2.5 Min
2 Max
Mean
1.5
S. D.
1
0.5
Figure 5.21: Comparison of Min, Max, Mean and S. D. values of Electrical

Conductivity of Drinking Water in Different Blocks of district Jind.
185
2500
2000
1500
Min
Max
1000
Mean
S. D.
500
Figure 5.22: Comparison of Min, Max, Mean and S. D. values of Total Dissolved
Solids of Drinking Water in Different Blocks of district Jind.
1400
1200
1000
800 Min
600 Max
Mean
400
S. D.
200
Figure 5.23: Comparison of Min, Max, Mean and S. D. values of Total Hardness
(TH) of Drinking Water in Different Blocks of district Jind.
186
350
300
250
200 Min
150 Max
Mean
100
S. D.
50
Figure 5.24: Comparison of Min, Max, Mean and S. D. values of Total Calcium
ions of Drinking Water in Different Blocks of district Jind.
160
140
120
100
Min
80
Max
60 Mean
40 S. D.
20
Figure 5.25: Comparison of Min, Max, Mean and S. D. values of Total

Magnesium ions of Drinking Water in Different Blocks of district Jind.
187
900
800
700
600
500 Min
400 Max
300 Mean
S. D.
200
100
0
Figure 5.26: Comparison of Min, Max, Mean and S. D. values of Total Alkalinity
(TA) of Drinking Water in Different Blocks of district Jind.
900
800
700
600
500 Min
400 Max
300 Mean
S. D.
200
100
0
Figure 5.27: Comparison of Min, Max, Mean and S. D. values of Chloride ions of
Drinking Water in Different Blocks of district Jind.
188
12
10
8
Min
6
Max
4 Mean
S. D.
2
Figure 5.28: Comparison of Min, Max, Mean and S. D. values of Fluoride ions of
500
450
400
350
300
Min
250
Max
200
Mean
150
S. D.
100
50
0
Figure 5.29: Comparison of Min, Max, Mean and S. D. values of Sodium ions of
189
250
200
150
Min
Max
100
Mean
S. D.
50
Figure 5.30: Comparison of Min, Max, Mean and S. D. values of Potassium ions
of Drinking Water in Different Blocks of district Jind.
450
400
350
300
250 Min
200 Max
150 Mean
S. D.
100
50
0
Figure 5.31: Comparison of Min, Max, Mean and S. D. values of Sulphate ions of
190
18
16
14
12
10 Min
8 Max
6 Mean
4 S. D.
2
0
Figure 5.32: Comparison of Min, Max, Mean and S. D. values of Phosphate ions
of Drinking Water in Different Blocks of district Jind.
140
120
100
80 Min
60 Max
Mean
40
S. D.
20
Figure 5.33: Comparison of Min, Max, Mean and S. D. values of Nitrate ions of
191
Table 5.19: Correlation Coefficients among different drinking Water Quality

Parameters of all the villages studied of the district Jind
pH EC TDS TH Ca2+ Mg2+ TA Cl- F- Na+ K+ SO42- PO43- NO3-
pH 1.0000
EC -0.1521 1.0000
TDS -0.1829 0.9230 1.0000
TH -0.2325 0.8416 0.9099 1.0000
Ca2+ -0.2085 0.7981 0.8637 0.9539 1.0000
Mg2+ -0.2105 0.8278 0.8946 0.9721 0.9230 1.0000
TA -0.1215 0.8230 0.8945 0.7582 0.7275 0.7386 1.0000
Cl– -0.1829 0.7331 0.7955 0.6844 0.6302 0.6795 0.8287 1.0000
F– 0.1485 0.2253 0.2166 0.1637 0.1420 0.1312 0.2558 0.1897 1.0000
Na+ -0.1241 0.1263 0.6699 0.5768 0.5416 0.5724 0.7447 0.7795 0.2328 1.0000
K+ -0.0998 0.2595 0.2807 0.2188 0.2021 0.1910 0.3006 0.3483 0.0329 0.2590 1.0000
SO42– -0.1578 0.5092 0.5685 0.5262 0.5396 0.5308 0.4963 0.4046 0.0898 0.2917 0.0548 1.0000
PO43– -0.0484 0.0096 -0.0103 -0.0233 -0.0367 -0.0226 -0.0309 0.0088 0.0028 0.0684 0.0108 0.0090 1.0000
NO3– -0.0951 0.2444 0.2762 0.2522 0.2312 0.2571 0.2635 0.2680 -0.0793 0.2111 0.2557 0.0776 -0.0535 1.0000
192
Conclusion
The present study represents a comprehensive investigation of the current
status of groundwater quality of Jind district over a period of more than two years.
Some water quality parameters have already exceeded the limit and some parameters
are approaching towards the limit because of leaching, percolation and other such
phenomenon. It is therefore need of hour to take necessary measures to control the
groundwater pollution. The excess use of ground water resources in the Jind district
has led to contamination of groundwater quality.
The principle aim of this study was to determine the physico-chemical
analysis of groundwater to evaluate its efficiency for potability. A total of 663 water
samples were collected from 314 villages of Jind district. The parameter analyzed
were pH, EC, TDS, TH, TA, Cl–, F–, Ca2+, Mg2+, SO42–, PO43– and NO3– in water.
The mean pH values of all samples analyzed was 7.96 which are well below
the standard prescribed for drinking purpose. The mean EC observed was 1.346. All
the water samples examined have high EC and thus water samples have a corrosive
property.
Most of the water samples of Jind district are of hard type and none of the
samples showed soft or moderately hard type water quality. Jind district has 4.1 %
moderately hard water and 26.8% is hard water, 69.1 % is very hard water.
193
Further on the basis of Total Dissolved Solids (TDS), 2.5% water of Jind
district is good, 16.2% is fair, 41.4% is average, 22.9% is poor, 16.2% is very poor
and 0.6% water comes under unacceptable category.
The Total Alkalinity (mean values = 314ppm) was observed in the acceptable
limit. The mean Calcium values of all samples of Jind district was 87 ppm which are
below the permissible limit of Calcium i.e. 200 ppm. The mean Magnesium content of
all samples of Jind district was 51 ppm which is also in the range. It is observed that
concentration of Magnesium in water is nearly half when compared to Calcium
possibly due to lesser presence of Magnesium minerals.
The mean Chloride content of samples of Jind district was 209 ppm which is
in the acceptable limit of standard of drinking water quality. The mean Fluoride
contant of samples of Jind district was 1.8 ppm which is higher than the permissible
limit. On account of higher Fluoride level, the browning of teeth and dental fluorosis
has been observed in many regions.
The mean Sodium and Potassium values observed are 159 and 14 ppm which
are also in the acceptable limit of standard of drinking water quality. The mean
Sulphate, Phosphate and Nitrate concentrations observed are 135, 1.6 and 22ppm
respectively which are also in the acceptable limit of standard of drinking water
quality.
Further there is declining trend in the depth of ground water level due to over
exploitation and thus it requires careful management of surface water and conjunctive
194
use of surface water and groundwater. In view of this, following recommendions are
made:
1) It is necessary to restrict and ban the construction of any new tubewell.
2) Artificial recharge to ground water should be taken up in the urban and
rural area to avert the further lowering of ground water level.
3) Detailed geophysical study is required for the delineation of fresh
water zones in the district.
4) A modern agricultural management has to be taken into account for
effective water management techniques.
5) The modern methods of irrigation like sprinkler, drip irrigation etc.
should be used.
6) Local populace to be educated regarding consequences of mining of
ground water and need for its effective/economic use.
7) Municipal and sewage water should be treated before it is released to
the water bodies.
8) Proper planning should be implemented before allowing any body to
draw the water from under ground.
9) People awareness campaign should be made by the government and
non-government organization.
195
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Thesis-Comparative Chemometric Studies of Water Quality Parameters of Drinking Underground Water of Rural &amp; Urban Areas of District Jind, Haryana

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COMPARATIVE CHEMOMETRIC STUDIES

OF WATER QUALITY PARAMETERS OF

Under the Guidance of

Dr. P. S. Kadian (Supervisor)

Dr. Bal Raj Deshwal (Co-supervisor)

In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements

NIILM UNIVERSITY, KAITHAL (HARYANA)

S.No. Item Pages

“Comparative chemometric studies of water-quality parameters of drinking

Date: (Jai Pal)

Place: Reg No.: NU/K/13/6501/0111

CERTIFICATE FROM SUPERVISOR

It is certified that the research work presented in this thesis entitled

“Comparative chemometric studies of water-quality parameters of drinking

out by (Jai Pal) under my supervision for the degree of “DOCTOR OF

considered for the award of degree of Doctor of philosophy.

CERTIFICATE FROM CO-SUPERVISOR

It is certified that the research work presented in this thesis entitled

“Comparative chemometric studies of water quality parameters of drinking

out by (Jai Pal) under my supervision for the degree of “DOCTOR OF

considered for the award of degree of Doctor of philosophy.

Dr. Bal Raj Deshwal

The present study represents a comprehensive investigation of the current

phenomenon. It is therefore need of hour to take necessary measures to control the

has led to contamination of groundwater quality.

The principle aim of this study was to determine the physico-chemical

and 0.6% water comes under unacceptable category.

concentration of Magnesium in water is nearly half when compared to Calcium

possibly due to lesser presence of Magnesium minerals.

has been observed in many regions.

use of surface water and groundwater.

Key Words: Groundwater, Water Quality Parameters, Total Hardness, Total

advisors so, I would like to express my heartiest gratitude to my Research Supervisor,

My heartfelt thanks to my parents Sh. Pratap Singh my father and Smt.

Water in Different Blocks of district Jind

Table 1.1 Global water distribution 6

Table 5.9 Water quality parameters of villages of Pillukhera Block of 157

1) Deshwal J. P., Kundu, N., Saharan, J. P. and Deshwal B. R., “Physico-

1) J. P. Deshwal, B. R. Deshwal & J. P. Saharan “Physio-chemical studies of

Theoretical and Experimental Physics (CATEP-15) held on Nov. 07, 2015 at

APHA : American Public Health Association

2. Grounwater Scenario in Haryana

2.4.1. Suitability for Drinking 53

2.5. Groundwater Pollution in Major Cities of Haryana 54

4. Drinking Water Quality Parameters

4.5.4. Electrical Conductivity 121

5. Drinking Water Quality Analysis of Jind District

5.8.12. Sulphate 170

influences economic, agricultural and industrial growth of the mankind. Several

development cannot be attained without guaranteeing access to clean water (Gleick,

United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) in Rio de

human consumption. Recognition to the importance of water quality came more

health were identified (Peavy et al, 1987).

turbidity, suspended impurities of decaying organic matter (vegetable and or animal),

mineral salts dissolved from top soil.

1.1. Importance of water

up of water. Plant tissue also contains large amount of water.

bonding. Water prevents large fluctuations in surface temperature of earth because of

by water, hence water is "Mother for all living world".

Water is considered as one of the nutrients, although it yields no calories; it

body and contributes to heat regulation by perspiration. Degradation of water quality

person weighing approximately 60kg is generally assumed (WHO, 1996). Gleick

(1999) estimates 50 Lpcd as a true minimum to sustain life in moderate climatic

precious commodities. Water functions as a solvent for wide variety of chemical

Thesis-Comparative Chemometric Studies of Water Quality Parameters of Drinking Underground Water of Rural & Urban Areas of District Jind, Haryana

Thesis-Comparative Chemometric Studies of Water Quality Parameters of Drinking Underground Water of Rural & Urban Areas of District Jind, Haryana