Lab Manual

i
Location of Soil and Rocks Mechanics Laboratory
The Soil Mechanics and Geology Laboratory (SMAGL) is located on the second floor of the
Fong Yun-wah Building; room number FYW 2330. One convenient way to reach the SMAGL is
via Lift 11.
& Rock Mechanics

Soil Mechanics Laboratory
and Geology Laboratory
Soil and Rock Mechanics Laboratory, Department of Building and Construction, City University of Hong Kong
Table of contents ii
Table of Contents pa ge
Location of soil and rock mechanics laboratory i
Table of contents ii
Safety and security guides in laboratories 1-2
Preparation and submission of laboratory reports 3-4
Experiment 1 Determination of Particle Density (Density Bottle Method) 5-8
Experience 2A Determination of Particle Size Distribution – 9-12

(Wet Sieving Method)
Experiment 2B Determination of Particle Size Distribution – (Pipette Method) 13-18
Experiment 3A Determination of Atterberg Limits – (Liquid Limit Test) 19-23
Experiment 3B Determination of Atterberg Limits – (Plastic Limit Test) 24-26
Experiment 4 Determination of Dry Density /Moisture Content Relationship 27-32
Experiment 5A Determination of the Permeability of a Soil Sample – 33-37

(Constant Head Test)
Experiment 5B Determination of he Permeability of a Soil Sample – 38-42

(Falling Head Test)
Experiment 6 Consolidation Test (Oedometer) 43-54
Experiment 7 Direct Shear Test 55-60
Experiment 8 Triaxial Test 61-83
Experiment 9 Determination of Moisture Content (Oven-Drying Method) 84-86
Bibliography and Reference 87
Appendix Cover page for soil laboratory testing report
Safety and Security Guides in Laboratories 1
Safety and Security Guides in Laboratories
Introduction
These notes deal with the safety precautions and security measures that should be observed
and taken by all users of laboratory facilities. There will be special precautions needed for
any handicapped persons using the laboratories, but these are outside the scope of this set of
notes.
General Behaviour
1. No smoking.
2. No running, playing games, throwing objects or foolish behaviour allowed. Disciplinary
actions will be taken against offenders.
3. Safety precautions must be observed at all times.
4. Observe any instructions or advice given by the laboratory staff.
5. Do not attempt to install, correct or operate any apparatus before reading the
instructions, and if in doubt, seek the assistance of the laboratory staff.
Safety
1. General
• Treat every piece of apparatus with caution.
• Beware of others working in the vicinity.
• Understand all safety precautions before working in the laboratories.
• If in doubt, ask for assistance.
2. Electricity
• Switch off and isolate the power supply before opening cabinet doors or attempting
to make any adjustments to equipment.
• Check all circuits before switching on the power supply.
• Do not tamper with any switches or protective gears.
• Beware of dangerous voltages developed during the course of using any item of
apparatus.
• Do not work on any electrical apparatus with wet hands.
• Special care should be taken when bare conductors are being used to carry any
current.
• Always switch off and isolate the service supplies after using any apparatus.
3. Chemicals
• Treat all chemicals with extreme caution.
• Use protective equipment when provided.
• Know the properties of the chemicals before attempting to handle them.
• Alert others in the vicinity when handling poisonous, toxic, corrosive or explosive
substances.
Safety and Security Guides in Laboratories 2
4. Machines
• Do not operate any machines unless you have been trained to do so.
• Use protective equipment when provided.
• Do not leave any machines in operation unattended.
• Switch off and isolate the machines when not in use.
5. Fire hazards
• Check for any possible danger of fire in the vicinity before producing any naked
flame.
• Clean up any spilled combustible fluids immediately.
• Extinguish all flames before refuelling any equipment.
• Handled inflammable substances with care.
• When a gas leak is suspected, extinguish all naked flames.
• Ensure there is enough ventilation before starting any combustion process.
If the fire alarm sounds, evacuate from the laboratories immediately and assemble at the
ground floor lobby, unless there is a broadcast for other actions over the internal public
address system.
6. Radiation hazards
• Use protective equipment when handling any radioactive substance.
• Never leave any radioactive substance unattended.
• Never transfer any radioactive substance without a proper protective container.
7. Security
• Take care of your own valuables.
• Do not remove any piece of equipment from the laboratories unless authorised to do
so.
• Only enter and exit the laboratories through the established route.
• Observe the directives given by laboratory staff.
• Do not attempt to enter or remain in the laboratories outside the opening hours.
• Report any loss or damage to laboratory equipment immediately to laboratory staff.
Preparation and Submission of Laboratory Reports 3
Preparation and Submission of Laboratory Reports
Format of Laboratory Reports

Students should adhere to the following guidelines when drafting and submitting their
laboratory reports:
1. All reports should be drafted on A4 size paper, should be in a folder, and should be
produced on a word processor or typewriter;
2. Separate pages should be used for all graphs and tables;
3. All reports must have a completed standard cover and title page;
4. All reports should have the following sections ;
• Objective(s);
• Theory;
• Apparatus (should include descriptions and annotated diagrams);
• Procedure (should include details of any special precautions taken to improve the
reliability and precision of the measurements taken);
• Results and Calculations;
• Discussion(s);
• Conclusion(s); and
• Bibliography and/or Reference.
Report Writing (Bowles 1992)

A soil report should follow good technical report writing form, including the citing of any
references used. Do not use the first person (I, me, we, our, …etc.) in writing a technical
report. Do not write such statements as, "I found that …" or "My group found …;" in stead
use "It was found that …" Use correct spelling ⎯ when in doubt, consult the dictionary. Try
to use good sentence construction, and do not change from past tense to present tense in the
same sentence or paragraph. Many of these problems can be avoids by:
• Writing the report and then reading it over a day or so later. A neatly marked-through
word or two will be better received by the lecturer than a report that is poorly written. It
will also indicate that you went over the report before submitting it.
• Not writing in such a hurry that you tend to drop letters off the ends of words or spell a
word as it sounds.
• Thinking about what you are going to write and being brief. A few well-put-together
sentences are far more impressive than a long, poorly written report that says nothing.
• Obtaining (perhaps from the library) a text on technical report writing and consulting it
for writing tips.
A primary purpose of the report is to give the lecturer an indication of what you learned
from the project. Other major benefits are obtained from practice in report writing and
presenting engineering data. While you are graded primarily on the project and the
presentation of data (and not report writing), a poorly written report will generally result in a
lower grade than a well-written one.
Preparation and Submission of Laboratory Reports 4
In a commercial environment the report is the project information record that documents to
the client the scope of work performed, both for design use and for payment authorization.
Great care is required in its preparation since the contents may be used later in any project
peer review or as evidence if legal action is brought against the engineer.
Student users may not yet fully appreciate the formality involved in the reports; however, be
aware that report writing is an essential part of the work of most engineers. Further, if you
are not involved in soil mechanics work until several years after graduation you will have
some refresher material ready at hand ⎯ old laboratory reports ⎯ which, if well written,
will be easy to follow.
Drawing Graphs
Summarizing laboratory work is greatly facilitated by presenting the results in the form of
some kind of graph. A graph should be legible, neat, and easy to understand. When drawing
the graph axes, always place them on the graph sheet so that the left and lower margins are
both at least 2 cm wide. All lettering on the axes should be written the ruled portion of the
sheet, and the line rulings should be used as lettering guidelines.
Data Sheets
There is a data sheet numbered to match the test in the back of your manual which can be
detached to summarize data collection and reduction. If there is no data sheet then none is
required, and you submit the project data using whatever format you think is appropriate.
The data sheet, or the first sheet of a set (numbered with a, b, …), contains spaces for
general project information that should always be filled in.
Computation and Precision

The only computations in this manual that justify using two decimal places (to the nearest
0.01) in the final answer are the specific gravity test and ⎯ if done in SI units ⎯ the
compaction test. The others tests listed in this manual as possible laboratory exercises can
hardly justify more than one decimal (to the nearest 0.1). Therefore, even when averaging
two or more test results, round off and report the answer to the nearest 0.1 (or to 0.01 for the
three tests cited).
Submission of Reports
All laboratory reports must be submitted to the Soil and Rock Mechanics Laboratory of the
Building and Construction Department not later than one week after the completion of the
relevant laboratory work.
Determination of Particle Density - Density Bottle Method 5
Experiment 1
Determination of Particle Density (Density Bottle Method)
General
The specific gravity of soil solids can be defined as the weight in air of a given volume of
soil particles to the weight in air of an equal volume of distilled water at a temperature of 4
o
C. It is often used in relating a weight of soil to its volume. The specific gravity is
employed in the classification of minerals. It is of limited value for identification or
classification of soils because the specific gravity of most soils falls in narrow range. The
density bottle method is the standard method used in laboratory. However, in all the various
methods employed, the sequence of observations remains the same (Mandal and Divshikar
1995). The density bottle method is used only for fine gained soils.
Applications
Knowing the specific gravity of soils makes it easier to compute the values of void ratio,
porosity and degree of saturation, provided the bulk density and the moisture are known.
The unit weight of a moist soil is computed. Unit weights are needed in nearly all load-
settlement and stability problems in soil engineering. The value of the specific gravity of soil
is also used in the computations of most laboratory tests. (Mandal and Divshikar 1995).
Objective
To familiarise the density bottle method of obtaining the specific gravity of a dry clean sand,
finer than 2.00 mm.
Theory
A soil consists of an accumulation of particles which may be of a single mineral type, such
as clean quartz sand, or more usually a mixture of a number of mineral types, each with a
different particle density. For a single mineral type the particle density of the solids
comprising a mass of the soil is that of the mineral itself. But for a soil consisting of a
variety of minerals we are concerned only with the mean particle density of the mass as
whole, and this is the sense in which the term is used here.
The concept of density refers to mass per unit volume. In BS 1377: 1990 the term "particle
density" has replaced "specific gravity" as a measure of the average density of the solid
particles which make up a soil mass. Specific gravity is the ratio of the mass of dry particles
to the mass of water they displace. The average mass per unit volume of the solid particles in
a sample of soil, where the volume includes any sealed voids contained within solid
particles. The spaces between solid particles of soil may contain gas (usually air) or water,
or both. The amount of void space within a soil has an important effect on its characteristics
(Head 1992). For a more detailed explanation of the relationship between void ratio,
porosity and degree of saturation of soil, students should refer to their textbook and handout.
Particle density is related to the density of water at 4 oC, but most laboratory tests are carried
out at an ambient temperature of about 20 oC. However, the difference in the density of
water between 4 oC and 20 oC is less than 0.003 g/cm3 (i.e. within 0.3%), so for practical
purposes this discrepancy can be neglected.
Material
1. Dry clean sand (finer than 2.0mm)
2. Distilled water
Apparatus
1. Density bottles (50 ml) with stopper and numbered (see Figure1.1)
2. Constant-temperature water-bath, able to maintained at 250C±0.20C.
3. Vacuum desicator with protective cage.
4. Analytical balance reading to 0.001g.
5. Source of vacuum.
6. Wash bottle containing distilled water.
7. Beaker 600 ml capacity.
8. Glass funnel.
9. Thermometer reading to 0.2oC.
Procedure
1. Clean the density bottle and stopper, dry by rinsing with alcohol-ether mixture and then
blowing warm air through it @1050C±50C and weigh to the nearest 0.001g(m1). Make a
total of 3 nos.
2. Obtain 20 g of dry sand.
3. Pour the sand into the density bottle with a funnel and weigh each bottle with sand to
0.001g (m2).
4. Add the distilled water carefully to each bottle so that the sand is just covered and the
bottles are not more than half full.
5. Place the bottles (without stopper) together with two beaker full of 600ml distilled water
in the vacuum desicator, reduce the pressure gradually and leave under vacuum for at
least one hour or until no further loss of air can be seen.
6. Release the vacuum, remove all bottles from the desicator and add more air-free liquid to
fill the bottle. Insert the stopper and immerse the bottle up to the neck in the constant-
temperature bath, set temperature at 250C leave for it to attain the temperature of the
bath. If there is a decrease in volume of the liquid, remove the stopper and top up.
7. Remove the stoppered bottle form the bath and wipe it dry. Weight the whole to 0.001g
(m3).
8. Clean out each bottle, and fill completely with de-aerated liquid, insert the stopper and
immerse in the constant- temperature bath as before, repeat stage 7 and weight (Bottle
+ stopper + liquid) to 0.001g (m4).
Computation and Results

1. Calculate the particle density ρs of the sand in each bottle from the following equation.
(m2-m1)
ρs = (m -m )-(m -m ) ρL (2.1)
4 1 3 2
ρL = density of the Liquid used at the constant temperature. (if distilled water is used, ρL
maybe assumed to be equal to 1.000 g/ml for most purposes ).
m1 = Mass of density bottle (g)
m2 = Mass of bottle + dry sand (g)
m3 = Mass of the bottle + sand + liquid (g)
m4 = Mass of bottle + liquid only (g)
The average of three values is calculated. If any one value differs from the average by
more than 0.03 Mg/m3, the test should be repeated.
2. The average value derived is reported to the nearest 0.01Mg/m3 as the particle density of
the material.
Figure 1.1 50 ml density bottle
Form 1.1 Particle Density (pyknometer)

Soil description :
Small pyknometer
Pyknometer number
Mass of bottle + soil + water m3 g
Mass of bottle + soil m2 g
Mass of bottle full of water m4 g
Mass of bottle m1 g
Mass of soil m2 - m1 g
Mass of water in full bottle m4 - m1 g
Mass of water used m3 - m2 g
Volume of soil particles (m4 - m1) - (m3 - m2) ml
o
Water temperature C
(m2-m1)
Particle density ρs = (m -m )-(m -m ) ρL Mg/m3
4 1 3 2
Average value ρs Mg/m3
Determination of Particle Size Distribution for Fine Gravels (Wet Sieving Method) 9
Experiment 2A
Determination of Particle Size Distribution for Fine Gravels (Wet Sieving Method)
General
Grain-size analysis, which is among the oldest of soil tests, is widely used in engineering
classification of soils. The standard gain-size analysis test determines the relative
proportions of different gain sizes as they are distributed among certain size ranges. Soils
with small grain sizes cannot generally be analysed using sieves, because of the very small
size sieve opening that would be required and the difficulty of getting such small particles to
pass through. Grain-size analysis for these soils is done, therefore, by another methods –
(hydrometer analysis. The hydrometer) Sedimentation by the pipette method analysis. This
method is based on Strokes' law, which says that the larger the grain size, the greater its
settling velocity in a fluid.
If a soil sample contains both large and small particles, which is often the case, its grain-size
analysis can be performed using a combination of the two methods.
Objective
The objective of this experiment is to group the particles into separate ranges of sizes, and so
determine the relative proportions, by dry mass, of each size range.
Theory
As shown in Table 1, the engineering soil classification systems such as ASTM D422, BS
1377, AASHTO, and USCS, divide soil particles on the basis of size into categories ⎯
boulders, cobbles, gravel, sand, silt, and clay ⎯ with an optional subdivision indicating
coarse, medium and fine. Soil particles have sizes ranging from greater than 200 mm down
to less 0.002 mm. The ratio between these extremes is 105: 1. As the particle size D
decreases, the number of particles contained in a unit mass of soil increases proportionally to
1/D3 and their individual mass decreases in the same ratio. For illustration, the mass of
several spheres with diameters ranging from 100 to 0.001 mm is calculated for a typical
mineral unit mass ρs= 2.65 g/cm3. The ratio of smallest and largest masses is enormous -
105:1.
Specific surface, which is the total surface area of particles per unit mass, is an important
characteristic of small soil particles. It largely influences the interaction between small soil
particles which depends on electrostatic forces. The dimension of specific surface is squared
length divided by mass, and its unit is mm2/g or m2/g.The specific surface of spheres
increases proportionally to 1/D. However, natural soil particles have much more
complicated shapes than those of spheres, the specific surface of fine sand particles is about
0.03 m2/g, while those of flat and platelike clay particles such as kaolinite and
montmorillonite are 10 and 1000 m2/g.
Table 1 Engineering Soil Classification Systems
Materials
Fine-grained soil.
Apparatus
1. Test sieves having the following aperture sizes. 5.0mm, 2.36mm, 1.18mm, 600µm,
2. 300µm, 150µm, 63µm, lid and receiver (for dry sieving purposes).
3. Balance readable to 0.5g.
4. Micro-wave oven or drying oven able to maintain 105o±5oC.
5. Micro-wave evaporating dish.
6. Mechanical stirrer.
7. Mechanical sieve shaker (hand shaking can also be accepted).
8. Sieve brush, wire and soft.
9. Source of water supply with rubber tubing connection.
10. Washing sieves (2.0mm and 63µm).
Procedure
1. Weigh the oven-dried test sample of about150g to 0.1% of its total mass (m1).
2. Place the sample into the container of the mechanical stirrer.
3. Fill in water of about 300 cc.
4. Seat the container on the stirrer, set the speed to 1. Let the stirrer to run for 10 mins.
then switch off the power. Wash any soil particles adhering to the stem back into the
container. Transfer the whole sample to a washing sieve, a little at a time, through a
2.00mm test sieve nested in a 63µm test sieve, allowing the material passing the 63µm
sieve to run to waste, continue washing until the water passing the test sieve is virtually
clear, ensure that neither test sieve is over loaded in the process, either with solids or
with water.
5. Collect all the material retained on the sieve into a micro-wave container.
6. Allow the soil particles in the container to settle for several minutes. If there is a layer of
clean water above the washed sample, carefully poured or siphoned off, without losing
any particles.
7. Put the micro-wave container into the micro-wave-oven, allowed to dry for 15 minutes
@5 minutes per-round. When the sample is virtually dry, take the sample out with a
tong or wearing protective glove, wait until cool.
8. Sieve the dried fractions through the appropriate sieve down to the 63µm test sieve, set
the sieve shaker to 15 minutes.
9. Weigh to the amount retained on each individual sieve (m2).
Calculation and expression of results

m2
1. Calculate the percentage of material on each individual sieve retain, m % on the
1
working sheet provide. (Form 2a.1)
2. Plot the curve for percentage passing on a p.s.d. chart. (Form 2A.2)
Remarks: Micro-wave drying method is not normally being recommended as a usual

practice, the adoption here is for time saving only. The standard drying method is to use
oven at 105oC±5oC.
Form 2A.1 Aggregate Sieve Analysis Record Sheet
Sample Description :
Total Wt. Of Sample as Tested (m1) g :
MASS OF MASS OF INDIVIDUAL MASS ACCUMULATE
B.S.S CONT. CONT. + OF SAMPLE SAMPLE
SIEVE m3 (g.) DRY RETAINED PASSING
(mm) SAMPLE m2= m4-m3
(m4) (g.)
(m2) (%) (%)
5.00
2.36
1.18
0.60
0.30
0.150
0.063
Pan
Form 2a.2
Determination of Particle Size Distribution for Fine Gravels - Pipette Test 13
Experiment 2B
Determination of Particle Size Distribution for Fine Gravels (Sedimentation by pipette

method)
General
This method covers the quantitative determination of the particle size distribution in a soil
from the coarse sand size to the clay size (about 2µm). The procedure enables the
percentages of the coarse, medium and fine silt, and clay, to be determined. These
percentages can be linked to the curve obtained by test no.6 to provide a single curve for the
whole material.
The analysis of data requires that the particle density of the soil specimen is known or can be
assumed.
The test is not usually necessary if less than 10% of the material passes the 63µm test sieve
as in test no. 6 was found.
Apparatus
1. Sampling pipette, having a capacity of approximately 10mL (fig.2B.1).
2. Glass cylinder, graduated @1000 ±10mL volume marked, with rubber bung to fit.
3. Numbered weighing bottles of 25mL capacity.
4. Constant temperature water bath able to maintain at 25 ±0.5oC into which the cylinder
can be immersed up to the 1000mL mark..
5. Mechanical stirrer.
6. Test sieve, 63µm and receiver.
7. Stop watch.
8. 650mL beaker.
9. 100mL cylinder.
10. Wash bottle or pressurised sprayer with distilled water.
11. Reagent.
12. Stands.
13. Funnel.
14. Glass rod.
15. Precise balance able to read 0.001g.
16. Drying oven able to maintain 100 ± 5oC.
Sample preparation
1. Weigh about 30g of dry soil to 0.001g (see Note 1), (mo).
2. Place the test sample in the beaker, add about 100mL of distilled water to the soil,
shake vigorously until all the soil is in suspension, then add 50mL of dispersant
solution from a measuring cylinder.
3. Pour the suspension in the mechanical device and agitated for 20 mins.
4. Transfer the suspension from the container to the 63µm test sieve placed on the
receiver, and wash the soil in the sieve using a jet of distilled water, the amount of
water used during this operation shall not exceed 700mL and make sure to collect all
the washed.
5. Transfer the suspension that has passed through the sieve to the 1 Litre cylinder and
make up to the mark given with distilled water.
6. Transfer the material retained on the 63µm test sieve to a container and dry in an oven.
When cool, re-sieve this material on the sieve down to the 63µm sieve as specified in
the test no. 6 sum up all material retained as (ms).
7. Added any material passing the 63µm sieve to the sedimentation cylinder (see Note 2).
Note 1:
Stokes’ Law applies to a single sphere falling in a large body of liquid. It is not
applicable to a highly concentrated suspension, when the particles are close enough
to influence each other.
Note 2:
In the wet sieving operation for the separation of sand particles, grains with
diameters just slightly smaller than the apertures of the 63µm test sieve tend to be
retained due to the surface tension of the water held between the sieve meshes. If it
is found that a large part of the sample passes the 63µm test sieve during dry sieving
operation, the material passing should be added to the suspension in the measuring
cylinder prior to the sedimentation
Calibration of pipette
1. Clean the sampling pipette, dry it and immerse the nozzle in distilled water at 25 oC.
Close the tap B and open tap E to pipette G (see fig. 2B 1).
2. By means of a rubber tube and suction device attached to C, suck water up into the
pipette until it rises about E to D. Close tap E and remove the pipette from the water.
Pour off surplus water drawn up into the cavity at D through F into the small beaker
and give waste.
3. Discharge the water contained in the pipette and tap E into a glass weighing bottle of
known mass, and determine the mass. From this mass calculate the internal volume,
Vp(in mL) of the pipette and the tap to the nearest 0.05mL.
4. Make three determinations of the volume as above and take the average value as Vp(in
mL).
Dispersing agent correction

1. This procedure shall be followed when a fresh batch of dispersant solution is used.
Between any of the time(30 min) at which samples are taken from the sedimentation
cylinder, take a sample of Vp(in mL) from the cylinder containing the dispersant
solution using the pipette. Following the procedure given in procedure from
Sedimentation (Steps 5-9) except that there is no need to time the sampling operation
and the depth of the sampling is not important.
2. Determine the mass of solid residue (mr) in the sample to 0.001g refer to form no.2B.1
Reagents
Sodium hexametaphosphate solution. Dissolve 33g of sodium hexametaphosphate
and 7g of sodium carbonate in distilled water to make 1Litre of solution. This solution
is unstable and shall be freshly prepared approximately once a month. The date of
preparation shall be recorded on the bottle.
Procedure
1. Insert the rubber bung into the cylinder containing the soil suspension, shake it and
place it in the constant-temperature bath so that it is immersed in water up to the
1000mL graduation mark.
2. Add 50mL of the dispersant solution from a pipette or measuring cylinder to the second
1000mL sedimentation cylinder and dilute with distilled water up to the 1000mL
graduation mark. Insert the rubber bung and place this cylinder in the constant-
temperature bath alongside the first.
3. After at least 1 h or when the cylinders and contents have reached the temperature of
the bath, take out the cylinder containing soil suspension, shake it vigorously by
applying about 120 end-over-end cycles in 2 min and immediately replace them in the
bath. At the instant the cylinder with the soil suspension is replaced upright in the bath,
start the timer. Remove the rubber bungs, carefully and lay them lightly on the top of
each cylinder.
4. About 15 s before a sample is due to be taken (see table 2B.1), lower the pipette, with
tap E closed (see figure 2B) vertically into the soil suspension until the end is 100
±1mm (H) below the water surface. Take great care to avoid turbulence in the
suspension. This operation shall take about 10 s.
5. Open tap E with way connected to the pipette(G), so that a sample of soil suspension,
Vp(in mL), is drawn up into the pipette by the suction device. Close the tap E when
there is a small amount of suspension has been drawn up into the bulb D. The
sampling operation shall take about 10 s to complete.
6. Withdraw the pipette from the suspension cylinder. Run the content of bulb D into a
beaker down the outlet tube F by opening the tap E with way connected to F. Wash
out with distilled water from the bulk A into D and out through F until no suspension
remains in this part of the system.
7. Place a weighing bottle of known mass, measured to 0.001g, under the end of the
pipette and open tap E connected to G so that the contents of the pipette are delivered
into the bottle. Wash any suspension left on the inner walls of the pipette into the
weighing bottle by allowing distilled water from the bulb A to run through B, D and E
into the pipette G and then into the weighing bottle, take care not to overflow the
bottle.
8. Place the weighing bottle and contents in the oven maintained at 105oC to 110oC and
evaporate the sample to dryness.
9. Cool in the desiccator, weigh the bottle and contents to the nearest 0.001g. Determine
the mass of solid material in the sample to 0.001g.
10. Carry out (steps 5 to 9) twice more at the times specified in table 2B.1. The successive
masses of the solid material determined are denoted by m1, m2 and m3 (see Note 3).
Note 3:
If required, additional readings, may be taken to give a good spread of points over
the silt particle size range, 0.06mm to 0.002mm, when plotted on a logarithmic scale.
In this test due to time limited student are requested to take the 1st and 2nd sample
only. The 3rd sample will be taken by the technician.
Calculation and expression of results
1. Calculate the proportion of soil retained on each sieve as a percentage of the dry mass
of soil used, mo(in g), for all the material retained on 63µm (refer to test no.2A).
2. For Sedimentation, calculate the mass of solid material, W1, W2, etc. (in g) in 1000mL
of suspension for each pipette sampling time from the equation.
m1 or m2 etc
W1, W2, etc = ( ) x 1000
Vp
where
m1, m2 etc are the masses of material from the first, second, etc. sampling (in g).
Vp is the calibrated volume of the pipette (in mL) (Calibration of pipette).
Similarly the mass of solid material in 1000mL of disperant solution Wr (in g) is
given by the equation:
m
Wr = ( r ) x 1000
Vp
where
mr is the mass of residual as determined from (Dispersing agent correction).
3. Obtain the equivalent particle diameter, D(in mm) for each sampling operation in
respect to the time given in table 2B.1 for 0.02mm, 0.006mm & 0.002mm only.
Note:
Would there be any additional sampling being taken apart from the time given for
the relevant particle density of soil in table 2B.1, it’s equivalent particle diameter
D(mm) has to be calculated from the equation:
ηH
D = 0.005531
( ρ s − 1)t
where
η is the dynamic viscosity of water at the test temperature (in mPa.s) as listed in
table 2B.2;
H is the sampling depth (in mm);
ρs is the mean particle density (in Mg/m3);
t is the pipette sampling time (in min);
0.005531 is a constant.
The total no. of sampling sequence should not more than SIX.
4. Calculate the percentage by mass (K), of particle smaller than each equivalent particle
diameter, D(in mm).
W , W , etc − Wr
K= 1 2 × 100
mo
when mo is the mass of dry soil used (in g).
Express the results of the sedimentation analysis and the sieving analysis if appropriate,
by plotting on a semi-logarithmic chart of the type shown as Form 2A.2, in the form of
a continuous curve.
Alternatively, express the results in terms of various size fraction in the form of a table
showing, to the nearest 1%, the percentage finer then each fraction. Form No.2B2.
Table 2B.1 Pipette sampling times and equivalent particle diameters
Particle density Times after shaking of starting sampling operation

of silt and clay
1st sample 2nd sample 3rd sample
fraction
Mg/m3 min s min s h min
2.50 4 30 50 30 7 35
2.55 4 20 49 0 7 21
2.60 4 10 47 30 7 7
2.65 4 5 46 0 6 54
2.70 4 0 44 30 6 42
2.75 3 50 43 30 6 30
2.80 3 40 42 0 6 20
2.85 3 35 41 0 6 10
2.90 3 30 40 0 6 0
2.95 3 25 39 0 5 50
3.00 3 20 38 0 5 41
3.05 3 15 37 0 5 33
3.10 3 10 36 0 5 25
3.15 3 5 35 0 5 18
3.20 3 0 34 30 5 10
Equivalent 0.02mm 0.006mm 0.002mm
Particle diameter
Table 2B.2 Viscosity of water

Temperature T Viscosity of water η
o
C mPa.s
10 1.304
15 1.137
20 1.002
25 0.891
30 0.798
Note: Intermediate values may be obtained by interpolation.
Determination of Particle Size Distribution for Fine Gravels – Pipette Test 18
Pipette sedimentation test results and calculations
Soil description :
Mass of sample mo = g Particle density = Mg/m3
o
Mass retained 63µm ms = g Temperature = C
Volume of pipette Vp = ml
No. of pipette =
Pipette Time Pipette Mass Cumulative percentage Equivalent

sample mass in 1000ml (W) finer Particle
no. (t) calculation suspension Calculation (K) Diameter D
(mm)
1st Mins. Sec. Weighing bottle no. W1 g
m1x1000
= (W1)
Bottle + sample (A) g Vp Wr g 0.02
Bottle (B) g (W1-Wr)
mo x 100 = %
Mass of sample m1 g
(A-B)
2nd Mins. Sec. Weighing bottle no. W2 g
m2x1000
= (W2)
Bottle + sample (A) g Vp Wr g 0.006
mo x 100 = %
Mass of sample m2 g
(A-B)
3rd Hr. Sec. Weighing bottle no. W3 g
m3x1000
= (W3)
Bottle + sample (A) g Vp Wr g *0.002 / ( )
mo x 100 = %
Mass of sample m3 g
(A-B)
4th About 30 mins. Weighing bottle no.

mrx1000
= (Wr)
Bottle + sample (A) g Vp ms 0.063
100-( x 100) = %
mo
Bottle (B) g
Mass of sample mr (A-B) g

* delete or fill as appropriate
Form No. 2B
Determination of Atterberg Limits – Liquid Limit Test 19
Experiment 3A
Determination of Atterberg Limits (Liquid Limits Test)
General
Water plays an important role in soil mechanics practice when dealing with density, void
ratio, settlement and strength characteristics of either disturbed or undisturbed soils.
Fine-grained soils in particular can be in one of several states depending on the amount of
water in the soil. When water is added to dry soil, the individual particle is covered with
adsorbed water forming a thin film around it. If the addition of water is continued, the
thickness of the water film will continue to increase, thereby facilitating the sliding effect
between adjoining particles. Thus it is a fact that the behaviour of the soil is related to the
amount of water in the system (Mandal and Divshikar 1995).
Objective
To familiarise the general relationship between moisture content and the boundaries of states
of soils in terms of limits (i.e. Liquid limit, plastic limit and shrinkage limit).
Theory
The moisture contents of cohesive soil corresponding to empirically-defined boundaries
between states of consistency (liquid, plastic, solid) of the fraction of soil passing a 425 µm
sieve. These boundaries, and the soil phases they define, are illustrated in Figure 3A.1.
Figure 3A.1 Phases of Soil and the Atterberg Limits (K.H.Head, 1989)
Liquid limit (WL) is the moisture content at which a soil, on losing water, passes from the
liquid to the plastic solid state.
Plastic limit (Wp) is the moisture content at which a soil on losing water, passes from the
plastic state to the semi-brittle solid state, and becomes too dry to be plastic.
Plasticity index (IP) is the range of moisture contents within which the soil is in the plastic
solid state (ie. the plastic range ), in which it can be moulded without cracking.
IP= WL-WP
Liquidity Index (IL) Relates the moisture content of the fraction of soil which passes a
425µm sieve (wa %) to the liquid and plastid limits. Can give indication of shear strength .
wa − w p
IL =
Ip
100
where wa = • w%
Pa
in which w% is the moisture content of the whole soil.
Pa is the percentage by dry mass of the portion passing a 425µm sieve.
(from appendix A)
Liquid Limit (Cone-penetration method)
Materials
Soil sample with all particles passing 425µm sieve. (see Appendix A)
Apparatus
1. A flat glass plate 10 mm thick and about 500mm square.
2. Two palette knives or spatulas.
3. A penetrometer (Figure 3B.2(a)).
4. A cone of stainless steel or duralumin approximately 35mm long with a smooth,
polished surface and an angle of 30±10. to ensure that the point remains sufficiently
sharp for the purposes of the test, the cone shall be replaced if, after continued use, the
point can no longer be felt when brushed lightly with the tip of the finger. When the tip
of the cone is pushed through a hole 1.5± 0.02mm in diameter, bored through a metal
plate 1.75±0.1mm thick. The mass of the cone together with its sliding shaft shall be
80.00 ± 0.1g (Figure 3A.2(b and d).
5. One or more metal cups not less than 55mm in diameter and 40mm deep with the rim
parallel to the fat base.
6. Apparatus for moisture content determination (Experiment 9).
7. A wash bottle or beaker, containing distilled water.
Procedure
1. Take a sample of about 300g from the soil paste and place it on the glass plate.
2. Mix the paste for at least 10 min using the two palette knives. (Figure 3A.2)
3. Push a portion of the mixed soil into the cup with a palette knife taking care not to trap
air. Strike off excess soil with the straightedge to give a smooth level surface.
4. Place the cup under the centre of the cone.
5. Hold the stem with one hand.
6. Press the manual release button and let the stem free.
7. Gradually lower the stem until the tip of the cone is exactly in contract with the surface
of the sample. (When the cone is in correct position, a slight movement of the cup will
just mark the soil surface.)
8. Turn the gear actuator control knok clockwise until the lock shaft touches the top of the
stem, take a reading of the pointer on the gauge to 0.1mm. This is the first reading (R1).
9. Adjust the automatic release and locking device to 5 sec.
10. Press the start button.
11. After the 5 sec. countdown finished, take a second reading to 0.1 mm as per step 8 be
(R2).
12. Record the difference between the two readings (R2 - R1). This is the first cone
penetration.
13. Lift out the cone and clean it carefully to avoid scratching.
14. Add a little more wet soil to the cup, taking care not to trap air, make the surface smooth
as in 3 and repeat steps 4 to 12 for second penetration.
15. If the difference between the first and second penetration readings is less than 0.5 mm
record the average of the two penetration. If the second penetration is more than 0.5mm
and less than 1mm different from the first, carry out a third test. If the overall range is
then not more than 1mm, record the average of the three penetrations. If the overall
range is more than 1mm remove the soil from the cup, remix and repeat until consistent
results are obtained.
16. Take a moisture content sample of about 10g from the area penetrated by the cone and
determine the moisture content.
17. Repeat at least three more times using the same sample of soil to which further
increments of distilled water (about 4-5 cc) have been added. Proceed from the drier to
the wetter condition of the soil. The amount of water added shall be such that a range of
penetration values of approximately 15mm to 25mm is covered by the four or more test
runs and is evenly distributed. Each time soil is removed from the cup for the addition of
water, wash and dry the cup.
18. If at any time during the above procedure the soil has to be left for a while on the glass
plate cover the soil with the evaporating dish or a damp cloth to prevent the soil from
drying out.
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Figure 3A.2 Apparatus for Cone Penetrometer Liquid Test: (a) Cone Penetrometer with Automatic
Timing Device, (b) Cone and Gauge Plate, (c) Mixing Water into soil for LL Test, and (d) Cross
Section of Cone Pentrometer, and cone & gauge plate.
Computation and Results:

1. Calculate the moisture content of each penetration test made.
2. Plot the relationship between moisture content and cone penetration with the percentage
moisture contents as abscissae and the cone penetrations as ordinates, both on linear
scales.
3. Draw the best straight line fitting the plotted points.
4. From the linear graph read off the moisture content corresponding to a cone penetration
of 20mm to one decimal place.
5. Express the moisture content corresponding to a cone penetration of 20mm to the nearest
whole number and report it as the liquid limit (wL) of the soil sample.
6. Express the percentage of material passing the 425µm test sieve.
Determination of Atterberg Limits - Plastic Limit Test 24
Experiment 3B
Determination of Atterberg Limits (Plastic Limit Test)
Apparatus
1. A flat glass plate, smooth and free from scratches, on which threads are rolled.
2. Two palette knives or spatulas.
3. Apparatus for the moisture content determination of fine-grained soils.
4. A length of rod, 3mm in diameter and about 100mm long.
Procedure
1. Take a sample of about 20g from the soil paste prepared as for Liquid Limit Test, place
it on the glass mixing plate.
2. Allow the soil to dry partially on the plate until it becomes plastic enough to be shaped
into a ball.
3. Mould the ball of soil between the fingers and roll it between the palms of the hands
until the heat of the hands has dried the soil sufficiently for slight cracks to appear on its
surface. Divide this sample into two subsamples of about 10g each and carry out a
separate determination on each portion. Divide each subsample into four more or less
equal parts and treat each part as per steps 4-5.
4. Mould the soil in the fingers to equalize the distribution of moisture, then form the soil
into a thread about 6mm diameter between the first finger the thumb of each hand.
5. Roll the thread between the fingers, from finger-tip to the second joint, of one hand and
the surface of the glass rolling plate. Use enough pressure to reduce the diameter of the
thread to about 3mm in five to 10 complete, forward and back, movements of the hand.
Some heavy clays will require 10 to 15 movements when the soil is near the plastic limit
because the soil hardens at this stage. It is important to maintain a uniform rolling
pressure; do not reduce the pressure as the thread diameter approaches 3mm.
6. Pick up the soil, mould it between the fingers to dry it further, form it into a thread and
roll it out again as in 4-5. (Figure 3B.1(a, b))
NOTE. Gradually drying of the soil is effected by alternately rolling and moulding, not
by continual rolling, either as a ball or as threads, which produces a dried crust.
7. Repeat step 6 until the thread shears both longitudinally and transversely when it has
been rolled to about 3mm diameter, as gauged by the rod, do not gather the pieces of soil
together after they have crumbled, in order to reform a thread and to continue rolling; the
first crumbling point is the plastic limit.
NOTE. With soils that are marginally plastic it is often difficult to obtain the correct
crumbling condition.
8. Gather together the portions of the crumbled soil thread, transfer them to a suitable
container and replace the lid immediately.
9. Repeat steps 4 to 8 on the other three portions of soil, placing them all in the same
container. Determine the moisture content of the soil in the container (Experiment 9).
10. Repeat steps 4 to 9 on the duplicate sample.
1. Calculations and expression of results. Calculate the moisture content of both samples
tested. If the two results differ by more than 0.5% moisture content, repeat the whole
test. Calculate the average of the two moisture content values and express the value to
the nearest whole number. This is the plastic limit, wP.
2. Plasticity Index : The difference between the liquid limit and plastic limit is calculated to
give the plasticity index (IP) of the soil:
IP=wL-wP (3B.1)
This value is also reported to the nearest whole number. If it is not possible to perform
the plastic limit test, the soil is reported as non-plastic (NP). This also applies if the
plastic limit is equal to or greater than the liquid limit.
(a) (b)
(c) TOO WET (d) AT THE PLASTIC LIMIT
Figure 3B.1 Plastic Limit Test: (a) Apparatus, (b) Soil Thread before and after Rolling, (c)
and (d) soil sample
Appendix A
WET PREPARATION
If the soil includes particles retained on a 425µm sieve which are not practicable to remove
by hand, the following procedure should be used. This is the procedure specified in BS
1377:1990, and enables the coarse particles to be removed without the need for drying
pestling and dry sieving.
Take a representative sample of the soil at its natural moisture content to give at least 350 g
of material passing the 425µm sieve. This quantity allows for a liquid limit and a plastic
limit test. Chop into small pieces, or shred with a cheese-grater, and place in a weighed
beaker. Weigh, and determine the mass of soil, m(g) by difference.
Take a similar representative sample and determine its moisture content, w(%).
Dry mass of soil in the test sample, mD =m(100/100+w)
Add enough distilled water or de-ionised water to the beaker to just submerge the soil.
Break down the soil pieces and stir until the mixture forms a slurry.
Rest a 425µm sieve on a receiver, under a guard sieve (e.g. 2mm) if appropriate. Pour the
slurry through the sieve or sieves, and wash with distilled or de-ionised water, collecting all
of the washings in the receiver. Use the minimum amount of water necessary, but continue
washing until the water passing the 425µm sieve runs virtually clear. Transfer all the
washings passing the sieve to a suitable beaker without losing any soil particles.
Collect the washed material retained on the sieves, dry in the oven and determine the dry
mass, mR (g).
Allow the soil particles in the beaker to settle for several hours, or overnight. If there is a
layer of clear water above the suspension, this may be carefully poured or siphoned off,
without losing any soil particles. However if the soil contains water-soluble salts which
might influence its properties, do not remove any water except by evaporation.
Stand the container in a warm place (e.g. on top of an oven), or in a current of warm air, so
that it can partially dry. Protect form dust. Stir the soil/water mixture frequently to prevent
local over-drying. Alternatively, excess water may be removed by filtration (using vacuum
or pressure). When the mixture forms a stiff paste (such that the penetration of the cone
penetrometer would not exceed 15mm) the soil is ready for mixing on the glass plate as
described above.
Calculate the percentage, by dry mass (mD), of soil in the original sample retaining the
425µm sieve (Pa).
Pa = (mD-mR)/mD x 100%
Determination of Dry Density / Moisture Content Relationship 27
Experiment 4
Determination of Dry Density / Moisture Content Relationship
General
Compaction of soil is the process by which the solid particles are packed more closely
together, usually by mechanical means, thereby increasing the dry density of the soil. The
dry density which can be achieved depends on the degree of compaction applied and on the
amount of water present in the soil. For a given degree of compaction of a given cohesive
soil there is an optimum moisture content at which the dry density obtained reaches a
maximum value (BS 1377: part 4: 1990).
Objective
The objective of the test is to obtain relationships between compacted dry density and soil
moisture content.
Theory
The degree of compaction of soil is measured in terms of dry unit weight. During
compaction, water is added to the soil and acts as a lubricating agent on the soil particles.
The soil particle slip on each other and move into densely packed positions. For similar
compacting efforts, the dry unit weight will increase with the increase of moisture content.
However, beyond a certain point, additional moisture tends to reduce the dry unit weight
because water takes spaces that might have been occupied by solid particles. Figure 4.1
shows the general nature of the relation of dry unit weight to moisture content for a given
soil and compacting effort. The moisture content at which the maximum dry unit weight is
obtained is called optimum moisture content.
For a given moisture content, the theoretical maximum dry unit weight is obtained when no
air is in the void spaces, i.e., degree of saturation = 100%. Thus, the maximum dry unit
weight at a given moisture content with zero air void (zav) is γzav = Gsγw/(1+e). For 100%
saturation, e = wGs; therefore
Gsγ w γw
γ zav = = (4.1)
1 + wG s w + 1 / G s
Where γzav = dry unit weight at zero air voids

γw = unit weight of water
e = void ratio
w = moisture content
Gs = specific gravity of soil solids
Besides moisture content, the compaction characteristics of a soil generally depends on the
soil type and the compaction effort. In order to duplicate and control the quality of field
compaction, Proctor (1933) developed a laboratory dynamic compaction test method later
called the standard Proctor test (Das 1979).
Figure 4.1 Dry Density / Moisture Content Relationship Curve
Materials
Soils containing particles no larger than 20mm.
Apparatus
1. Cylindrical metal mould, internal dimensions: 105mm diameter and 115.5mm high. This
gives a volume of 1000 cm3. The mould is fitted with a detachable base-plate and
removable extension collar.
2. Metal rammer with 50mm diameter face, weighing 2.5kg, sliding freely in a tube which
controls the height of drop to 300mm.
3. Measuring cylinder 200 ml or 500 ml.
4. Caliper.
5. Large metal tray, e.g. 600 x 600 x 60mm deep.
6. Balance, 10kg capacity reading to 1g.
7. Jacking apparatus for extracting compacted material from the mould.
8. Small tools: palette knife; steel straight-edge, 300mm long; scoop and cleaning brush.
9. Equipment for moisture content determination.
Procedure
1. Weigh the mould body without extension collar to the nearest 1g (m2). Measure its
internal diameter (D mm) and length (L mm) in several places to 0.1mm using vernier
calipers, and calculate the mean dimensions and internal volume of the mould (in cm3).
The mould is designed to give a volume V = 1000 cm3, but this may change slightly with
wear.
2. Check that the lugs or clamps hold the extension collar and base-plate securely to the
mould, and assemble them together.
Check the rammer to ensure that it falls freely through the correct height of drop, and
that the lifting knob is secure.
3. Each group is provided with 4kg of dry sample, in which all passing 20mm British
Standard sieve.
4. Mix the sample thoroughly with the amount of water as per Table 4.1
5. Place the mould assembly on a solid base. Add loose soil to the mould so that after
compaction the mould will be one-third filled.
6. Compact the soil by applying 27 blows of the rammer dropping from the controlled
height of 300mm Figure 4.2.
7. Take care to see that the rammer is properly in place before releasing. The hand which
holds the tube must be kept well clear of the handle of the falling rammer. Do not
attempt to grab the lifting knob before the rammer has come to rest; a finger to thumb
trapped between knob and tube can sustain a nasty injury.
Table 1 Dry Soil Weigh (4kg)
Water (ml) Added M/C (%)

(1) 400 10
(2) 80 12
(3) 80 14
(4) 80 16
(5) 60 17.5
Figure 4.2 Compacting with Hand Rammer
8. The first few blows of the rammer, which are applied to soil in a very loose state, should
be applied in a systematic manner to ensure the most efficient compaction and maximum
reproducibility of results. The sequence shown in (Figure 4.3a) should be followed for
the first four blows. By this means the effort dissipated in displacing loose material is
kept to a minimum. After that the rammer should be moved progressively around the
edge of the mould between successive blows, as indicated in Figure 4.3b, so that the
blows are uniforming distributed over the whole area. Soil must not be allowed to
collect inside the tube of the rammer, because this will impede the free fall of the
rammer. Make sure that the end of the tube is resting on the soil surface, and does not
catch on the edge of the mould, before releasing the rammer.
9. The guide tube must be held vertically. Place the tube gently on the soil surface. If the
correct amount of soil has been used, the compacted surface should be at about one-third
of the height of the mould body. If the level differs significantly (by more than, say, 6
mm) from this, remove the soil, break it up, mix it with the remainder of the prepared
material and start this stage again.
Figure 4.3 Sequence of Blows Using Hand Rammer
10. Lightly scarify the surface of the compacted soil with the tip of a spatula or point of a
knife.
11. Place a second, approximately equal layer of soil in the mould, and compact with 27
blows as before. Repeat with a third layer, which should then bring the compacted
surface in the extension collar to not more than 6mm above the level of the mould body.
If the soil level is higher than this, the result will be inaccurate, so the soil should be
removed, broken up and remixed, and the test repeated with slightly less soil in each
layer.
12. Remove the extension collar carefully. Cut away the excess soil and level off to the top
of the mould, checking with the straight-edge. Any small cavities resulting from
removal of stones at the surface should be filled with fine material, well pressed in.
13. Weigh soil and mould to the nearest 1g (m1) then remove the base-plate.
14. Fit the mould on to the extruder and jack out the soil. Break up the sample on the tray.
15. Take up representative samples in moisture content containers for measurement of
moisture content, using the standard procedure described in M/C determination test.
This must be done immediately, before the soil begins to dry out. The measurement is
denoted by w%.
16. Break up the material on the tray, and mix with the remainder of the prepared sample.
Add an increment of water as per Table 1. Mix in the water thoroughly.
17. Repeat stages 3 to 9 for each increment of water added, so that at least five compactions
are made. The range of moisture contents should be such that the optimum moisture
content (at which the dry density is maximum) is near the middle of that range. If
necessary to define the optimum value clearly, carry out one or more additional tests at
suitable moisture contents. Keep a running plot of dry density against moisture content
so as to see when the optimum condition has been passed (see Figure 4.1).

1. Computation
a. Calculate the bulk density of each compacted specimen from the equation,
Where,
m2 = mass of mould (and base if included) and
m1 = mass of soil and mould (and base if included).
m1-m2
ρ = V Mg / m
3
(4.2)
b. Calculate the average moisture content, w%, for each compacted specimen.
c. Calculate the corresponding dry density form the equation
100
ρD= (100+w ) ρ Mg/m3 (4.3)
2. Results
a. Plot each dry density, ρD, against the corresponding moisture content, w.
b. Draw a smooth curve through the points. The curves for 0, 5 and 10% air voids may
be plotted as well.
A typical graph is shown in Figure 4.1, which includes three air voids lines.
Air voids specification. The dry density, ρD (Mg/m3), corresponding to an air
voids content of Va (in%) is given by the equation
Va
1- 100
ρd = 1 w (4.4)
+
ρs 100ρw
where
Va is the air voids expressed as a percentage of the total volume of soil;
ρs is the particle density (in Mg/m3); (given 2.65)
w is the soil moisture content (in %);
ρw is the density of water (in Mg/m3), assumed equal to 1.
Determination of the Permeability of a Soil Sample (Constant-Head Test) 33
Experiment 5A
Determination of the Permeability of a Soil Sample (Constant-Head Test)
General
The permeability of a soil is a measure of its capacity to allow a fluid to flow through
it. The fluid may be either a liquid or a gas, but soils engineers are concerned only
with liquid permeability, and the liquid is usually understood to be water.
Soils consist of solid particles with voids between them. In general, the voids are
interconnected, which enables water to pass through them; that is, soils are
"permeable" to water. The degree of permeability is determined by applying a
hydraulic pressure difference across a sample of soil, which is fully saturated, and
measuring the consequent rate of flow of water. The "coefficient of permeability" is
expressed in terms of a velocity.
The flow of water through soils of all types, from "free-draining" gravels and sands to
"impervious" clays, are governed by the same physical laws. The difference between
the permeability characteristics of extreme types of soil is merely one of degree, even
though a clay can be ten million times less permeable than a sand (Head 1992).
Objective
The objective is to familiarise two types of laboratory test for the direct measurement
of the permeability of soils.
Theory
The flow of water through soils was first studied by Darcy, who demonstrated
experimentally that for laminar flow conditions in a saturated soil, the rate of flow or
the discharge per unit time is proportional to the hydraulic gradient.
q = KiA
q
or V = = Ki (5A.1)
A
Where q = discharge per unit time
A = total cross-sectional area of soil mass, perpendicular to the direction of
flow
i = hydraulic gradient
K = Darcy's coefficient of permeability
V = velocity of flow, or average discharge velocity
If a soil sample of length L and cross-sectional area A is subjected to a differential

head of water (h1- h2), then the hydraulic gradient (i) will be given by the equation
h1 − h2
i=
L
By substituting for i, in equation (5A.1)
h − h2
q=K 1 A
L
when the hydraulic gradient is unity K=V.
Thus the coefficient of permeability (K) is defined as the average velocity of flow that
will occur through the total cross-sectional area of soil under a unit hydraulic
gradient. Thus, the dimensions of the coefficient of permeability K are the same as
those of velocity.
By Constant-head Method
Materials
Clean sand.
Apparatus
1. Constant-head permeability apparatus (Figure 5A.1(c)). This is a standard
commercial set-up, the essential details of which are illustrated in Figure 5A.1(a)
and (b).
2. A 1 litre glass measuring cylinder.
3. A stop clock.
4. Measuring tape.
5. Thermometer.
6. Caliper.
7. Spare Perspex cylinder (for determining A and h of the sample).
Procedure
1. The test sample, a gravely sand, is ready packed in the Perspex cylinder.
2. Turn the sink tap to allow water to flow into the constant-head tank at the top of
the apparatus.
3. Observe the head differences across the fixed length of the sample, through the
glass manometers.
4. When the head difference is steady, measure the time taken for a fixed quantity of
water flow from the sample (say 500 cc), to drain through the outlet. This is
measured by means of the measuring cylinder which catches the water.
5. Repeat the test three times.
(a) (b)
(c)
Figure 5A.1
(a) General Arrangement for Constant Head Permeability Test (down flow),
(b) Details of Constant Head Permeability Cell, and
(c) Permeameter Cells for Constant Head Test (75mm diameter)
1. Calculate the rate of flow, q1, q2 etc (in mL/s), during the period of each
observation of flow from the equation.
Q1
q1 = t (5A.2)
where
Q1, Q2, …Qn (in mL) is the volume of water collected from the outlet
reservoir during each time period t (in s).
2. Calculate the average rate of flow, q, for the set of readings at one hydraulic
gradient.
3. Calculate the hydraulic gradient, i, between the manometer gland points using the
equation
h
i=y (5A.3)
where
h is the difference between the two manometer levels (in mm);
y is the difference between the corresponding gland points (in mm);
Note: The intermediate manometer point is (or points are) used to provide a check
on the uniformity of the hydraulic gradient between the outer points. If there are
three gland points, y = x1 + x2.
4. Calculate the coefficient of permeability, k(in m/s), for one set of readings from
the equation
⎛q⎞ ⎛Rt⎞
K20 = ⎜ i ⎟ ⎜ A ⎟ (5A.4)
⎝ ⎠⎝ ⎠
where
A is the area of cross section of the sample (in mm2);
Rt is the temperature correction factor for the viscosity of water, to
standardize the permeability to 20oC (from Figure 5A.2).
1.5
Correction factor, Rt
0.5
0
0 10 20 30 40
Laboratory temperature, ToC
Figure 5A.2 Temperature Correction Factor
Form 5A.1 Coefficient of Permeability (Constant-head)
Soil description
Sample Diameter D mm area A mm2
Mass soil + pan Init. g Length L mm
Mass soil + pan Final g volume V cm3
Mass of Sample g Density, ρ mg/m3
o
Test temperature C
Constant Head
Test dataa
Test no. t (sec.) Q (ml) h (mm) y (mm)
1
2
3
4
Average
q Rt
K20 = ( )( )
i A
= m/sec
Falling Head
Standpipe = diameter[burette, other specify)] mm Area standpipe, a = mm2
Soil description
Method of
preparation
Sample diameter D mm area A mm2

length L mm volume V cm3
Mass of sample + mould g Particle density ρs

Mould g Measured
Sample g Bulk density ρ mg/m3
Moisture content % Dry density ρD mg/m3
ρS
Voids ratio= - 1=
ρD Test temperature o
C
Test datab
Test no. h1 (mm) h2 (mm) t (sec) Qin (cm3) Qout (cm3) T (oC)
1
2
3
4
Average
2.3026 a. 1 Log10 H1 - Log10 H2

k= x x 10-3 = m./sec. α = Rt = _________
A t 2 - t1
k20 = k x α = m/sec
a
Use averaged values only if there is a small difference in test temperature, say, 1-2oC.
b
Simplify by using the same h1 and h2 each time, so you can average k.
Determination of the Permeability of a Soil Sample (Falling-Head Test) 38
Experiment 5B
Determination of the Permeability of a Soil Sample (Falling-Head Test)
Materials
Fine-grained soil.
Apparatus
1. Permeameter cell (Figure 5B(a)).
2. Standpipe panel fitted with glass standpipe tubes of different diameters, each with a valve at
its base and connecting tubing. A typical range of tubes comprises diameters of 1.5, 3 and
4.5 mm, which are suitable for low permeability soils such as silty clays (Figure 5B(b)).
3. Source of de-aired and distilled or de-ionised water.
4. Thermometer.
5. Stop-clock (minutes timer) or stopwatch.
6. Immersion tank, with overflow.
Procedure
Procedure 1-6 will be carried out by technician.
1. Preparation of cell
Dismantle the cell. Check that the sealing rings are in good condition and lightly coat them
with silicone grease. Ensure that the ends of the cell body are true and free from distortion,
and undamaged, and that watertight joints are made when the sealing rings and end plates
are clamped in position.
See that the cell body is clean and dry, and weigh it to the nearest 0.1 g (m1). Measure the
mean internal diameter (D) and length (L) to the nearest 0.5 mm.
2. Preparation of sample
The core cutter type of cell body is designed for taking an undisturbed sample of cohesive
soil in-situ. It can also be used to take a test sample from a block sample, or from a
conventional tube or piston sample. It is essential in all instances to ensure that the sample
is a tight fit in the body, and that there are no cavities around the perimeter through which
water could pass. Gaps or cavities should be well packed with the fine “matrix’ portion of
the soil, or with plasticine.
Weigh the sample in the cell to the nearest 0.1 g (m2). Use some of the soil trimmings for
determining the moisture content of the sample.
3. Assemble cell
Fit a wire gauze disc to each end of the sample. Place the cell body, cutting edge
downwards, on the base-plate with the sealing ring in place. Fill the space in the cell top
with wire wool, so that it is compressed fairly tightly when the top is screwed down on the
cell. Ensure that the sealing ring is in place so that a watertight joint is made. Tighten
down the wing nuts on the straining rods progressively and evenly.
Place the assembled cell in the immersion tank, and fill with de-aired, distilled or de-ionised
water up to the overflow level. Tilt the cell to release any entrapped air from underneath the
cell top. If the cell has a flush base without projecting feet, it should be stood on flat spacer
pieces to allow free access of water.
4. Connecting Cell
Connect the top inlet of the permeameter cell to the glass tee-piece with a short length of
thick rubber or rigid plastic tubing fitted with a screw clip, M (Figure 5B(b)). To the other
branches of the tee-piece are fitted short length of similar tubing, each with a screw clip (J
and K). Apply a smear of grease at the joints, and use connecting clips if necessary, to
ensure that the joints are airtight.
5. Saturating sample
With screw clips M and K open, allow water to flow upwards through the sample under the
small external head in the soaking tank and by capillary action. If the water level in the tank
falls by an amount greater than that due to evaporation loss it is a positive indication that the
sample is taking up water. It may be necessary to allow this process to continue overnight,
or for 24 hr or longer, for a low permeability soil.
Connect the vacuum tube to branch K of the glass tee-piece, and close screw clip J.
Continue the saturation process by applying a low suction (about 50 mm mercury) to the top
of the sample by adjusting the vacuum line and air bleed valves. Maintain the suction, and
increase it slightly if necessary, until water is drawn up into the glass tee-piece above M.
This indicates that the sample is saturated. If air bubbles are present, maintain the suction
until the system is air-free.
6. Filling manometer system
Select the manometer tube to be used for the test and open the valve at its base. Allow
water to fill the tube to a level a few centimetres above the h1 mark by opening valves G2, J
and K. If any air bubbles are observed in the manometer or connecting tubes, they can be
removed by applying a low suction to the top end of the standpipe.
Close valve G2 and screw clip J, and fully open screw clip K. Top up the water in the
soaking tank to bring it level with the overflow outlet.
7. Running permeability test
• Fill the relevant standpipe tube up with de-aired water then connect this tube to the tee
piece connected to the cell. Ensure that all connected tubing is completely filled with
water before connecting to the cell.
• If the unit is connected up as the diagram (Figure 5B(b)), the standpipe tube can be
filled by opening clamps J, K and valve G2. During test close valve G2, clip J, and open
M & K.
• Allow water to flow down through the sample, and observe the water level in the
standpipe. As soon as it reaches the level h1, start the timer clock. Observe and record
the time when the level reaches h3, and when it reaches h2, then stop the clock. Close
screw clip M.
• The standpipe can be re-filled for a repeat run by opening valves G2 and J. Three or four
test runs should be done consecutively.
• Record the temperature of the water in the soaking tank (T0C).
The coefficient of permeability is obtained from the formula:-
2.3026 a. 1 Log10 H1 - Log10 H2

k= A x t2 - t 1 x 10-3 m/sec. (5B. 1)
where
k= coefficient of permeability m/sec.
a= bore area of standpipe tube mm2.
l= length of sample under test mm.
A = cross sectional area of sample mm2.
H1= initial head of water mm.
H2= head of water indicated at the end
of a particular period of time mm.
t1 = start time sec.
t2 = time corresponding to H2 sec.
2.3026 = conversion factor, loge to log10
Report result
The result is reported as the permeability of the sample at the temperature of the test, to
two significant figures.
The result can be expressed as the permeability at 200C by multiplying by a factor

obtained form the temperature conversion graph Figure 5.A.2.
The density and moisture content of the sample are also reported, together with the voids
ratio if the specific gravity of particles is known.
(a)
(b)
Figure 5B
(a) Falling Head Permeability Cell, and
(b) General Arrangement for Falling Head Permeability Test
Appendix
Calibration of Standpipe Tubes
When the apparatus is first installed it is necessary to calibrate the standpipe tubes in the
following manner.
Completely install the apparatus as shown in the Figure 5A.3(b) but without the cell, then
make a mark near each end of the tube. Measure the height of each mark from the
soaking tank overflow weir.
If the height to the upper mark is H1 cm. And to the lower mark is H2 cm., then the third
graduation mark (H3) is made at a distance from the upper mark of
( H1 - H1 x H2 )cm. (5B.2)
That is, the height of the middle mark will be H1 x H2 above the weir (H3). If the
calibration mark is made at this height, the time for the water to fall from H1 to H1 x H2
will be the same as the time for the water to fall from H1 x H2 to H2.
Measure the lengths between each mark on the tube, measure the bore diameter and
calculate the volumes. Fill the tube with water and collect the water emitted between
each mark and check that they agree with the calculated volumes.
Note: When the calibration of the tubes has been made in the way described, then the
time taken for the water to fall from the upper mark to the middle mark should be within
2 to 3 percent of the time taken for the water to fall from the middle mark to the lower
mark.
Consolidation Test – Oedometer 43
Experiment 6
Consolidation Test (Oedometer).
General
The standard oedometer consolidation test for saturated clays is the main feature of this
experiment. The test is carried out by applying a sequence of vertical loads to a laterally
confined specimen having a height of about one quarter of its diameter. The vertical
compression under each load is observed over a period of time, usually up to 24 hours. Since no
lateral deformation is allowed it is a one-dimensional test, from which the one-dimensional
consolidation parameters are derived.
Objective
The objective of the oedometer consolidation test is to determine consolidation characteristics
of soils with low permeability. The test determines two important consolidation parameters of
clays, i.e. coefficeient of volume compressibility, mv, and coefficient of consolidation, cv
Theory
The one-dimensional consolidation test procedure was first suggested by Terzaghi. The test is
performed in an oedometer. A schematic diagram of an oedometer is shown in Figure 6.2(a).
The soil sample is placed inside a metal ring with a porous stone at the top of the sample and
another at the bottom. The samples are usually 63.5mm in diameter and 25.4mm thick. Load on
the sample is applied through a lever arm and compression is measured by a micrometer dial
gauge. The sample is kept underwater during the test. Usually each load is kept for 24 hours.
After that, conventionally, the load is doubled, thus doubling the pressure on the sample, while
measurement of the compression continues. At the end of the test, the dry weight of the test
sample is determined.
The general shape of the plot of deformation of the sample versus time for a given load
increment is shown in Figure 6.1. The plot shows three distinct stages that may be described as
follows:
Stage I: initial compression, which is mostly due to preloading.
Stage II: primary consolidation during which, due to expulsion of pore water pressure, is
gradually transferred into effective stress.
Stage III: secondary consolidation after complete dissipation of excess pore water pressure -
some deformation of the sample is caused by plastic readjustment of soil fabric.
The aim of the consolidation test is to determine two important consolidation parameters for the
clay sample :
1. The coefficient of volume compressibility, mv (in m2/MN) is given by the equation
H1-H2 1000
mv =( H ) x (p -p ) m2/MN (6.1)
1 2 1
where H1 is the height of the specimen at the beginning of the stage(i.e. at the end of the
previous stage ) (in mm).
H2 is the height of the specimen at the end of that increment (in mm).
p1 is the pressure applied to the specimen for the previous loading stage (in kPa).
p2 is the pressure applied to the specimen for the loading stage being considered.
(in kPa)
The required units are in m2/MN.
Figure 6.1 Time-deformation Plot During Consolidation for Given Load

Increment (source: Das 1979)
2. The coefficient of consolidation, cv ( in m2/year).
The coefficient of consolidation, cv, may be determined by finding the time required for
90% consolidation of the sample (U = 0.9).
For the condition of double drainage, which is the case in the oedometer test :
When U = 0.9
Tv= 0.848
cv t
Since Tv= h2 (6.2)
T90 2 h2
∴ cv = t h = 0.848 x t
90 90
h 2
0.848( ) x 60 x 24 x 365.25
cv = 1000 m2/year
t 90
0.446h 2 2
cv = m /year
t 90
0.112 2 2
cv = ⎯H m /year (6.2)
t 90
where Tv is the time factor.

t is the time elapsed since the start of the consolidation (in min.).
h is length of the drainage path (H is the thickness of the clay sample at
time t) (in mm).
cv is the coefficient of consolidation (m2/year).
where ⎯H is the average specimen thickness for the load increments (in mm)
H + H2
i.e. ⎯H = 1
2
In the standard oedometer consolidation test with double drainage the height H of the specimen
is equal to 2h.
The details of the theory of compressibility of soil, students should refer to their textbook and
handout.
Material
Compacted decomposite granite
Apparatus
1. Casagrande type oedometer (Figure 6.2) which includes :
a. a consolidation ring, internal diameter 75 mm, height 20 mm;
b. a fixed ring, consolidation cell;
c. a dial gauge reading to 0.01 mm having a travel of at least 10 mm;
d. a loading device, (see Figure 6.4)
2. Glass plate 100 mm x 100 mm (approx.),
3. Apparatus for moisture content determination (experiment 9),
4. Top pan weighing balance reading to 0.1 g,
5. Vernier callipers,
6. Packet of 75 mm diameter filter papers,
7. Silicone grease or petroleum jelly,
8. Set of standard weights,
9. Stop watch or clock readable to 1 sec,
10. Palatte knife.
Procedure
1. Preparation of the sample (see Figure 6.2 (c) and (d))
a. Weigh the consolidation ring and glass plate separately to an accuracy of 0.1g. (Form
6.1)
b. Measure the height of the ring to 0.05 mm at four equally spaced points using the
vernier
c. Measure the internal diameter of the ring to 0.1 mm in two perpendicular directions
using the vernier calipers. Calculate the mean diameter and the area in mm2.
d. Cut two pieces of filter paper according to the internal and external diameter of the
cutting ring.
e. Lubricate the inside of the ring with a thin smear of silicone grease or petroleum jelly.
f. Extrude a small amount of soil from the compaction mould using the mechanical
extruder.
g. Press the cutting ring, bevelled sharp cutting edge downwards, into the soil until its
upper most rim is just below the soil surface.
h. Extrude more of the soil so that the bottom of the ring is well clear of the edge of the
mould.
i. Trim off the top of the soil with the palatte knife.
j. Cut off the soil below the base of the consolidation cutting ring with the spatula.
k. Place the glass plate on the top surface and gently slide the specimen clear using a
palate knife to assist the process.
l. Invert the ring containing the soil sample and trim off the upper surface of the clay
level with the bevelled edge of the consolidation ring with the spatulas.
m. Any voids should be carefully filled with pieces of clay without compressing the
sample.
n. Weigh the glass plate, ring the clay sample to the nearest 0.1 g.
Notes : the height of the ring can be accepted as the initial height of the clay sample.
2. Preparation and assembly of consolidation apparatus.

a. Put a wet filter paper onto the porous disc at the base of the consolidation cell and
place the sample, contained in the ring, on it with the bevelled cutting edge of the ring
uppermost.
b. Cover the top of the sample with a second wet filter paper and use the retaining screws
to secure the collar of the consolidation cell to the base to hold the consolidation ring
and sample firmly together.
c. Place the top porous stone and loading plate on tope of the filter paper.
3. Assembly in load frame

a. Place the consolidation cell in position on the cell platform of the oedometer.
b. Connect the loading yoke of the oedometer with the top platen of the consolidation
cell and adjust the counter balance weight of the beam so that it is slightly above the
horizontal position.
c. Place a 100g weight on the top pan of the weight hanger to give a very small positive
downward load on the sample in the consolidation ring (seating load).
d. Check the beam ratio value and set it to 9:1.
e. Fill the consolidation cell with water at room temperature.
f. Clamp the compression dial gauge in to position, allowing space for swelling as well
as compression of the sample and record the initial dial gauge reading.
g. Screw up the beam support jack so that the beam is held fixed, ready for the start of
the test.
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Figure 6.2 (a) and (b) Set up of Oedomenter, and (c) and (d) Preparation of the Sample
4. Test procedure
Normally, in the consolidation test, a loading sequence is adopted to give a range of
compression stresses suitable for the soil type and also for the effective pressure which
will occur in situ due to the overburden and the proposed construction. The initial
pressure should be large enough to ensure that the sample in the consolidation cell does
not swell.
A loading sequence of stages selected from the following range of pressures is considered
appropriate (see BS 1377, 1990, Part 5, p. 5 section 3.5.1.).
6, 12, 25, 100, 200, 400, 800, 1600, 3200 kPa.
A typical test comprises four to six increments of loading, each held constant for 24 hours
and each applied stress being double that of the previous stage.
Unloading decrements are usually half the number of loading increments.
The single stage consolidation test to be performed will be for a stress of 100 kPa.
a. Determine the value of mass (in kg) needed on the weight hanger pan to produce a
stress of 100 kPa on the specimen (σ’vo) see Appendix A.
b. With the screw jack support in supporting position, load the weight hanger with the
necessary weights and set the dial gauge to zero. Remove the weight used for seating
load.
c. Check that the timing device (stop watch or clock) is working correctly, note the time
of day and activate the timing device whilst at the same time lowering the beam
support jack to allow the consolidation to begin.
d. Take readings of the compression gauge at the following time sequence (minutes)
0.25, 0.5, 1, 2, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81, 100 and 121 min.(Form No. 6.2)
A final reading, after approximately 24 hours can be taken by the technical staff.
e. As the sample undergoes compression record the data and plot a graph of compression
dial gauge readings versus time . (Figure 6.5)
After 24 hours, when the consolidation will be virtually complete, unload the sample
and record the following data.
weight of consolidation ring + sample, wet
weight of consolidation ring + sample, dry*
*after drying to constant weight in an oven at 105oC.
From this data the final moisture content and void ratio of the sample may be
determined.
f. Determine the values of
t 90
from the graph of compression vs time on Figure 6.5 by :

• Draw the straight line of best fit to the early portion of curve (usually
within the first 50% of compression) and extend it to intersect the ordinate of
zero time. This intersection represents the corrected zero point, denoted by do.
• Draw the straight line through the do point which at all points has abscissae 1.15
times as great as those on the best fit line drawn in above . The intersection of
this line with the laboratory curve gives the 90% compression point, d90.
• Read off the value of t90 from the lab. curve corresponding to the d90.
• Determine the value of the coefficient of volume compressibility, mv(m2/MN)
(see Equation 6.1) from the settlement data for this loading.
• Determine the value of the coefficient of consolidation, cv(m2/yr) (see Equation
6.2).
g. The record of data obtained from a full consolidation test with several stages of
loading and unloading. Plot a graph of void ratio versus log10 of applied pressures.
For the single stage test you are required to plot only settlement versus time in
order to find t90 by Taylor’s curve fitting method. For the determination of t90 and cv
for each stage over several stages a separate graph of settlement versus time will
have to be drawn for each stage.
Appendix A
Calculation of mass (m) or equivalent mass (in kg) supported by the specimen
9810 × m × a
σ’vo = kPa
A
σ 'vo ×A
m =
9810 × a
where σ’vo is the vertical stress applied to the specimen (kPa).

m is the mass or equivalent mass, supported by the specimen (kg).
a is the lever arm ratio (9:1).
A is the area of the specimen in mm2.
(a)
Cell
Consolidation ring Lateral restraint for

ring
Loading cap
Fixing nuts Porous plate
(b)
Figure 6.3 (a) Section of a Typical Consolidation Cell, and (b) Details of a Consolidation Cell.
Figure 6.4 Section of a Loading Device
Figure 6.5 Consolidation Curve
Form 6.1
Soil description
DIMENSIONS Inital Overall Final Specimen
specimen change specimen Preparation
Method
Diameter D mm
Area A mm2
Re-moulded
Height H mm Ho
Volume V cm3
WEIGHINGS Initial specimen Final specimen

(a) (b) (c)
Wet soil + ring + tray g
Dry soil + ring + tray g
Ring + tray g
Wet soil g mo mo
Dry soil g md md
Water g
Moisture content (measured) %
Density Mg/m3
Dry density Mg/m3
Voids ratio eo
Degree of saturation % So
Height of solids Hs mm
Consolidation Test - Oedometer 54
Form 6.2
Soil description
Machine no. Specimen diameter mm Height mm
Cell no. Lever ratio :1 Area mm2
LOADING/UNLOADING*
Increment no./date started
Load kg/lb */pressure kPa
Mean daily temperature oC
Elapsed Clock Gauge Cumulative Clock Gauge Cumulative Clock Gauge Cumulative
time time Reading compression time reading compression time reading compression
h m s tmin t x 0.01 mm ∆H x 0.01 mm ∆H x 0.01 mm ∆H
Cumulative correction
Net cumulative
compression ∆H
* Delete as appropriate
Shear box test 55
Experiment 7
Shear Box Test
General
One of the most important engineering properties of soil is its shearing strength or its ability to
resist sliding along internal surface within a mass. Shearing strength is the property which
enables soil to maintain equilibrium on a sliding surface, such as a natural hillside, back slope
of a highway or railway cut, or the slope sides of an embankment, levee or earth dam. This
strength materially influences the bearing capacity of a foundation soil, a retaining wall,
bulkhead or other type of retaining structure.
Objective
The objective of this experiment is to measure the shear strength of soils in the laboratory.
Theory
The term shear strength, as applied to soils, is not a fundamental property of a soil in the same
way as, for instance, the compressive strength is a property of concrete. On the contrary shear
strength is related to the conditions prevailing in situ and can vary with time. The value
measured in the laboratory is likewise dependent upon the conditions imposed during the test
and in some instances upon the duration of the test.
The aspects of shear strength dealt with can be divided into four categories.
1. The shear resistance of free-draining non-cohesive soils (i.e. sands and gravels), which is
virtually independent of time.
2. The drained shear strength of cohesive soils, which depends upon the rate of displacement
being slow enough to permit full drainage to take place during shear.
3. The long-term or residual drained shear strength of soils such as over-consolidated clays, for
which a slow rate of displacement and a large displacement movement are required.
4. The shear strength of very soft cohesive soils under undrained conditions, i.e. in which
shearing is applied relatively quickly.
The shear box test is the simplest, the oldest and the most straightforward procedure for
measuring the immediate or short-term shear strength of soils in terms of total stresses. It is also
easiest to understand.
In principle the shear box test is an "angle of friction" test, in which one portion of soil is made
to slide along another by the action of a steadily increasing horizontal shearing force, while a
constant load is applied normal to the plane of relative movement. These conditions are
achieved by placing the soil in a rigid metal box, square in plan, consisting of two halves. The
lower half of the box can slid relative to the upper half when pushed (or pulled) by a motorised
drive unit, while a yoke supporting a load hanger provides the normal pressure.
Materials
Dry sand.
Apparatus (see Figure 7.1 (a) and (b) for set up)
Shear box test 56
1. Shear box apparatus 25 mm thickness, 60 mm square internally.
2. A carriage to hold the assembled shear box and sample which is supported by low friction
bearings allowing movement in the longitudinal direction only.
3. A loading cap to transmit the normal load into the sample in the shear box.
4. A loading yoke to apply the vertical stress.
5. A motorized loading device capable of applying horizontal shear to the vertically loaded
specimen in the shear box at constant rates of displacement.
6. Calibrated load ring for measuring the horizontal force applied.
7. Dial gauges for measuring the horizontal and vertical displacements.
8. Tamping rod with square end, 60 m x 60 mm.
9. Balance readable to 0.01 g.
10. Specimen Formmer 60 x 60 mm by 25 mm high.
11. Small tools: scoop, funnel, brush, palette knife, and plastic hammer.
Procedure
1. Preparation of the specimen
a. Weight the specimen former on the balance.
b. Take the bottom piece of the shear box and place the base plate followed by the porous
stone into the shear box (note: the porous stone is only used as a spacer in this case).
c. Attach the top pieces of the shear box and clamp the two pieces of the shear box
together with the screws as shown, also tightly fasten the two separated screws.
d. Pour the first layer of sand into the specimen former using the funnel as shown.
e. Compact the sand using the tamping - rod and the hammer, do this in 3 layers, so that
the specimen former is completely filled with sand.
f. Clean off any excess sand, using the palette knives and brush.
g. Weight the specimen former with sand, next transfer the sand carefully into the bowl
and compact the sand in the similar manner into the shear box, also in 3 separate layers,
be sure to used all of the sand.
h. Add the porous stone as the spacer on to the top ,and then add the loading cap.
2. Test Procedure
a. Position the shear-box and sample into the carriage and adjust the drive unit manually to
the correct starting position.
b. Secure the shear box in the carriage using the two screws at the front of the carriage box,
make sure the shear box is securely in place.
c. Lift the loading yoke and seated on top of the loading cap, adjust the level arm in
horizontal position and also the vertical deformation dial gauge into the correct position
as shown.
d. Screw the support jack up, applied the appropriate load to the loading pan.
e. Secured the horse on the loading ring in position and adjust the horse on the
displacement gauge.
f. Set the horse on the displacement rate at 0.5mm/min., remove the two alignment screws
holding the two piece of the shear box together (do not forget this step) place the two
screws into the holes provided as shown.
g. Adjust the shear box separate screws a very small amount to barely separate the two half
of the shear box.
h. Adjust the load and displacements dial gauges to the zero position.
Shear box test 57
i. Lower the screw jack to apply the normal load and start the motor. Record the horse of
the vertical and displacement position as well as the horizontal load.
j. After failure, turn off the motor, remove the vertical load from the weight hanger and
remove the loading yoke, unlock the ladder with force and reverse the machine until the
shear box is alight again, replace the clamping screws that hold the shear box together
and release the fixing screws at the front of the shear box, remove the shear box from the
carriage.
k. Repeat this process at each recommended stresses.
Computation and Analysis of the data

1. The dry density of the sand is given by the equation
mass of dry sand (g)

ρd = volume of specimen formmer (cm3) (7.1)
2. Horizontal force P applied to specimen is determined from the calibration data of the load
ring used. The horizontal shear stress for any force P is given by the equation
CR x R
τ = A x 1000 kPa (7.2)
where τ is the horizontal shear stress (kPa).

A is the initial plan area of contact along the pre-determined shear plane (in
mm2).
CR is the mean calibration of the load ring (N/div).
R is the load ring reading (div).
At maximum value of R, τ = τf
Note that the value of A changes as shearing proceeds. However this is not taken into
account here.
3. The normal effective stress on the dry sand is determined from the force value of the lever
arm which is a function of the weight on the hanger pan
9810 x m x a
∴ σn’ = A kPa (7.3)
σn’ x A
m = 9810 x a
where m is the value of the hanger weights on the pan (kg).

a is the lever arm multiplying effect (10:1).
A is the plan area of contact along the pre-determined shear plane (in mm2).
The test is run three times using three different samples of the same sand at the same
density. The recommended normal effective stress for the three stages are:
Shear box test 58
a. 54.5 kPa
b. 109.0 kPa
c. 163.5 kPa
4. For each specimen-stage plot the following graphs

a. Shear stress (τ)(kPa) as ordinates against horizontal displacement (mm) as
abscissae (Graph 1).
b. Vertical displacement (mm) as ordinates against horizontal displacement (mm)
as abscissae. (Graph 2)
c. From each of the three stress-displacement graphs
• read off the value of the maximum shear stress (the ‘peak’ strength) and the
corresponding vertical and horizontal displacements.
• Plot each value of peak shear strength, τf (kPa), as ordinates against the
corresponding normal effective stress, σn’ (kPa) as abscissae, both to the
same linear scale (Graph 3 ).
Assume that the relationship (τf vs σn’) is linear and the straight line passes through
the origin of the axes.
The slope of the line gives the value φ’ in degrees. The value of the intercept (c’) is
zero.
Since the sand sample is obtained by sieving, the grains are smooth so that for a
fairly dense packing the value of φ’ will be about φ’ = 30o.
Note: You should plot τ vs δ1 and δh vs δ1 on the same piece of graph paper.
δ1 is the horizontal displacement during shearing.
δh is the vertical displacement during shearing.
Plot τf vs σn’ on a separate sheet.
Shear box test 59
(b)
(a)
Figure 7.1 (a) and (b) Set Up of Shear Box Teat
(a) (b)
Figure 7.2 (a) and (b) Preparation of Shear Box Specimen.
Form 7.1 Shearbox test : shearing

Shear box test 60
Soil description:
Force device Mean calibration (CR) Specimen size Stress factor

no. N/division x mm kPa/division
Machine no. Rate of displacement mm/min Normal stress kPa
Time Elapsed Force Shear Horizontal displacement Vertical deformation
time gauge stress gauge cumulative gauge cumulative
reading reading mm reading mm
min (R) kPa x 0.01 x 0.01
Determination of Moisture Shear Strength of Soils Using Triaxial Apparatus 61
Experiment 8
Determination of Shear Strength of Soils Using Triaxial Apparatus
General
Soil has very little strength compared to other materials used for building a structure.
Moreover, compared to the maximum soil strength that may be found, there is a very great
variation both from soil to soil and within a given soil type depending on how it was
deposited or placed. In the course of time a series of conventional practices for considering
soil strength have been develop. These practices were based on the type of structure
involved, but with little regard to the kind of soil and almost no concern as to its condition.
On the other hand, to an increasing extent situations are being encountered where lack of
knowledge of strength can lead only to extravagant costs or to failure; therefore more
rational approaches are desired.
Objective
The engineering computations concerned with the strength of a soil deal primarily with its
shearing strength; that is the resistance to sliding of one mass of soil against another, and
rarely with the compressive or tensile strength.
Theory
There are many factors which influence the shearing strength that cannot be evaluated with
the direct shear test apparatus. The triaxial shear test apparatus was developed to permit
control of these factors. It should be borne in mind, therefore, that the fact that triaxial
testing has been used does not give assurance that the validity of the result is superior, this
test procedure in which pore-water pressures are measured is used for almost all its shear
testing requirements. Shearing strength is dependent primarily on the normal or confining
stress. Under this stress the soil grains are forced into more intimate contact and the volume
of the soil mass is decreased somewhat. Since the volume of the soil grains cannot be
changed appreciably, this volume change must take place primarily in the voids or pores of
the soil .If these pores are completely filled with water their volume cannot be changed
unless some of the water is drained from the soil mass. If drainage is prevented a stress will
be developed in the pore water opposing the externally applied stress. The developed stress
is called pore-water pressure. Even if the pores are only partially filled with water pore-
water pressures will develop, but to a lesser degree. Since the pore-water pressure is
opposed to the normal or confining stress, the shearing resistance will be reduced whenever
positive pore-water pressure is present. On the basis of this observation for the general case,
Coulomb’s equation must be rewritten:
S = c +(σ - u) tan Ø
Where u is the pore-water pressure, It is also frequently written:
S = c΄+ σ tan Ø΄
Where tan Ø΄ is the apparent coefficient of internal friction. The true characteristics of a soil
are determined only when pore-water pressures are taken into account during the laboratory
test. Since in any soil the stressed pore fluid will eventually drain from the soil mass, the
reduced strength can be regarded as a somewhat temporary condition. It has been observed
that much of the variation in soil strength can be attributed to pore-water pressure. In
consequence considerable effort is being expended in construction control to minimize the
effect of pore-water pressure so that initial and ultimate strength in an earth structure will be
equal as practicable.
Apparatus
1. Triaxial Cell with Pedestal.
2. Top-cap with drainage port.
3. Porous disc.
4. Disc perspex for UU test.
5. Rubber membrane.
6. O rings.
7. Membrane placing tool.
8. O ring placing tool.
9. Two part split former, L/D ratio,2:1.
10. Filter Drain (optional).
11. Glass Plate of about 100 mm square and 10 mm thick.
12. Sample trimming device.
13. Caliper.
14. Cutting wire, necessary for fine grain soil only.
15. Sample extruder.
16. Weighting balance.
17. Moisture content determination device, please refer to Exp. 8.
18. Loading frame with speed control.
19. Load ring.
20. Displacement guage.50.0 mm travel.
21. Volume Change measurement device.(for CU and CD test )
22. Bladder Air/water cylinder.
23. Pressure control regulator with pressure gauge.
24. Compressor, (1000 kPa capacity.)
25. Water de-airing device.
26. Air and water connection tubing.
27. Vacuuming device or heating system for saturating the porous disc.
28. Color Chart.
Piston
Post and bracket for axial Location for force-measuring
deformation measurement gauge device
Piston bush or seal
Air bleed plug Cell top
Tie-rods
O-rings Top cap
Drainage line Pressurised air free water

Soil specimen
Porous discs Membrane
Cell body
Base pedestal
O-rings
Pore pressure valve
Cell pressure valve
Flushing system valve
Pore pressure transducer

Back pressure valve
Base drainage valve
fig. 8.1 Typical Triaxial Cell for the Condolidated Drained / Undrained Test
Load frame
Air bleed
Cell pressure
Pressure gauges Alternative positions for load
measuring device
Triaxial cell
Pressure
maintaining
systems
De-aerating block
Flushing system
Back pressure
Pore pressure transducer
Volume change indicator
Drive from load frame
fig. 8.2 Typical General Arrangement of a Triaxial Test Apparatus for the Condolidated Drained / Undrained Test
Additional apparatus for computerized system with electronic device

29. Data Acquisition System.
30. Computer hardware and software.
31. Transducers of all kinds, which included pressure, displacement, loading and volume
change.
Water de-airing Step

1. Turn on the tap for the supply of water to the water de-airing apparatus.
2. Switch on the water de-airing apparatus, then turn to the water supply position, allowing
water to fill the tank, prevent overflow, then off the tap.
3. Turn to the de-airing position to de-aerated the water for 20 to 30 min. Or until the water
is virtually clear .
4. Turn to water supply position, allowing water to fill to the temperate storing reservoir,
then turn off.
Data logging set-up (For computerized system with electronic device only)
1. Switch on the ADU.
2. Switch on the computer, then enter DS6 and insert a floppy disc. in drive A .
3. Get into DS6 system enter level 2. Select F2 for initialise Transducer. An option is now
presented to enter the channel number.
4. Initialise the group of channels as per Machine used (refer to fig. 3 for Machine layout ).
5. Select Machine no. Then enter the no. as required, Enter F2 for new Sample.
6. Input all the information as per function keys. Finally Save Amendment On Disc (F8).
7. When the reading is in live situation. Enter F2 for Re-set Transducers, then all the
transducers are ready for Zero setting, enter Esc for return to Reading stage.
8. Enter F1=First stage, and select the option stage for running the test.
9. When the testing stage is completed, Save the data to the floppy disc. Then enter to the
second stage or quit the program when all the stages is completed. The above procedure
is just a quick introductions only. For further details please refer to technical manual. All
new operators are request to consult the technical staff before starting the above
procedure, as training is necessary for new comers.
Preparation of test specimen

1. Measure the size of the two-part split former in several locations.
2. Attach the sampling tube to the extruder, normally with the bottom end uppermost , and
jacked out a length of the required sample.
3. Carefully house the sample with the split former, cut off the sample with a wire or knife.
4. Trimmed flat the sample on both ends with the palette knife. Any trimmed off samples
could be for moisture content determination purpose according to Exp. no. 8.
5. Weighted off both the former and the sample for the determination of density, void-
ratio, porosity and degree of saturation value when the S.G. and M/C was known .
Pre-Sample set-up on cell Procedure for UU, CU and CD test
1. Position the cell base on the machine, turn on the valve for the supply of water which is
allocated at the pressure control panel .
2. Checked that both the cell pressure and the back pressure air-bladder cylinder is fully
charged with a supply of freshly de-aired water..
3. Switch on the compressor, allowing the pressure supply is to reach 1000 kpa .
4. Check that all the discharged lines, ports are air free and connections are out of leakage.
5. Open the appropriate valve in order to flush the connections with freshly de-aireated
water.
6. Position the volume change pedal at water flow direction, ensured that there is enough
travel for the supply of water for the test to be performed. For further information please
refer to Appendix (A) volume Change Apparatus instructions.
7. Saturated the porous stone with de-airing water in the vacuum chamber.
8. Place two O rings into the O ring placing tool. The membrane should be carefully
inspected for flows or pinholes by stretched it in two directions while holding it against
a bright light. With a membrane stretcher, place the soaked rubber membrane in it.
Smash Silicon gel to the sealing ring , the cell base ,and the top cap .
9. Checked that all the loading ring , displacement gauge ,pressure gauge ,is function
properly.
10. For UU test only the cell pressure connection is necessary for the cell and porous stone
will be replaced by rigid corrosion –resistance materials or plastic. No back pressure
supply and volume change connection is necessary.
11. Now the Triaxial cell is ready for sample setting.
Materials
Soil, (Completely Weathered Granite.)
Procedure
To determine the undrained shear strength of an undisturbed soil specimen when subjected
to a constant confining pressure and to strain- controlled axial loading with no change in
moisture content.( UU test )
1. Place the cell base with a pedestal of dimensions appropriate to the size of the test
specimen on the compression machine.
2. Place the disc by sliding on the triaxial base pedestal .
3. Place the specimen on to the disc .
4. Place the second disc on top of the specimen then the top cap.
5. Using a membrane stretcher, place the rubber membrane around the soil specimen.
6. Seal the rubber membrane to the base pedestal using two rubber O-rings. ,remove air
pockets from between the membrane and the specimen by light stroking upwards. No
excess air shall be sandwiched between the specimen and membrane
7. Place two O-rings around the top cap..
8. Ensure that the axis of the soil specimen is in vertical alignment.
9. Assemble the cell body with the loading piston well clear of the top cap. Fix the cell
body with the tie rods.
10. By opening the appropriate valve ,fill the triaxial cell with de-aired tap water,
ensuring that all the air is displaced through the bleed plug. Fill the cell as quickly as
possible but without allowing turbulence, which could aerate the water, when it is
full, closed the cell valve.
11. Allowing the piston to raise slowly until it just make contact with the bearing surface
on the top cap, then closed the bleeding plug.
12. With the water supply valve closed, raise the water pressure to the desired value with
the loading piston restrained by the load frame of force-measuring device. Then open
the cell valve in order to administer the pressure into the cell.
13. Adjust the displacement gauge and the loading ring.
14. Select a rate of axial deformation such that failure can be reached within a period of
5 min. to 15 min.
15. Start the shearing by switching on the compression machine.
16. Record sufficient sets of readings of the force-measuring device and the axial
deformation gauge at intervals during compression so that the stress-strain curves
can be clearly define.
17. Check the cell pressure periodically to ensure that it remain constant at within0.5%
or ±2 kPa whichever is greater. Adjust it if necessary.
18. Terminate the test at a axial strain of at least 5 % more than that after the peak
deviator stress is reached or at an axial strain at least 20%, whichever occurs first.
19. Unload the specimen and dismantle the test assembly, then carried out a moisture
content determination of the sample.
Calculation
(1) From the set of readings ,calculate the axial strain of the test specimen to 0.1% from
the following equation :
⎛ δH ⎞
ε = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ 100
⎝ Ho ⎠
Where
Ho is the initial height of the specimen (in mm)
δH is the change in height of the specimen during compression (in mm)
Note: Strains are calculated as cumulative strains ,i.e. the changes in dimension related
to the initial reference dimension.
(2) From the set of reading, calculate the axial force P (to 1 N) applied to the soil
specimen by multiplying the difference between that reading and the initial reading
of the force-measuring device (in divisions or digits) by its calibration factor (in
N/division) .
(3) Assuming that the soil specimen deforms as a right cylinder, calculate its cross-
sectional areas, A (to 0.1mm2), from the following equation:
⎛ Ao ⎞
A= ⎜ ⎟ 100
⎝ 100 − ε ⎠
Where
Ao is the initial cross-sectional area of the soil specimen (which equals πDo2/4,
in mm2) calculated from the initial diameter Do; and
ε is the axial strain (in %).
(4) Calculate the measured principal stress difference, i.e. the deviator stress, (σ1- σ3)m,
(to 0.1kPa) for sufficient sets of readings to enable the maximum value to be
derived, from the following equation:
⎛P⎞
(σ1-σ3)m = ⎜ ⎟ 1000
⎝ A⎠
(5) Apply a correction to the calculated deviator stresses to allow for the restraining
effect of the membrane, if appropriate. The correction , σmb, shall be obtained directly
from Figure.8.3
(6) Subtract the membrane correction, σmb, from the measured deviator stresses (σ1-σ3)m,
to give the corrected deviator stresses, denoted by (σ1-σ3).
(7) Plot a graph of corrected deviator stress against axial strain. Obtain the maximum
value of corrected deviator stress, (σ1-σ3)max.
(8) Calculate the value of the undrained shear strength, Su (to o.1 kpa), of the specimen
from the following equation:
Su = 1 (σ 1 − σ 3 )max
2
(9) Calculate the bulk density ρ , moisture content, w void ratio, e and degree of
saturation, Sr of the specimen as well.
To determine shear strength of a soil specimen, which has been saturated and subjected to
an isotropic consolidation, is then sheared in compression, under a constant confining
pressure, by increasing the axial strain. Drainage is not permitted. CU test
1. Place the saturated porous disc by sliding it on to a layer of water on the triaxial base
pedestal without entrapping air, together with a filter paper disc of Whatman No. 54
filter paper or equivalent saturated in the same manner as the filter paper side drains
if any.
2. Place the soil specimen on the disc centrally without delay and without entrapping
air.
3. Place a second saturated porous disc and filter paper disc , with excess water
removed, centrally on top of the specimen . Remove air pockets from between the
membrane and the specimen by light stroking upwards. No excess water shall be
sandwiched between the specimen and membrane.
4. Seal the rubber membrane to the base pedestal using two rubber O-rings.
5. Place two O-rings around the drainage lead connected to the top cap.
6. Open the back pressure valve momentarily to moisten the top cap, and fit the cap
onto the top porous disc without entrapping air. Seal the membrane onto the top cap
with the split-ring stretcher.
7. Ensure that the axis of the soil specimen is in vertical alignment, and that the
drainage line from the top cap does not interfere with the setting up of the cell body.
8. Assemble the cell body with the loading piston well clear of the top cap. Check
alignment by allowing the piston to slide slowly until it just makes contact with the
bearing surface on the top cap, then retract the piston.
9. Fill the traxial cell with de-aired tap water, ensuring that all the air is displaced
through the bleed plug. Fill the cell as quickly as possible but without allowing
turbulence, which could aerate the water.
10. Keep the air bleed plug open until the cell is ready to be pressured, in order to
maintain the pressure at atmospheric.
11. Apply the first cell pressure increment as soon as possible, as required by the
saturation procedure.
Saturation of the specimen shall be achieved by alternative increments of cell pressure and
back pressure
1. Ensure the back pressure valve and the flushing system valve are closed. Record the
initial pore pressure when steady.
2. Apply an increment of cell pressure of not exceeding 25kPa. ( or 50kPa if the pore
pressure coefficient B, calculate by step 4 below, exceeds 0.9)
3. Observe the pore pressure until it reaches a steady value and record it
δu
4. Calculate the value of the pore pressure coefficient B from the equation B =
δσ 3
Where
δu is the change is pore pressure,
δσ3 is the change is in cell pressure
5. Keeping the back pressure valve and the flushing system valve closed, increase the
pressure in the back pressure line to a value equal to the cell pressure less the
selected differential pressure neither be less than 5 kPa nor greater than 10 kPa.
Record the reading of the back pressure line volume-change indicator when it
reaches a steady value.
6. Open the back pressure valve to admit the back pressure into the soil specimen.
7. Observe the pore pressure and the volume-change indicator readings. When they
reach steady values, record them and close the back pressure valve.
8. Calculate the volume of water taken in by (or draining out from) the soil specimen
from the difference between the volume-change indicator readings record in step 5
and 7.
9. Repeat the above step 2 to 7 until the pore pressure coefficient B is greater than or
equal to 0.95 and the back pressure is greater than or equal to 200kPa. Then repeat
the above steps 5 to 7 again, except to leave the back pressure valve open for at least
12 hours in step 7 and close the back pressure valve afterwards.
10. Calculate the total volume of water taken up by (or draining out from) the soil
specimen into the air voids by the difference obtained in the above step 7.
Isotropic Consolidation For CU and CD test
Isotropic consolidate the specimen shall be carried out immediately after the saturation stage
using the same apparatus. The effective stress in the soil specimen is increased to the desired
value by raising the cell pressure and dissipating the resulting excess pore pressure to an
appropriate back pressure.
1 After completion of the saturation stage, keep the back pressure valve closed and record
the pore pressure and volume-change indicator readings.
2 Increase the cell pressure (σ3) and back pressure (ub) , if necessary, to give a difference
equal to the desired effective consolidation pressure(σ3) such that (σ3 ,) = σ3 - ub.
3 Record the pore pressure until a steady value ui (in kPa ) is reached. Record and plot
readings of pore pressure against time to establish when a steady value is reached. The
excess pore pressure to be dissipated is equal to (ui-ub.)
4 Record the reading of the volume change indictor. At a convenient moment start the
consolidation stage by opening the back pressure valve.
5 Record and plot readings of the volume-change indicator and the pore pressure
transducer, at suitable intervals of time.
6 Allow consolidation to continue until the volume change indicator reading reaches a
steady value and at least 95% of the excess pore pressure has been dissipated, i.e. U ≥
95%. U = ⎛⎜ ui − u ⎞⎟100 Where U is the degree of consolidation and u is the pore pressure
⎜u −u ⎟
⎝ i b ⎠
reading at a given time t.

7 Record the reading of the volume-change indicator and calculate the total change in
volume (δVc ) during the consolidation stage. Record the pore pressure uc (in kPa).
8 The consolidated specimen is then ready for the compression test.
Axial Compression
Carry out compression of the specimen
1. Set up the triaxial cell on the compression machine if it has been placed elsewhere
during the saturation and consolidation stages
2. Adjust the machine platen, either by hand or by motor drive, until the cell loading
piston is brought to within a short distance of the specimen top cap.
3. Adjust the compression machine to give a rate of displacement dr in mm/minute as
ε f Lc
to, but not exceeding, that calculated as following relationship d r =
100 Ft 100
Where Lc is the length of the consolidated specimen;
εf is the strain at which failure will occur as 0.1%;
F is a coefficient which depends on the drainage conditions, and the
type of compression test, and t100 is the time for 100% consolidation obtained from
the square-root time plot (table 9.1)
4. Make further adjustment to bring the loading piston just into contact with the seating
on the top cap of the soil specimen.
5. Close the back pressure valve and ensure the cell pressure valve and pore pressure
valve are open.
6. Record the date and time to start the compression stage and the initial readings of the
deformation gauge, force measuring device, pore pressure, and cell pressure.
7. Apply compression to the soil specimen and simultaneously start the timer. Record
sufficient sets of readings of the deformation gauge, force-measuring device and pore
pressure measuring device at intervals during the stress-strain curve can be clearly
defined.
8. Calculate values of deviator stress (σ1−σ3) (in kPa) and effective principal stress
ratio (σ1’/σ3’) , while the test is still in progress.
9. Unless otherwise specified, terminate the test at an axial strain of at least 5% more
than that after the peak deviator stress is reached or at an axial strain of at least 20%,
whichever occurs first.
10. Stop the shearing. Close the pore pressure valve and open the flushing system valve
to protect the transducer.
When multi-stage test is specified, carry out the procedures as follows:
1. Terminate the compression at maximum effective principal stress ratio (σ1’/σ3’) , or

the maximum deviator stress (σ1−σ3) whichever occurs first. Record readings of the
deformation gauge, force measuring device and pore pressure measuring device.
2. Reduce the deviator stress (σ1−σ3) to zero by reversing the motor.
3. Increase the cell pressure (σ3) but keep the back pressure (ub) at the same value as
that at the consolidation phase of the first stage to give a difference equal to the
desired effective consolidation pressure (σ3 ) for the next stage. Then repeat
consolidation and compression stage as above.
4. Repeat the steps (1) to (3) above for the third stage of the triaxial test but at the target
effective consolidation pressure for that stage.
Unload the specimen and dismantle the test assembly
1. Ensure the back pressure valve and the pore pressure valve is closed.
2. Remove the axial force from the soil specimen.
3. Reduce the cell pressure to zero and drain the water from the cell.
4. Dismantle the cell.
5. Remove the rubber membrane, filter paper side drains (if any) , top cap, porous discs
and the soil specimen from the base pedestal.
6. Sketch the mode of failure of the soil specimen
Measure and process the tested specimen
1. Immediately weigh the whole soil specimen to determine its final wet mass to 0.1g.
2. Take photographs of the tested specimen both before and after it is split vertically
into two halves, alongside a suitable scale and a colour chart. Describe the soil
including its fabric.
3. Dry the specimen to constant mass at the same temperature as that used for the
determination of moisture content and determine the dry mass to 0.1g.
4. For undisturbed soil specimen, soak it in water until it is sufficiently softened for
breaking up into individual particles. Break it up for inspection. If there are particles
of size larger than one-fifth of the diameter of the soil specimen, determine their
percentage by mass and take photograph of them alongside scale and colour chart.
Calculations
Using the data obtained from the consolidation stage, carry out the following calculations:
1. Calculate the dimensions (volume Vc, in cm3, cross sectional areas, Ac, in mm2 and
height, Hc, in mm) of the soil specimen after consolidation from the following equations.
Vc =Vo- δVc
2
⎛ δV ⎞ 3
Ac = Ao ⎜⎜1 − c ⎟⎟
⎝ Vo ⎠
1
⎛ δV ⎞ 3
Hc = H o ⎜⎜1 − c ⎟⎟
⎝ Vo ⎠
Where
Vo is the original volume of the specimen prior to the saturation stage (in cm3);
δVc is the change in volume during consolidation as determined from the volume
of water draining out of the specimen (in cm3);
Ao is the original cross sectional area of the specimen (in mm2); and
Ho is the original height of the specimen(in mm)
Note 1: Where net volume of water has drained out from the soil specimen during the
saturation stage, V0 shall be taken to be the original volume of the specimen
prior to the saturation stage less that net volume of water.
Note 2: If the change in volume during saturation is significant, it should be estimated
and included with δVc.
2. Plot a graph of the degree of consolidation(U) against logarithm of time and also plot the
measured volume change (δVc) against square-root time.
3. From the plot of degree of consolidation (U) against logarithm of time, read off the t50
(in minutes ) corresponding to 50% consolidation .
4. Calculate the value of the coefficient of consolidation for isotropic consolidation, Cvi ( to
0.01 m2/year ), from the equation:
0.2 H 2 H + Hc
cvi = for H = o
t50 2
Where
H is the average height of the specimen during the consolidation stage (in mm);
and
t50 is the value determined from the (3) above (in min )
Note: the above formula for the calculation of Cvi assumes drainage is vertical towards
one end of the soil specimen and no side drains are used.
5. On the plot of volume change against square-root time, draw the straight line which best
fits the early portion of volume change against square-root time (this portion normally
lies within the first 50% of the volume change readings) .Draw a horizontal line through
the final point of the plot .At the point where these lines intersect, read off the value of
square-root time, denoted by √t100 and calculate the time intercept of this point, t100 (in
min.)
6. Calculate the value of the coefficient of consolidation for isotropic consolidation, Cvi ( to
0.01 m2/year ), from the following equation:
1.65D 2 D + Dc
cvi = for D = o
λt100 2
Where D is the average diameter of the soil specimen during the consolidation stage (in
mm);
Dc is the diameter of the consolidated specimen (in mm) derived from the value
Ac obtained in Step (1) above; and
λ is a coefficient which depends on the drainage conditions and the length to

diameter ratio (r) of the soil specimen as shown in table 9.1
Note: Where side drains have been used, the value of Cvi derived in this way should not
be applied to engineering settlement calculations because it has been shown to be
grossly in error.
7. Calculate the value of the coefficient of volume compressibility for isotropic

consolidation, mvi (to 0.01 m2/MN ), from the following equation.
⎛ δVc ⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎜ Vo ⎟
mvi = 1000
⎜ ui − u c ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎝ ⎠
Where δVc is the change in volume of the specimen due to consolidation (in cm3);
Vo is the original specimen volume (in cm3);
ui is the pore pressure at the start of the consolidation (in kPa); and
uc is the pore pressure at the end of the consolidation (in kPa).
8. Calculate the significant testing time tf (to 0.01 minute) for the compression test, from
the following equation:
tf =Ft100
Where F is a coefficient which depends on the drainage conditions, and the type of
compression test, i.e. undrained or drained (obtained in table 8.1 ); and
t100 is the time for 100% consolidation obtained from the square-root time plot.
Note: the factor F is based on 95% dissipation of excess pore pressure induced by
shear, which is acceptable for most practicable purposed.
9. Estimate the strain at which failure will occur, εf to 0.1%
10. Calculate the rate of axial displacement, dr (in mm/min), to be applied to the soil
specimen from the following equation:
ε f Lc
dr =
100t f
Where Lc is the length of the consolidated specimen (in mm);
εf is the strain at which failure will occur as estimated in step 9 above in( %);
and
tf is the significant testing time (in min).
Note2: soils if relatively high permeability may give calculated times to failure that
are unrealistically short. The maximum rate of axial displacement in these
cases should be limited to 2% per hour.
After the completion of the test, carry out the following calculations:
(i) Calculate the axial strain, ε1 (to 0.1%) from the following equation:
⎛ δH ⎞
ε 1 = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ 100
⎝ Hc ⎠
Where δH is the change in height (from the initial height ) during compression, as
determined from the deformation gauge (in mm); and
Hc is the height of the soil specimen after consolidation (in mm) in equation (1).
Note: In this procedure, strains are calculated as cumulative strain, i.e. the change in
dimension relative to the initial reference dimension.
(ii) Calculate the cross-sectional area, As (to 0.1 mm2) of the soil specimen normal to its
axis, assuming that it deforms as a right cylinder from the following equation:
100 Ac
As =
100 − ε 1
Where
Ac is the initial area of soil specimen normal to its axis after consolidation (in
mm2) .
Note: this equation is based on the assumption that the volumetric strain is zero in an
undrained test on a fully saturated soil specimen
(iii) Calculate the axial force, P (to I N), applied to the soil specimen additional to that due
to the cell pressure from the following equation:
P = Cr × R
Where R is the reading of the force-measuring device (in division )
Cr is the calibration factor of the force-measuring device (in N / div. or digit )
(iv) Calculate the applied axial stress, i.e. the measured principal stress difference, or
deviator stress (σ1-σ3)m (to 0.1 kPa) from the following equation:
⎛ P⎞
(σ 1 − σ 3 )m = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ 1000
⎝ As ⎠
(v) Read out the membrane correction, σmb.
(vi) Read out the side drain correction factor from table 9.2 , σdr if vertical side drains have
been used
(vii) Calculate the corrected deviator stress, (σ1-σ3) (to 0.1kPa) from the following equation:
(σ1-σ3 ) = (σ1-σ3 )m - σmb - σdr
(viii) Calculate major principal, σ1 (to0.1kPa) from the following equation:
σ1 =(σ1-σ3 )+σ3
Where σ3 is the cell pressure
(ix) Calculate the effective major and minor principal stresses, (σ1’ and σ3’ respectively) (to
0.1kpa ) from the following equations:
σ1’ =σ1-u
σ3’ =σ3-u
Where u is the pore pressure.
(x) Calculate the effective principal ratio = σ1’/σ3’
u − uo
(xi) Calculate the coefficient Af A f =
(σ 1 − σ 3 )
Where uo is the pore pressure in the soil specimen at the start of compression; and
u the pore pressure at failure.
(xii) Calculate the stress parameters, s’ and t (to 0.1kpa ), in terms of effective stress from
the following equation:
s' =
(σ '1 +σ ' 3 )
2
t =
(σ 1 − σ 3 )
2
(xiii) Calculate the stress path parameters, p’ and q (to 0.1kPa), in term of effective stress
from the following equations:
P’ =(σ1’+2σ3’)/3 q = (σ1-σ3 )
(xiv) Initial moisture content, Wo (to 0.1%),and bulk density, ρo (to 0.01Mg/m3),
100(mo − md ) 1000mo
Wo = ; ρo =
md Ao H o
Where mo is the initial wet mass of the specimen ( in g);
md is the final dry mass of the specimen ( in g);
Ao is the initial cross-sectional area of the specimen (in mm2);
Ho is the initial height of the specimen (in mm).
(xv) Moisture content, Wsat (to 0.1%), and bulk density, ρsat (to 0.01Mg/m3) ,of the
specimen after saturation from the following equations:
100ρ wδVsat 1000(mo + ρ wδVsat )

Wsat = Wo - ; ρ sat =
md Ao H o
Where ρw is the density of water=1.0Mg/m3;and
δVsat is the total volume of water taken in by the specimen during saturation
stage (in cm3).
(xvi) Moisture content, wcon (to 0.1% , and bulk density, σcon (to0.01Mg/m3), of the
specimen after consolidation from the following equations:
100ρ wδVcon
Wcon = Wsat - ;
md
1000(mo + ρ wδVsat − ρ wδVcon )
ρ con =
Ao H o − 1000δVcon
Where δVcon is the total volume of water expelled during the consolidation stage (in
cm3 ,negative for volume of water taken in during a swelling stage ).
(xvii) Calculate the final moisture content, wf (to 0.1%), and bulk density, ρf (to 0.01Mg/m3),
of the specimen from the following equations:
wf =100(mf-md)/md; ρf =1000mf /AoHo-1000δVcon
100(m f − md ) 1000m f
Wf = ; ρf =
md Ao H o − 1000δVcon
(xviii) Calculate the dry density ,void ratio, and degree of saturation ,of the specimen at the
initial stage, end of the saturation and consolidation stages and the final stage as well.
Plot the following graphs:
(1) Deviator stress, plotted as ordinate, against the axial strain (usually expressed as
percentage )as abscissa,
(2) Effective principal stress ratio σ´1 / σ´3 plotted as ordinate, against the axial strain as
abscissa,
(3) Stress path for effective stresses, with values of s’ as abscissa and t as ordinate, on a plot
in which the vertical and horizontal scales are the same,
(4) Stress path for effective stresses, with values of p’ as abscissa and q as ordinate, on a
plot in which the vertical and horizontal scales are the same, and
(5) Pore pressure change curve, using the same abscissa as in 1), and pore pressure as
ordinate. Mark clearly the initial pore pressure during the compression stage on the
graph.
FAILURE CRITERIA
From the curve of deviator stress against strain the maximum value (at the ‘peak’ point or
‘failure’ condition) is located, and denoted by (σ1-σ3)f. The corresponding values of strain
(εf) and pore pressure (uf) are also read off. The curve might indicate that the maximum
value lies between two sets of readings, in which case a sensible interpolation should be
made. Values of σ´3, σ´1, σ´1 /σ´3 and Ā (denoted by Āf ) corresponding to the ‘failure
condition are calculated as described above.
Results from a set of three specimens can be presented on one test report sheet by grouping
the graphs together .The stress path plots of
t against s’
for the set of specimens are drawn on one sheet. The point on each plot corresponding to the
failure criterion of maximum deviator stress is marked, and the line of best fig is drawn
through the set of points. The angle of slope of the line to the horizontal axis is denoted by θ,
and its intercept with the t (vertical) axis is denoted buy to.
The shear strength parameters (c´ (Ø´) are calculated from the following relationships
Sin Ø´= tan θ C´ = to / cos Ø ´
Shear Strength – CD test
Calculations and corrections
The symbols used to illustrate shear strength calculations are the same as for the CU test
Axial strain (ε%) and axial force ( P newtons ) are calculated as for the CU test. In
calculating the deviator stress (σ1-σ3)f. kpa the change in volume of the specimen due to
drainage is an additional factor to be taken into account, The volumetric strain is equal to εv
=(δV/Vc ).100% and the deviator stress is calculated from the equation.
P 100 − ε
(σ 1 − σ 3 )m = x x 1000kPa
Ac 100 − ε vs
If there is no significant change in pore pressure there is little to be gained from calculating
the principal stress ratio because when plotted it will give a curve identical in shape to the
stress/strain curve.
Table 8.1
Factors for Calculating cv and Time to Failure
Drainage Conditions Values of λ Values of F (for r = 2)

during Consolidation L/D = 2 L/D = r Drained Test Undrained Test
From one end 1 r2/4 8.5 0.53
From both ends 4 r2 8.5 2.1
From radial boundary 80 3.2(1 + 2r)2 14 1.8

and one end
From radial boundary 100 4(1 +2r)2 16 2.3

and two ends
Table 8.2
Corrections for Vertical side Drains
Specimen diameter (mm) 38 50 70 100 150
Drain correction σdr (kpa) 10 7 5 3.5 2.5
Triaxial test: specimen data
Soil Description Sample no.
Depth m
Date
Consolidated-unddrained/consolidated-drained* triaxial compression test
Type of speciimen Undisturbuted/compacted* Nominal diameter mm
Preparation procedure
Initial specimen
Length (in mm) Diameter (in mm)

Mass, m 0 (in g)
Moisture content, w0 (in %)
Dry Mass, md (in g)
Area, A0 (in mm2)
Volume, V0 (in cm3)
Mean L0 Mean D0 Density, ρ (in Mg/m3)
Dry Density, ρd (in Mg/m3)
Weightings
Soil trimmings Test specimen

Initial condition After test
Container no.
Specimen + container g
Container g
Specimen g m0 mf
Dry specimen + contain g
Dry specimen g md md
Moisture g
Moisture content % w0 wf
* Delete as appropriate.
Form 8.1
Triaxial saturation
Soil Description Sample no.
Depth m
Date
Consolidated-unddrained/consolidated-drained* triaxial compression test
With/without* side drains Date started completed
Pressure system no. Cell no. Nominal diameter mm
Saturation procedure:*
Cell Pressure and back pressure increments/At constant moisture content
Other
Pressure (kPa) Back Pore Pressure B Volume-change indicator +

Pressure (kPa) value (mL)
Value Increment (kPa) Reading Increment δu Before After Difference
σ3 δσ3 u δu δσ3 V 1 V2
Remarks Total water

taken up (mL)
+
If required.
Form 8.2
Triaxial consolidation
Soil description Sample no.
Depth m
Date
Consolidated-undrained/consolidated-drained*triaxial compression test
With/without*side drains Date started Completed
Pressure system no. Cell no.
Required effective pressure,σ 3'(in kPa) Initial diameter,
Do (in mm)
Cell pressure, σ3 (in kPa) Initial length,
Lo (in mm)
Back pressure,u b, (in kPa) Initial area,
Ao (in mm2)
Pore pressure after build-up, u i (in kPa) Initial volume,
Vo (in cm3)
Excess pore pressure, (u i - ub) (in kPa)
Consolidation data
Date Time Elapsed time √t Volume change Pore pressure

t (min) indicator
Reading Difference Reading Difference Dissipation
u (ui - u) U
(mL) (mL) (kPa) (kPa) (%)
0 0 0 0 0
Final difference =
total consolidation volume change ∆V c
Form 8.3
volume change (cm )
3
square root time (in minutes)
After consolidation
Consolidated volume, V c = Vo - ∆Vc cm3 Coefficient of volume
Volumetric strain, εV = ∆Vc Compressibility
Vo mvi = 1000 εV
Consolidated length, L c = Lo (1 - 1/3 εV) mm (ui - uc)
Consolidated area, A c = Ao (1 - 2/3 εV) mm2 mvi = m2/MN
Value of λ Value of F Coefficient of Consolidation,
From graph, √t100 = t100 = min cvi = 2.1 Ac
Significant testing time, tf = Ft100 = min λt100
2
= m / year
Significant strain : assumed failure/ reading intervals*, ε f =
Calculated rate of axial displacement, d r = εfLc = mm/min
tf
Selected machine speed mm/min
Form 8.4
Consolidaton undrained triaxial compression test with measurement of pore pressure
soil description sample no.
Depth m
Date
Consolidated undrained triaxial compression test Date
Pressure system no. membrance Start of compression Failure Max. deviator stre Nominalσ 3' kPa
Cell no. thickness mm Lc mm criterion Max. stress ratio Cell pressure kPa
Ac 2 *
machine no. with/without* mm Critical state Machine speed mm/min
Force device no. side drains Vc cm 3
Axial strain of %rate of strain % per h
Date Time Axial strain Pore A
Area Axial force Deviator stress Principal stresses Stress path*
pressure coeff.
Read- ∆L ε As read- Diff- Cr P u u-u 0 (σ1-σ3)m (σmb-σdr) (σ1-σ3) σ1 σ1' σ3' Ratio u-u 0 s' t'
ing ing, erence σ1'/σ3' σ1-σ3
(mm) 2 R
(mm ) R-R o (N/div. (N) (kPa) (kPa (kPa) (kPa) (kPa) (kPa) (kPa) (kPa) (kPa) (kPa)
) )
0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0
*Delete as appropiate.
Consolidaton drained triaxial compression test with measurement of volume change
Location Job ref.
Borehole/
Pit ref:
soil description sample no.
Depth m
Date
Test method Clause 8 of BS 1377: Part 8: 1990Consolidated undrained triaxial compression test Date
Pressure system no. Membrance Start of compression Failure Max. deviator stress Nominalσ 3' kPa
thickness mm L criterion*
Cell no. c mm Cell pressure kPa
2
machine no. with/without* Ac mm Critical state Machine speed mm/min
Force device no. side drains Vc cm 3
Axial strain of % rate of strain % per h
Date Time Axial strain sample
Axial force Area Deviator stress Principal stresses Stress path*
volume
Read- ∆L ε read- Diff- Cr P u u-u 0 ε v As (σ1-σ3)m (σmb-σdr) (σ1-σ3) σ1 σ1' σ3' s' t'
ing, ing, erence
R (mm) R R-Ro (N/div.) (N) (kPa) (kPa) (mm2) (kPa) (kPa) (kPa) (kPa) (kPa) (kPa) (kPa) (kPa)
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
*Delete as appropiate.
Determination of Moisture Content - Oven-Drying Method 84
Experiment 9
Determination of Moisture Content (Oven-Drying Method)
General
Naturally occurring soils nearly always contain water as part of their structure. The moisture
content of a soil is assumed to be the amount of water within the pore space between the soil
gains which is removable by oven drying at 105 - 110 oC, expressed as a percentage of the
mass of dry soil. By "dry" is meant the result of oven drying at that temperature to constant
mass, usually for a period of about 12 - 24 hours. In non-cohesive granular soils this
procedure removes all water present.
The moisture of a soil is the characteristic which is most frequently determined, and applies
to all types of soil. The amount of water in soil can influence their behaviour. Measurement
of moisture content, both in the natural state and under certain defined test conditions, can
provide an extremely useful method of classifying cohesive soils and of assessing their
engineering properties (Head 1992).
Objective
To measure the moisture content of a soil using oven-drying method
Material
Fine - grained soil.
Apparatus
1.Drying oven, capable of maintaining a temperature of 1050C±50C.
2.Airtight corrosion-resistant metal container.
3.Balance readable to 0.01 g.
4.Desiccator containing anhydrous silica gel.
5.Scoop of suitable size.
Procedure
1.Clean and dry the metal container and weigh it to the nearest 0.01 g (m1).
2.Take a sample of at least 30 g of soil, crumble and place loosely in the container, and
replace the lid. Then weigh the container and contents to the nearest 0.01g (m2).
3.Remove the lid, and place the container with its lid and contents in the oven and dry at
1050C±50C. (The period required for drying will vary with the type of soil and the size of
sample but the sample shall be deemed to be dry when the differences in successive
weightings of the cooled sample at intervals of 4hr. do not exceed 0.1% of the original mass
of the sample.)
4.After drying, remove the container and contents from the oven and place the whole in the
desiccator to cool.
5.Replace the lid and then weigh the container and contents to the nearest 0.01g (m3).
Computation and results
1.Calculate the moisture content of the soil specimen, w as a percentage of the dry soil mass
to the nearest 0.1% from the equation.
m2-m3
w =( m -m ) 100% (9.1)
3 1
where
m1 is the mass of container (in g).
m2 is the mass of container and wet soil (in g).
m3 is the mass of container and dry soil (in g).
Note: Sixteen to 24 hours are usually are sufficient for drying most soils, but certain soil
types and larger or very wet samples will require a longer period. The drying time will also
depend on the amount of material in the oven.
Form 9.1 Moisture Content
Soil description :
Container no.
Mass of wet soil + container (m2) g
Mass of dry soil + container (m3) g
Mass of container (m1) g
Mass of moisture (m2 - m3) g
Mass of dry soil (m3 - m1) g

m2-m3
Moisture content w =( m -m ) 100 %
3 1
Bibliography and Reference 87
Bibliography and Reference
Bardet, J.P. (1997), Experimental Soil Mechanics, Prentice Hall, New Jersey.
Bowels, J. (1992), Engineering Properties of Soils and their Measurement, 4th Edition,
McGraw-Hill.
British Standard 1377:Part 1:1990, British Standard Methods of Test for Soils for Civil
Engineering Purposes, Part 1, General Requirements and Sample Preparation, BSI,
London.
British Standard 1377:Part 4: 990, British Standard Methods of Test for Soils for Civil
Engineering Purposes, Part 4, Compaction-related Tests, BSI, London.
British Standard 1377:Part 7:1990, British Standard Methods of Test for Soils for Civil
Engineering Purposes, Part 7, Shear Strength Tests (Total Stress), BSI, London.
Head, K.H. (1989), Soil Technicians Handbook, Pentech Press Limited, London.
Head, K.H. (1992), Manual of Soil Laboratory Testing, 2nd Edition, Volume 1 and 2, Pentech
Press Limited, London.
Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Laboratory Manual for Soil Mechanics, Department of
Civil and Structural Engineering.
Liu, C. and Evett, J.B. (1997), Soil Properties Testing, Measurement, and Evaluation, 3rd
Edition, Prentice Hall, New Jersey.
Mandal J.N. and Divshikar D.G. (1995), Soil Testing in Civil Engineering, A.A. Balkema,
Netherlands.
Vickers, B. (1978), Laboratory Work in Soil Mechanics, 2nd Edition, Granada, London.
U.S.D.I. Earth Manual OXFORD & IBH
Geotechnical Engineering office, Civil Engineering Department , The Government of the Hong
Kong Special Administrative Region Model specification for soil testing
Department of Building and Construction,
Soil and Rock Mechanics Laboratory
Soil Laboratory Testing Report
Experiment Title:
Experiment No:
Group No:
Student Names and IDs:
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
Testing Date:
Submission date:

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i

Location of Soil and Rocks Mechanics Laboratory

& Rock Mechanics

Location of soil and rock mechanics laboratory i

Safety and security guides in laboratories 1-2

Preparation and submission of laboratory reports 3-4

Experiment 1 Determination of Particle Density (Density Bottle Method) 5-8

Experience 2A Determination of Particle Size Distribution – 9-12

Experiment 2B Determination of Particle Size Distribution – (Pipette Method) 13-18

Experiment 3A Determination of Atterberg Limits – (Liquid Limit Test) 19-23

Experiment 3B Determination of Atterberg Limits – (Plastic Limit Test) 24-26

Experiment 4 Determination of Dry Density /Moisture Content Relationship 27-32

Experiment 5A Determination of the Permeability of a Soil Sample – 33-37

Experiment 5B Determination of he Permeability of a Soil Sample – 38-42

Experiment 6 Consolidation Test (Oedometer) 43-54

Experiment 7 Direct Shear Test 55-60

Experiment 8 Triaxial Test 61-83

Experiment 9 Determination of Moisture Content (Oven-Drying Method) 84-86

Bibliography and Reference 87

Appendix Cover page for soil laboratory testing report

Safety and Security Guides in Laboratories

Preparation and Submission of Laboratory Reports

Format of Laboratory Reports

2. Separate pages should be used for all graphs and tables;

4. All reports should have the following sections ;

Report Writing (Bowles 1992)

Computation and Precision

Determination of Particle Density (Density Bottle Method)

Computation and Results

Figure 1.1 50 ml density bottle

Form 1.1 Particle Density (pyknometer)

Mass of bottle + soil + water m3 g

Mass of bottle + soil m2 g

Mass of bottle full of water m4 g

Mass of water in full bottle m4 - m1 g

Mass of water used m3 - m2 g

Volume of soil particles (m4 - m1) - (m3 - m2) ml

Average value ρs Mg/m3

Calculation and expression of results

Remarks: Micro-wave drying method is not normally being recommended as a usual

Form 2A.1 Aggregate Sieve Analysis Record Sheet

Determination of Particle Size Distribution for Fine Gravels (Sedimentation by pipette

Dispersing agent correction

Table 2B.1 Pipette sampling times and equivalent particle diameters

Particle density Times after shaking of starting sampling operation

Table 2B.2 Viscosity of water

Pipette Time Pipette Mass Cumulative percentage Equivalent

4th About 30 mins. Weighing bottle no.

Mass of sample mr (A-B) g

Determination of Atterberg Limits (Liquid Limits Test)

Liquid Limit (Cone-penetration method)

Computation and Results:

Determination of Atterberg Limits (Plastic Limit Test)

(c) TOO WET (d) AT THE PLASTIC LIMIT

Dry mass of soil in the test sample, mD =m(100/100+w)

Determination of Dry Density / Moisture Content Relationship

Where γzav = dry unit weight at zero air voids

Figure 4.1 Dry Density / Moisture Content Relationship Curve

Table 1 Dry Soil Weigh (4kg)

Water (ml) Added M/C (%)

Figure 4.2 Compacting with Hand Rammer

Figure 4.3 Sequence of Blows Using Hand Rammer

Computation and Results