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AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING
Automobile is a self propelled vehicle. Steam engines are external
combustion engines.
Lighter Heavier
Petrol Engines:
There are two types of fuel pumps. They are mechanical and
electrical fuel pumps. It contains the following parts
Diesel Engines:
There are two methods of fuel injection. They are air blast injection
and Airless or solid injection. It contains the following parts.
Super Charging:
Governors:
Exhaust silencers:
Baffle types are less efficient. Length of gas paths are so adjusted such
that crest of one wave coincides with the trough of another wave canceling
each other. This type of muffler does not eliminate noise completely. Gas
flowing through Resonance muffler does not experience high resistance.
Series of resonators reduce the noise of the fundamental and higher
harmonics. Sound absorbing materials are kept surrounding the perorated
tube through which the exhaust gases pass. During high pressure
fluctuations the gases pass through the perforations to the sound absorbing
materials, when these fluctuations are reduced and thus the noise gets
reduced in intensity. The silencers may be straight flow type or reverse flow
type.
Air Cleaner:
The intake air should be cleaned if it contains dirt and dust, it will
damage the engine. It acts as inlet system silencer and arrests flame due to
back firing if any. It is mounted at the air entrance of carburetor. The
following are the different types
1. Oil bath type - The filter contains a filter element wetted with oil. At
the bottom there is a separate oil pan. Air from the atmosphere enters
through circumferential gap. Air hits oil in the oil pan. Large dust
particles are removed. then air passes through filler element. Further
cleaning takes place. Then the air enters the engine. Maximum
efficiency of oil bath type air cleaners is about 98%. Oil bath air
cleaners can be designed with centrifugal pre-cleaners.
2. Dry type - In this the filter element is paper or felt. Felt filters are not
efficient as paper filters. But are more efficient than oil bath air
filters. paper filters can be as efficient as 99.99%.
3. Oil wetted type.
4. Paper pleated type and
5. Centrifugal type.
Engine Cooling:
1. Air cooling
2. Water cooling
3. Liquid cooling and
4. Stream cooling.
Lubrication:
Fire point : When the oil is further heated after flash point, the oil will burn
continuously.
Cloud point : When the oil is cooled it becomes solidified and becomes
cloudy at this point.
Lubrication system:
1. Petrol system
2. Splash system.
3. Pressure system
4. Semi pressure system and
5. Dry sump system.
1. Oil tank
2. Pump ( Gear pump, Rotor pump, plunger pump and Vane pump )
3. Cooler
4. Oil pressure gauge and
5. Oil level indicator.
Battery:
Ignition System:
Gear Boxes:
Dead axles only support the wheels but do not transmit any power.
While a live axle apart from supporting the wheels also transmits torque to
the rear wheels.
Axle breather:
In order to maintain the pressure of oil in the rear axle, so that the oil
is not forced past the oil seal, an axle breather is used. This increase in
pressure is caused by expansion of air due to heat from the gears. The axle
breather is placed in axle casing.
Is to keep both the rear wheels at the same speed in straight travel
and make the outer rear wheel to rotate faster than the inner one during turn.
The axle shaft transmits drive from the differential to the rear hub.
The various stresses to be resisted by these shafts are
Brakes:
The leading shoe is the first shoe after the cam in the direction of
rotation. The friction between the shoe and the drum pushes the tip of the
leading shoe harder in contact with the drum and pushes it off at its toe,
where as the trailing shoe tip is throw away off the brake drum, as the drum
rotates against.
Tyres:
They are mounted on wheel rims to carry load and provide a cushioning effect.
There are two types of Tyres. They are tubed tyres and tubeless tyres.
ENGINEERING MECHANICS - STATICS
Engineering mechanics is the science that deals with the state of rest
or motion of bodies under the action of forces. It is further divided into
mechanics of rigid bodes, deformable bodes and fluids.
Rigid Bodies:
Mass Weight
It is different at different
It is constant at all places
places
Newton's Law:
Initial momentum = m.u and final momentum = m.v. Thus the rate
of change in momentum is m(v-u) / t = m.a Newton's second law of
motion is more compactly written as the equation ∑F = ma
The concept implied in Newton's Second Law of Motion are found in many
places, as shown below
Cause Resistance Rate of
= x
of change to change change of...
Newton's second law force mass velocity
moment angular
rotational dynamics torque
of inertia velocity
shearing
Newtonian fluids viscosity shear
stress
thermal temperature
r-factor heat
conduction gradient
potential electrical
ohm's law charge
difference resistance
potential
faraday's law inductance current
difference
Third Law: to every action, there is a equal and opposite reaction. This goes
to say, that the force of action and reaction are equal in magnitude by
opposite in direction.
Law of Gravitation:
Two particles are attracted towards each other along the lines joining
them, with a force whose magnitude is directly proportional to the product
of masses and inversely proportional to the square of distance between
them.
F = G m1m2 / r2
Scalar quantity: Some quantities like time, mass volume can be expressed
in terms of magnitude alone and don't have any direction. They obey the
law of algebra.
Vector quantity: Quantities like distance, velocity, acceleration and all are
expressed in terms of both magnitude and direction. They obey the law of
vectors. To define such a quantity Magnitude, Direction and Point of
application has to be specified.
FORCE:
Apart from this force is also classified as internal and external force.
Internal force are those that hold together the particles forming the rigid
body. If the rigid body has several parts, the forces holding the component
parts together are also called as internal force. External forces represent the
action of other bodies on he rigid body under consideration. They will
either cause it to move or assure that it remains at rest.
Types of forces:
Two forces are said to be equivalent if they produce the same effect
on a rigid body. Equivalent forces is based on some specific effect.
Coplanar forces:
When a number of forces lies in the same plane, then it is called as
coplanar force. Other wise it is called as non coplanar forces.
Concurrent forces:
These forces are those in which the forces have the lines of action
passing through common point. However, all of the individual vectors
might not acutally be in contact with the common point.
Parallel force:
• Like parallel force : When two parallel forces have the same direction
but may or may not have the same magnitude.
• Unlike unequal parallel force : when both the forces are unequal in
magnitude and act in opposite directions.
• Unlike equal parallel force : When two forces are opposite
indirection and equal in magnitude.
Polygon law :
Lami's Theorem:
Principle of Transmissibility:
When the resultant of all the forces acting on a particle is zero, then
the particle is said to be in a state of equilibrium.
To draw the free body diagram the supports are removed and
replaced by the reactions the support exerts on the body.
Moment of force:
Varignon's Theorem:
Couple:
Central values:
Centre of mass: is the point through which the entire mass of the body is
assumed to be concentrated. Both are different only when the gravitational
field is not uniform and parallel, other wise it is the same.
Centroid: is the point where the entire area of the lamina is assumed to
concentrated.
W = ∫ dW xW = ∫ xdW yW = ∫ ydW
The magnitude of weight W is denoted
by ρgt ∆Α. Substituting this value of W and W in the above equations and
dividing it by ρgt, we get
xA = ∫ xdA yA = ∫ ydA
Qx = yA Qy = xA
Beams:
Cables:
Friction:
Dry friction:
Is the one which exists between two dry surfaces. Such a friction is
caused mainly because of minute projections present on the surface of body
hindering relative motion. The friction between liquid surfaces is called as
fluid friction.
Limiting friction:
F = µN
N - Normal reaction.
Angle of Friction:
Tan Ø = F / N = µN / N = µ
µ is called as coefficient of friction.
Angle of repose:
Rolling resistance:
A ball is present on the ground. They are in touch only at the point
of contact. That a large amount of friction is eliminated. But then the when
or ball starts rolling, the resistance increases. This is mainly due to
deformation over which the ball creates on the surface. Thus there is no
longer a point contact but a area contact. This area a is called as the forward
length of deformation also called as coefficient of rolling resistance.
Engineering structures:
Frame : Here one or more members are subject to more than two forces.
Assumptions Made:
1. Method of joints,
2. Method of sections and
3. Graphical method.
Moment of Inertia:
By analogy the role played by the moment of inertial in the rotary
motion is similar the role played by mass in translatory motion. The
moment of Inertia of area is called as the area moment of inertia. The
moment of Inertia of mass is called as the mass moment of inertia.
jo = ∫ r2dA
jo = ∫ ( x2 + y2 ) dA = Ix + Iy
Theory of Papus-Guidinus:
Angular
Radian/second Rad/s
velocity
Angular
Radian/second2 Rad/s2
acceleration
Area metre2 m2
Kilogram /
Density Kg/m3
meter3
Energy Joule J = Nm
N = Kg
Force Newton
m/s2
Frequency Hertz Hz
Length meter m
Mass Kilogram Kg
Moment of
Newton-metre Nm
force
Pa =
Pressure Pascal
N/m2
Pa =
Stress Pascal
N/m2
Torque Newton-metre Nm
Volume metre3 m3
Work Joule J = Nm
NUMERICAL PROBLEMS
Problem 1: For the system of forces shown, calculate the resultant force and
its angle of inclination.
x y
Force Magnitude
component component
F1 150 129.9 75
F2 80 -27.4 75.2
F3 110 0 -110
F4 100 96.6 -25.9
Problem 2: For the plane shown determine (a) the first moments and the
location of centroid.
REFERENCES:
Internal Energy:
Heat:
Conduction:
Q = - KA ( dT / dX)
Convection:
Radiation:
E α T4
E = σAT4
Planks Law:
All bodies emit radiation, the quantity and quality of which depends
upon the temperature and property of the material.
Then let
Qo = Qa + Qr + Qt
Qa / Qo + Qr / Qo + Qt / Qo = 1
α + ρ+ τ = 1
• When α = 1 and ρ = τ = 0
• When ρ = 1 and α = τ = 0
• When τ = 1 and α = ρ = 0
Black body:
Heat Exchangers:
Based on the nature of heat exchange process, the following are the
classifications.
Parallel Flow Arrangement - The hot and cold fluids enter and leave the
unit in the same direction ( Unidirectional )
Counter Flow Arrangement - The two fluids enter the units from opposite
ends, and travel in opposite directions. Maximum heat transfer rate.
Cross Flow Arrangement - The fluids travel at right angles to each other.
The figure of parallel, counter flow and cross flow arrangement is shown
below.
Fins:
Mass Transfer:
Compressors:
NUMERICAL PROBLEMS
Stages in Measurement:
First Stage:
First stage is to detect and sense the measurand and ideally it should
be insensitive to every other input for example. If it is a pressure pickup
device then it should be insensitive to acceleration, a strain gauge should be
insensitive to temperature and frequently one finds there are more than one
transduction in the first stage.
Classification of first stage devices:
• Contracting spindle
• Simple pendulum
• Thermocouple used to convert temperature into voltage
• Variable resistivity
• Photo voltaic cell which converts light to potential and
• Photo emission cell that converts light to current.
Second Stage:
Third Stage:
1 Pa = 1 Nm2
DISPLACEMENT MEASUREMENT
R = ρL / A
The effective length between one end of wire and slider contact is a
measure of mechanical displacement. Devices of this type have been sued
for large displacements. Potentiometer are called pots.
Theory:
R = ρL / A = ρL / CD2
dR / R = dL / L - 2 dD / D + dρ / ρ
dR / R 2 dD / d dρ / ρ
−−−−− = 1 − −−−−−− + −−−−
dL / L dL / L dL / L
dR / R dρ / ρ
−−−−− ( Α lso called as gauge factor,
F) = 1 − 2γ+ −−−−−
dL / L dL / L
As the circuit that are used to measure the resistance changes they
require a minimum resistance to be measured. This value depends on the
current in the gauge and its length. Higher the resistance, larger will be the
change in ∆R for a given gauge factor. It draws lesser current The smaller
the current the dissipation is less. Normally the resistance chosen is at the
order of 60 - 1000 ohms. Strain gauges are classified as bonded or
unbonded strain gauges, according to the method of manufacture.
Semi-conductor gauges:
Rf = ( w / l ) x Rg
Where W is the width of the film, l the length of film Rf the specific
sheet resistance. But Rg = ρf l/A. Here ρf is the film resistiviy in Ohm-metre
and A is the area of cross section.
ERRORS IN MEASUREMENT
Errors may arise from different sources and are usually classified as
follows.
Gross Errors:
Systematic errors:
1. Instrumental errors
2. Environmental errors and
3. Observational errors.
Instrumental errors:
Environmental errors:
These types of errors are more dangerous as they change with time
in an unpredictable manner. The instrument would have been assembled
and calibrated in one environment. For measurement it would been carried
to a different place and because of this change, error occurs. The change
may be due to different temperatures, pressures, humidity and altitude etc.
These errors can be eliminated or reduced by the following precautions
mentioned.
Observational errors:
Random errors:
These vary in an unpredictable manners and it is very difficult to list
out all the sources of errors since these errors remain even after the
consideration of systematic errors these are also called as residual errors.
Following are the most common.
The importance of these errors is that they cancel each others effect
and ultimately may lead to correct values. for example vibrations can be
avoided by placing on shock absorbing mountings. Apart from there errors,
there are other types and forms of errors. A brief outlook of the other types
of errors is as follows. Translation and signal transmission errors caused
due to the non capability of the instrument to follow rapid changes in the
measured quantity due to inertial and hystersis effect. The error may also
result from unwanted disturbances such as noise, line pick up, hum ripple
etc. These errors are remedied by calibration and by monitoring the signal
at one or more points along its transmission path.
PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY
Angular Velocity:
Magnetic chuck:
There are two types. They are electromagnetic chuck and permanent
magnetic chuck. The magnetic power of the electromagnetic chuck can be
carried according to the size of the work. But not so in the case of a
permanent magnet chuck. Thus type of work holding device is suited for
ferrous work pieces.
De-magnetizer:
Vice:
Vices are used to hold jobs with narrow surface or non-ferrous work
pieces ( which cannot be conveniently held in magnetic chucks ). A vice
may be placed directly on the grinder table or on a magnetic chuck. There
are three types. They are
• Plain vice,
• Tilting type vice and
• Universal vice.
Angle plate:
Are used to hold the work piece while grinding one surface
perpendicular to another surface or while grinding one surface at an angle to
another surface.
'V' block:
Are used to hold the round work piece while grinding a flat on the
work piece. These are used for holding tube or bar work pieces for grinding
flat surfaces on the exterior. Magnetic vee blocks may be used in
combination with other mounting devices, such as angle plates which
themselves can be clamped to the work table or held in position on a
magnetic chuck.
Clamps:
1. Machine Bed frame and Structure : This houses and supports other
parts. Some are in motion and others are fixed. this provides
stability.
2. Slide ways and Slide : They are attached to the top of bed and guide
the slides. The movement of slides should be accurate. The different
types are flat, vee, dovetail, cylindrical and combined.
3. Spindles and Bearings : Spindles are provided to ensure that the
position of axis or rotation is within line. Members that rotate the
work piece and cutters are called spindles. These spindles are shaft
mounted on bearings. The spindles must be rigid and must have
rotational accuracy.
4. Machine tool drives : electric motor is the power unit and the power
from motor reaches the work piece or cutter through belts, gears,
chains and pulley.
1. Head stock,
2. Tail stock,
3. live centre,
4. dead centre,
5. apron,
6. cross slide
7. top slide and
8. Tool post.
A lathe is specified by
• Length of bed,
• width of bed,
• No of spindle speeds and
• Maximum distance between centers.
• Speed lathe,
• Engine lathe,
• Special lathe
• Automatic lathe,
• Bench lathe,
• Tool room lathe and
• Turret lathe.
Machining time:
• L - Length of cut.
• f - feed in mm / rev
• S - cutting speed in m / min
• N - Spindle speed and
• D - Diameter of work piece.
Shaping operations:
L - length of stroke
N - Number of strokes / min.
Distance moved per minute = LN.
Machining is done during cutting stroke and return stroke is a idle
stroke.
Cutting stroke / Return stroke = 3 / 2
Cutting time / Total time = 3 / 5.
Slotting Machines:
Planners:
These are similar to shaping machines, but the tool is stationary and
the work piece slides back and forth. The following are the different types
of planers.
• Double housing planner.
• Open side planer,
• Pit type planner and
• Divided table planner.
SHAPER PLANNER
Drilling Machines:
Drilling:
• The chips must exit out of the hole created by the cutting.
• Chip exit can cause problems when chips are large and/or continuous.
• The drill can wander upon entrance and for deep holes.
• For deep holes in large work pieces, coolant may need to be delivered
through the drill shaft to the cutting front.
• Of the powered metal cutting processes, drilling on a drill press is the
most likely to be performed by someone who is not a machinist.
Reaming :
Boring : This operation, enlarges a existing hole and finishes it. Used when
a drill of a particular size is not available. Adjustable boring head eliminate
the need for a complete inventory of expensive large size drills.
• Machine vice,
• V- Block,
• T bolts,
• Strap clamps,
• Step blocks and
• Angle plate.
Broaching:
Welding:
1. Gas Welding
• Air acetylene
• Oxy acetylene
• Oxy hydrogen
• Pressure gas welding.
2. Arc welding
Oxy-Acetylene Welding:
Resistance Welding:
In this the joint is produced by using the resistance of the work piece
for the flow of current and by application of pressure. No filler metal is
required.
Spot welding:
Ultrasonic Welding:
The work piece are rotated and suddenly pressure is applied and both
pieces get welded, Because of the high heat generated.
Atomic-Hydrogen Welding:
There are five things that greatly effect aluminum’s ability to be welded
5) No Color Change Near Melting Point: Unlike steel, aluminum does not turn a
reddish color when approaching the melting point. This makes it difficult to
tell when the welding temperature has been reached.
Brazing:
Soldering:
The melting point of the filler material is below 427o C. The melting
point of filler material used in brazing is above 427o C.
THERMODYNAMICS
Thermodynamics is the science that deals with the relationship
between heat and work. Thermodynamics is the study of 3 E's Energy,
Equilibrium and Entropy.
Basic Definitions :
System:
Sorroundings:
All things other than the system that are outside the wall that interact
with the system in question is called as surroundings. There are different
types of walls that are used to separate the system from the surroundings.
They are rigid wall, diathermal wall and adiabatic walls. A rigid wall does
not permit the volume of the system to change. A diathermal wall is one
that will make it possible for the system to communicate thermally with its
surroundings. Two systems separated with a diathermal wall is said to be in
thermal contact. An adiabatic wall is the one that is impermeable to thermal
energy. Such a wall cuts of the thermal interaction between between a
system and surroundings.
Properties:
Properties are used to identify the state of the system and solely
dependent upon the state of system and not upon how the state was reached.
A quantity is a property if it has a exact differential. A quantity can be
called a property of the system if the changes in the value between two
equilibrium states of system is same. Properties may be
directly observable or indirectly observable characteristic of a
system. Two properties, namely the temperature and entropy
are unique to thermodynamics. There are two types of
properties. They are
Thus the value of work depends upon the path and not on the end
state of the process. Hence work ( and also heat ) are path functions. On the
contrary thermodynamic property are point functions. These are definite
values for a given state. The change in property is independent of the path
and depends on only the initial and final states ( Exact differential )
Process:
Internal energy:
Entropy:
Power:
Throttling :
The fluid expands from high pressure to low pressure without doing
any work. There is no change in KE and PE. Hence there is no heat
transfer.
Carnot's Cycle:
η = W / Qa = ( Qa - Qr ) / Qa
Enthalpy:
Laws In Thermodynamics:
R = F + 459.67
K = C + 273.15
K = 1.8 R
This law deals with conservation of energy, which states that energy
can neither be created not destroyed, but can be changed from one form to
another.
For an isolated system, only those processes can take place for which
the entropy of the system increases or remains constant. Second law could
be called as law of entropy. In this there are two statements.
Thermodynamic Equilibrium:
Thermodynamic reservoirs:
Work reservoir:
Heat reservoir:
Matter reservoir:
Matter, as well as heat and work can cross the boundary of an open
system, the surroundings of an open system may be imagined to contain
only heat and work reservoirs but also one or more matter reservoirs to
supply and receive matter. A matter reservoir is considered to be
sufficiently larger than the system so that the reservoir itself remains in a
given equilibrium state. The atmosphere around the earth may be
considered as a matter reservoir supplying air to the engines of our
automobiles and to air separation plants.
Significance / Pictorial
Process Implications
Example Representation
Isobaric Pressure is Constant ∆U is zero in a constant
Process (∆P = 0) pressure process. For an
ideal gas, constant pressure
Gas heated in a work is W = ∨ PdV =
cylinder fitted with a P∆∆V
movable frictionless
piston. The pressure Heat that flows into the
the atmosphere and system causes the
the pressure due to the temperature to rise. Q = m
weight of the piston Cp ∆T = mR( T2 - T1 )
remains constant as
the gas heats up and
expands.
Isothermal Temperature is For an Ideal gas U is a
Process constant (∆T = 0) function of the
temperature, Hence ∆U is
The gas in a cylinder zero since ∆T = 0.
is compressed slowly Since ∆U = 0 then W = Q.
enough that heat
flows out of the gas at P1V1 = P2V2 = nRT, for an
the same rate at which isothermal process.
is being done on the
gas. Work done W = PV ln(
V2/V1 ) which is also the
equation for Q.
Isochoric Volume is constant No work is done on the gas
process (∆V = 0) because W = ∨ PdV = ∨ P
( 0 ) = 0. This implies
Heating of a gas in a that ∆U= Q = m Cv ∆T.
rigid, closed
container. V1 = V2 = nRT1/P1 =
nRT2/P2, the ideal gas law
for constant volume
process.
Specific Heat:
Gas Laws:
There are 5 gas laws. All perfect gases obey all gas laws under all
conditions of pressure and temperature.
Obeys the equation of state at all conditions of Obeys the equation of state at all conditions of
pressure and temperature. Pressure and temperature, except at the point
where Pressure approaches absolute Zero.
Specific heat values are constant Not so, Varies with temperature and pressure.
P is in N / m2 V is in m3 T is in K R is gas
constant in Nm / Kg oK
Combustion chamber:
REFERENCES:
Annealing:
Normalizing:
It is also called as air quenching, where the steel is heated to about 40o -
o
50 above the upper critical temperature and if necessary, hold at that temperature for
a certain length of time, after which it is cooled in air at room temperature.
Hardening:
This process increases the hardness and it requires the formation of martensite.
For hardening, the steel should contain at least 0.3 % of carbon. Following is the
procedure.
Tempering:
Martempering, Austempering and Maraging are the other types of heat treatment
process.
Case Hardening:
For many applications, there is a need for a hard case and a soft tough core,
which is shock resistant. No carbon can possess both these properties at the same
time. Hence low carbon steel with desired core properties are chosen and Carbon /
Nitrogen is added to the surface to provide a hardened case to a specified depth by
using the following process
• Carburising.
• Nitriding,
• Cyaniding and
• Carbon Nitriding.
Also medium Carbon steel could be taken in normalized condition and case
hardened by Induction and Flame Hardening.
Carburizing:
Nitriding:
It involves the addition of Nitrogen on certain types of steels and heating them
and holding at a suitable temperature, in contact with ammonia or any other suitable
medium. The steel should contain Aluminum or chromium to form hard nitrides.
In this the component to be case hardened is heat resistant container along with
ammonia. It is then heated to a temperature of about 500o C.
Cyaniding:
Both Carbon and nitrogen are introduced on the surface of steel by heating to a
suitable temperature and holding the component in molten cyanide. Sodium cyanide
is mostly used. This results in the formation of hardened Carbide - Nitride case. In
this process Nitrogen provides hardening, but carbon responds to quenching process.
Carbo - Nitriding:
Both Carbon and Nitrogen are added to the surface of steel by using Gas
atmosphere and not Molten Cyanide . The gaseous atmosphere contains the
following
Flame Hardening:
The material is heated on the surface with flame. This is followed by
quenching. Thus creating a hardened case and a soft core. Oxy acetylene flame is
used and the steel should contain 0.3 % to 0.6 % of carbon.
Induction Hardening:
Aluminum :
Boron :
Chromium :
Cobalt :
Copper :
Manganese :
Nickel :
Sulphur :
Silicon :
Tungsten :
Vanadium :
Classification of Materials:
Alloys: are obtained by melting two or more relatively pure metals to form a
new metal. They alloys have quite different properties in comparison to the
other two materials used for its manufacture.
Properties of Materials:
Material Structure:
Crystal Structure: This structure tell about the atomic arrangement within
the crystal. X-Ray and electron diffraction techniques are used for this
study.
Electronic Structure: This deals with the study of electrons in the outermost
shells of individual atoms. Spectroscopic techniques are used.
Atomic Structure:
Atom:
Protons:
Neutron:
Electron:
Surrounds the nucleus and at a greater distant from the nucleus. Its
mass is 1/1836 of proton. It is negatively charged. with a magnitude equal
to the charge of protons. Electrons in the outermost orbit are called as
valence electrons which determine many of the properties of materials.
Electron and protons are negative and positive charges of the same
magnitude, 1.6 × 10-19 Coulombs.
Atomic Number:
Atomic Weight:
Isotopes:
Bonding of solids:
1. Ionic Bonding:
This is the bond when one of the atoms is negative (has an extra
electron) and another is positive (has lost an electron). Then there is a
strong, direct Coulomb attraction. An example is NaCl. In the molecule,
there are more electrons around Cl, forming Cl- and less around Na, forming
Na+. Ionic bonds are the strongest bonds. In real solids, ionic bonding is
usually combined with covalent bonding. In this case, the fractional ionic
bonding is defined as % ionic = 100 × [1 – exp(-0.25 (XA – XB)2], where
XA and XB are the electronegativities of the two atoms, A and B, forming the
molecule.
2. Covalent Bonding:
3. Metallic Bonding:
In metals, the atoms are ionized, loosing some electrons from the
valence band. Those electrons form a electron sea, which binds the charged
nuclei in place, in a similar way that the electrons in between the H atoms in
the H2 molecule bind the protons.
Since the electrons may be on one side of the atom or the other, a
dipole is formed: the + nucleus at the center, and the electron outside. Since
the electron moves, the dipole fluctuates. This fluctuation in atom A
produces a fluctuating electric field that is felt by the electrons of an
adjacent atom, B. Atom B then polarizes so that its outer electrons are on the
side of the atom closest to the + side (or opposite to the – side) of the dipole
in A. This bond is called van der Waals bonding.
This is the case of the hydrogen bond in ice. The H end of the
molecule is positively charged and can bond to the negative side of another
dipolar molecule, like the O side of the H2O dipole.
Crystals:
These are solids in which the atoms are arranged in some regular
repetitive pattern in three dimension. This arrangement is called as crystal
structure.
Crystal Imperfections:
1. Thermal Vibration.
2. Point defects ( Vacancies, Interstitial cies and electron defects )
3. Line defects ( Edge and screw dislocations )
4. Surface defects and
5. Volume defects.
Solid Study:
System:
State:
Phase:
Gibbs Rule:
F=C-P+2
F - Degrees of freedom.
C - Number of components at equilibrium.
P - Number of phases that can co exist at equilibrium.
Stress:
Both are equal and opposite indirection. The sum total of interatomic
forces that prevails in the body to counteract the externally applied load is
called stress and the resultant deformation is expressed a fraction change in
dimension called as strain.
True Stress:
In this instead of taking the original area into account for the
calculation of stress, that area at any instant on applying the load it taken
into account.
Strength:
Stiffness:
Flexibility:
Resilience:
It is the capacity of body to absorb energy elastically, and return it
when unloaded. The maximum energy that can be stored upto elastic limits
is called as proof resilience. This property is associated with high elastic
limits. Materials with high resilience is used tin springs.
Plasticity:
Ductility:
Machinability:
It is the ease with which the metals could be removed from operation
like turning, drilling etc.
Malleability:
Toughness:
Hardenability:
Fatigue:
Fatigue stress:
Creep:
• At low temperatures, the creep rate usually decreases with time and
logarithmic creep curve is obtained.
• At high temperatures, ( T = 0.5 - 0.7 Tm ) the creep rate does not
decrease gradually. This is due to mechanical recovery.
• At very high temperatures ( T > 0 .7 Tm ) the creep is primarily due
to diffusion and stress applied has little effect.
Yield Point:
Tensile strength:
Beyond the yield point the load can again be increased to a minimum
value, when a necking down occurs and there is a reduction in cross
sectional area. This load is called as tensile load.
Anelastic:
Plastic Deformation:
Fracture:
Types of fracture:
There are two types of fracture. They are ductile and brittle
fracture. Following are the differences between brittle and ductile fracture
Ductile Brittle
type of materials most metals (not too cold) ceramics, ice, cold metals
necking yes no
1. Ductile Fracture
• Initial necking
• small cavity formation (microvoids)
• void growth (elipsoid) by coalescence into a crack
• fast crack propagation around neck. Shear strain at 45o
• final shear fracture (cup and cone)
2. Brittle Fracture
This is the common way to increase the hardness and yield strength
and particularly its straining rate.
• Every element has got a distinct atomic diameter that is different from
other elements. When a solid solution is formed the solute atoms will
be either largest or small in diameter when compared to the solvent
atoms.
• Since solvent and solute atoms have different sizes when solute is
added to solvent, distortion of lattices takes place. Based on size of
solute there are two types of solid solutions. They are interstitial
solid solutions and substitutional solid solutions.
• In interstitial solid solutions the solute is smaller in size when
compared to solvent atoms and this solute occupies a space in
between the solvent atoms. In this case tensile fields areas set up.
E.g.. Carbon, Hydrogen, Nitrogen and Iron.
• In solid solutions of substitutional type the solute atoms is
approximately the same size as that of the solvent atoms and this
solute occupies a space in between the solvent atoms and in this case
compressive fields are set up.
• The more the different between atomic size of solute and solvent the
higher is the stress field around solute atoms thereby providing more
resistance to the motion of dislocation and thereby increasing the
tensile strength.
• If the number of solute atoms is more greater will be the local
distortion in the lattice and hence more will the resistance to moving
dislocation and there by increasing the hardness and strength of the
material.
Dispersion Hardening:
Age hardening:
Strain hardening:
In most of the metals and alloys it is observed that the yield strength
of the material increases after the material undergoes plastic deformation
from the stress-strain curve shown. Strain hardening or work hardening is
the phenomenon which results in an increase in hardness and strength of a
metal subjected to plastic deformation at temperatures lower than the re-
crystallisation range. Strain hardening however reduces ductility and
plasticity.
The figure shows the stress strain curve of FCC crystal. There are
three regions of hardening and are experimentally distinguishable. The
forest dislocation theory stages that when a material is stressed the
dislocation starts moving which results in plastic deformation. Even as the
stress increase the number of dislocations present in the body increase
exponentially by frank reed source mechanism. The movement of a large
number of dislocation along different slip lanes creates a traffic jam like
situation and there by making it difficult for any movement of dislocation.
Therefore further plastic deformation requires more stress or more load.
Stage I or the easy glide region, immediately follows the yield point
and is characterized by little strain hardening undergone by the crystal.
During easy glide the dislocation are able to move over relatively large
distances without encountering barriers.
Stage II region marks a rapid increase in work hardening, the slope
of which is approximately independent of applied stress, temperature,
orientation alloy content. In this region slip occurs on both primary and
secondary slip systems. As a result, several new lattice irregularities may be
formed which will include.
• Forest dislocations
• Lomer-cottrell barriers,
• Jogs produced either by moving dislocations cutting through forest
dislocations or by forest locations cutting through source dislocations
There are three theories that explain the hardening mechanism at this
stage. They are pile-up theory, forest theory and jog theory. The pile up
theory states that some of the dislocations give out by the frank reed sources
are eventually stopped at barriers, according to this theory, the hardening is
principally due to long range internal stresses from piled up groups
interacting with guide dislocations.
• Thermoelectric means
• Vapor compression systems
• Expansion of compressed gases
• Throttling or unrestrained expansion of gases.
COP:
Capacity of Refrigeration:
Air Conditioning:
Absolute Humidity:
Relative Humidity:
Psychrometry:
Moist Air:
Mixture of dry air and water vapor. The quantity of water vapor
present in air depends upon the temperature.
Moisture:
Saturated Air:
When moist air contains the maximum amount of water vapor, that it
can hold, then the air is said to be saturated. If any more water is added to
the saturated air, it remains in suspension and makes the air foggy. Moist
air that is not saturated is called as unsaturated air.
Humidity Ratio:
It is the weight of water vapor per unit weight of dry air in vapor air
mixture.
Degree of Saturation:
Cooling Loads:
Feed (s) : The motion of cutting edge of tool with reference to one
revolution of work piece.
t = ( D - d ) / 2 mm
Undeformed chip (Fc) : The cross sectional area of chip before it is removed
from work piece. it is equal to the product of feed and depth of cut.
Fc = s x t mm2
All tools have a major and minor cutting edge. The major cutting
edge removes bulk of material. Where as the minor cutting edge gives good
surface finish.
When the tool advances into the work piece, the metal in front of the
tool is severely stressed. The cutting tool produces internal shearing action
in the metal. The metal below the cutting edge yields and flows plastically
in the form of chip. Compression of the metal under the tool takes place.
When the ultimate stress of the metal is exceeded, separation of metal takes
place. The plastic flow takes place in a localized area called as shear plane.
The chip moves upward on the face of the tool. There are three different
types of chips. They are
1. Continuous chips,
2. Discontinuous chips and
3. Chips with built up edge.
Continuous chips :
Chip breakers:
Discontinuous chips :
• These chips are produced when cutting more brittle materials like
bronze, hard brass and gray cast iron.
• Since there chips break up into small segments the friction between
chip and tool reduces resulting in better surface finish.
• These are convenient to handle and dispose off.
• Discontinuous chips are produced in ductile materials under the
conditions such as large chip thickness, low cutting speed, small rake
angle of tool etc.
• Brittle materials lack the ductility necessary for appreciable plastic
chip deformation. The amount of deformation which the chip
undergoes by deformation is limited by repeated fracturing.
• If these chips are produced from brittle materials, then the surface
finish is fair, power consumption is low and tool life is reasonable
however with ductile materials the surface finish is poor and tool
wear is excessive.
• This is nothing but a small built up edge sticking to the nose of the
cutting tool. These built up edge occurs with continuous chips.
• When machining ductile materials due to conditions of high local
temperature and extreme pressure the cutting zone and also high
friction in the tool chip interface, there are possibilities of work
material to weld to the cutting edge of tool and thus forming built up
edges.
• This weld metal is extremely hard and brittle. This welding may
affect the cutting action of tool.
• Successive layers are added to the build up edge. When this edge
becomes large and unstable it is broken and part of it is carried up the
face of the tool along with chip while remaining is left in the surface
being machined. Thus contributing to the roughness of surface.
• Thus the size of the built up edge, varies during the machining
operation. It first increases, then decrease and again increases.
• this built up edge protects the cutting edge of tool, thus changing the
geometry of the cutting tool.
• Low cutting speeds lead to the formation of built up edge, however
with high cutting speeds associated with sintered carbide tools, the
build up edge is negligible or does not exist.
• Conditions favoring the formation of build up edge are low cutting
speed, low rake angle, high feed and large depth of cut. This
formation can be avoided by the use of coolants and taking light cuts
at high speeds. This leads to the formation of crater on the surface of
the tool.
Part Description
Angle Details
Hot hardness:
This is the ability of the material to with stand very high temperature
without loosing its cutting edge. The hardness of the tool material can be
improved by adding molybdenum, tungsten, vanadium, chromium etc which
form hard carbides. High hardness gives good wear resistance but poor
mechanical shock resistance.
Wear resistance:
The ability of the tool to withstand wear is called as wear resistance.
During the process of machining, the tool is affected because of the abrasive
action of the work piece. If the tool does not have sufficient wear resistance
then there are possibilities of failure of cutting edge. Lack of chemical
affinity between the tool and work piece also improve wear resistance.
Toughness:
Low friction:
In order to have a low tool wear and better surface finish the co-
efficient of friction between the tool and chip must be low. The thermal
conductivity must be high for quick removal of heat from chip tool
interface.
Tool life:
Cutting speed:
It has the greatest influence. When the cutting speed increases, the
cutting temperature increases. Due to this, hardness of the tool decreases.
Hence the tool flank wear and crater wear also occurs easily. The relation
ship between tool life and cutting speed is given by the Taylor's formula
which states
VTn = C
V is the cutting speed in meters / minute
T is the tool life in minutes.
n depends on the tool and work.
C a constant.
The tool life depends upon the amount of material removed by the
tool per minute. For a given cutting speed if the feed or depth of cut is
increased, tool life will be reduced.
Tool geometry:
Large rake angle reduces the tool cross section. Area of the tool
which will absorb heat is reduced. So the tool will become weak. Hence
correct rake angle must be used for longer tool life. If the cutting angle
increases, more power will be required for cutting. Clearance angle of
10o to 15o is optimal.
1. To cool the tool and work piece and carry away the heat generated
from cutting zone. It is essential to maintain a temperature of 200o C
for carbon tools and 600o C for HSS.
2. At low speeds the surface finish obtained by using cutting fluids is
better than what is obtained without using cutting fluids.
3. To wash away the chips and keep the cutting region free.
4. It helps to keep the freshly machined surface bright by giving a
protective coating against atmospheric oxygen and thus protect the
finished surface from corrosion.
5. Cutting fluids improves machinability and reduces machining forces.
6. To prevent the expansion of work piece and
7. To cause the chips to break into small parts rather than remain as long
ribbons which are hot and sharp and difficult to remove from work
piece.
In this water is mixed with soluble oil and soaps. Following are the
important characteristic features.
Operation Ratio
Turning 1:25
Milling 1:10
Drilling 1:25
Grinding 1:50
These are fixed oil and mineral oil. Fixed oil has greater oiliness to
become gummy and decompose when heated.
• To combine stability of mineral oil with lubricating properties of
fixed oils they are often mixed.
• There are different types of oil based cutting fluids. They are soluble
oils, straight fatty cutting oils, sulphurised and aqueous solution.
• Following are the different types of cutting fluids based on different
operating conditions.
Straight mineral oils for light duty and high speed work.
Mineral oil for light and medium duty.
Mineral oil with extreme pressure additives, such that they are
suitable for heavy duty and
Mineral oil and extreme pressure additives for the heaviest
duty.
Effect of cutting fluid on cutting speed, tool life and chip concentration:
Cutting speed:
These are not only used to carry away the heat generated by also
because of the lubricating effect of the fluid on the working surface of the
tool. When a cutting fluid is sued for machining touch material the
productivity may be increased from 15% to 30% more when compared with
dry operation. But using cutting fluids, high speeds may be used.
Tool life:
Chip concentration:
Without the use of cutting fluid chips are accumulated near the work
tool interface and are difficult to remove because of its high temperature.
By the use of cutting fluid the temperature of the chip is reduced and also
the chips are washed away from the work tool interface.
The cutting fluids may be applied to the cutting tool in the following
ways.
Cooling:
By flowing over a tool, chip and job a cutting fluid can remove heat
and reduce temperature at he cutting zone. This reduction in temperature
leads in increase in tool life and decrease in tool wear. The cooling effect is
also important in reducing thermal expansion and distortion of work piece.
The cooling action also bring about good surface finish, increase chip curl
and reduces BUE formation.
Friction reduction:
Under these conditions the chip may be made to react wit the fluid
fro form a low shear strength solid lubricant. This thin layer prevents the
formation of the weld between the chip and the tool and hence reduces the
co-efficient of friction between chip and tool.
There are two distinct tool geometries. The are positive and negative
rake angles. Positive is suitable for machining soft, ductile materials (like
aluminum) and negative is for cutting hard materials, where the cutting
forces are high (Hard material, high speed and feed).
1. Axial force
2. Tangential force and
3. Radial force.
In the above figure (a) is for orthogonal cutting and figure (b) is for
oblique cutting. Wattmeter is a indirect method for measuring cutting
force. More exact method is the use of dynamometer. Of the total heat
generated during machining process, given below is the rough heat
distribution.
Tool life :
• Tool life
• mm3 of stock removed
• Cutting force required.
• Temperature of tool and chip.
TOOL FAILURE:
• This type of wear takes place when machining materials like cast iron
or when the feed is less than 0.15 mm / rev. The worn region at the
flank is called as wear land. This wear land is measured with the help
of brinell microscope.
• The work and the tool are in contact at the cutting edge only. Usually
wear appears on the clearance face of the tool and is mainly the result
of friction and abrasion.
• Flank wear is a flat portion worn behind the cutting edge, which
eliminates some clearance on relief.
• Flank wear is a progressive form of detoriotion and will result in
failure in spite of best precautions.
• There are three stages in flank wear. They are primary, secondary
and tertiary stage. In the primary stage wear is rapid due to high
stress at tool point. In secondary stage, wear is less and linear. In the
third and final stage called as the tertiary stage the wear increases
leading to catastrophic failure.
Nose wear:
Breakage:
Because of high pressure acting on cutting edge of a tool there ay be
immediate failure. Breakage is usually attributed to mechanical shock,
thermal shock, thermal cracks and fatigue.
Chipping:
The cutting edge may crumble due to improper relief angle, excess
clearance and insufficient support of the tool. This could also happen if the
work piece is very hard. It is a microscopic form of breakage due to loss of
many small particles caused due to unhoned carbide edges, excessive
vibration and chatter.
Deformation:
When a heavy load is applied close to the cutting edge of tool the
surface becomes indented while the adjacent face shows a bulge. Because
of which crack occurs on periphery of indentation and finally leads to
failure.
NUMERICAL PROBLEMS
1. The useful tool life of a HSS tool at 18 m/min is 3 hours. Calculate the
tool life when the tool operates at 24 m/min.
Solution:
VTn = C
V = 18 m/min
T = 3 x 60 = 180 min
Now V = 24 m/min.
T = ( 34.45 / 24 ) 1/0.125
= 18 minutes.
UNITS AND CONSTANT
Definitions:
Nominal size:
Basic size:
The exact theoretical size of a part. This is the value from which
limit dimensions are computed. Basic size is a four decimal place
equivalent to the nominal size. The number of significant digits imply the
accuracy of the dimension.
Design size:
The ideal size for each component (shaft and hole) based upon a
selected fit. The difference between the design size of the shaft and the
design size of the hole is equal to the allowance of the fit. The design size of
a part corresponds to the Maximum Material Condition (MMC). That is, the
largest shaft permitted by the limits and the smallest hole. Emphasis is
placed upon the design size in the writing of the actual limit dimension, so
the design size is placed in the top position of the pair.
Tolerance:
Allowance:
Length meter m
Mass kilogram kg
Time second s
Derived Units
S.I.
Quantity Equivalent Dimensions
units
Kilogram
Mass M
(kg)
Length L Metre (m)
Pressure or
force/unit area ML-1T-2 Pascal (Pa)
Stress
Moment of
mass x length2 ML2 kg m2
Inertia
CONVERSIONS
Millibar (mb): 1 mb = 100 Pa; 1 Pa = 0.01 mb
Speed:
Velocity:
Acceleration:
Uniform acceleration:
Variable acceleration:
If a body moves in such a way that its velocity changes unequal in
magnitude in equal intervals of time, it is said to be moving with a variable
acceleration.
Types of motion:
dv = a.dt
∫ dv = ∫ a dt
( v - u ) = at
v = u + at
v = dx / dt
dx = v dt
dx = ( u + at ) dt
( Integrating on both sides, within their
limits )
∫ dx = ∫ ( u + at ) dt = ut + ½ at2
x = ut + ½ at2
a = v dv / dx
a dx = v dv
a ∫ dx = ∫ v dv
ax = ½ V2 - ½ U2
V2 = u2 + 2ax
Derivation:
a = dv / dt = d2x / dt2
a = dv / dt = ( dv / dx ) x (dx / dt ) = v dv / dx
Equation of motion:
∑ Fx = max
∑ Fy = may
∑ Fx + ( - max ) = 0
∑ Fy + ( - may ) = 0
Curvilinear motion:
Tangential component:
at = dv / dt
Normal component:
an = v2 / ρ
a = √ ( at2 + an2 )
Direction θ = Tan-1 ( an / at )
Momentum:
F = ma = m ( dv / dt ) = d ( mv ) / dt
Impulse:
When a large force acts on a body for a small interval of time then
that force is called as impulse force. It can be visualized as the area under
the force Vs time diagram. Impulse is nothing but, change in momentum.
Conservation of Momentum:
When the sum of impulses due to external forces is equal to zero, the
momentum of the system remains conserved.
Elastic bodies:
The time taken by the two bodies in compression, after the instant of
collision, is called as the time of compression and time for which restitution
takes place is called the time of restitution. The sum of the two times is
called the period of impact or the period of collision.
Line of Impact: The common normal to the surface of two colliding bodies
is called line of impact.
Direct / Indirect ( Oblique ) impact: There are the types of collision. If the
velocities of two bodies are collinear with line of impact before collision,
then is called as direct impact. Else it is indirect impact.
Projectile:
Any motion which is given just a initial velocity and after which its
motion is influenced by acceleration due to gravity is called as projectile.
Thus a projectile is moving under the combined effect of vertical and
horizontal forces. The vertical component of the motion is always subjected
to gravitational acceleration and the horizontal component remains
constant. The combined effect of both the forces causes the body to move
along a parabolic path. Following are the important terms used in
projectiles.
NUMERICAL PROBLEMS
We also know that v = u + at. Hence the time required to stop the car is
0 = 20 + (-5) t,
t = 4 seconds.
Solution: Height of the tower is 50 m. First the stone that was dropped
from the top is considered. For this u = 0 and a = g. Hence the distance
traversed by the stone in time 't' is
s = ut + ½ at2 = 0 + 0.5gt2
Now consider the stone that was thrown from the bottom. u = 25 m/s and a
= -g. Distance traversed by the stone in time 't' is
50 - s = 25t - 0.5gt2
The distance at which both stones cross each other is s = 0.5gt2 = 0.5 x 9.8 x
(2)2 = 19.6 m.
Problem 3: A fly wheel runs at a constant 100 rad/s. When the drive motor
is switched off the wheel takes 5 minutes to come to rest. What is the
angular deceleration?
Solution: Time t = 300 seconds. Initial angular velocity ωο= 1 00 rad / sec
and ω= 0.
ω= ω ο+ α t,
DYNAMICS BOOKS
Fluid Properties:
Viscosity :
τ α du / dy
τ = µ du / dy
Specific volume:
It is the ratio of volume to weight. Its unit is m3/kg.
Density:
Pressure:
The differences between the behaviors of solids and fluids under an applied
force are as follows:
i. For a solid, the strain is a function of the applied stress, providing that
the elastic limit is not exceeded. For a fluid, the rate of strain is
proportional to the applied stress.
ii. The strain in a solid is independent of the time over which the force is
applied and, if the elastic limit is not exceeded, the deformation
disappears when the force is removed. A fluid continues to flow as
long as the force is applied and will not recover its original form
when the force is removed.
Fluid Classifications:
NEWTONIAN
Water
Most salt solutions in water
Light suspensions of dye
High-viscosity fuels
Gasoline
Kerosene
Most motor oils and mineral oils
NON-NEWTONIAN
YIELD PSEUDOPLASTIC, BINGHAM PLASTIC, YIELD DILATANT
Clay
Mud
Tar
Sewage sludge
Digested sewage
Thermoplastic polymer solutions
PSEUDOPLASTIC
Sewage sludge
Paper pulp
Grease
Soap
Paint
Printer's ink
Starch
Latex solutions
Most emulsions
DILATANT
Feldspar
Mica
Clay
Beach sand
Starch in water
THIXOTROPIC - RHEOPECTIC
Inks
Most paints
Silica gel
Time-Independent behaviors:
Bingham-plastic: Resist a small shear stress but flow easily under larger
shear stresses. e.g. tooth-paste, jellies, and some slurries.
Thixotropic fluids: for which the dynamic viscosity decreases with the time
for which shearing forces are applied. e.g. thixotropic jelly paints.
Rheopectic fluids: Dynamic viscosity increases with the time for which
shearing forces are applied. e.g. gypsum suspension in water.
Visco-elastic fluids: Some fluids have elastic properties, which allow them
to spring back when a shear force is released. e.g. egg white.
Types of Fluid:
Ideal plastic fluid : Shear stress is more than yield value and proportional to
velocity gradient.
Isothermal Process:
Adiabatic process:
Changes in density occurs without any heat transfer to and from the
gas in the absence of friction.
Surface Tension:
Capillarity:
• Surface tension,
• Diameter of pipe and
• Weight density of liquid.
θ for glass and water = 0 and hence the above expression becomes h
= 4σ / wd.
Pascal's Law:
Hydrostatic Law:
The rate of increase in pressure in vertically downward direction
must be equal to specific weight at that point.
w=P/z
Where,
Manometer: These are devices that are used for the measure of pressure at a
point in fluid by balancing a column of the fluid by same or another
column of fluid. There are two types of manometers. They are simple
manometers and differential manometers.
1. Piezometer,
2. U - Tube manometer and
3. Single column manometer.
Mechanical gauges:
These are device that are useful for measuring the pressure by
balancing the fluid column by spring or dead weight.
Buoyancy:
Center of buoyancy:
It is the point through which the force of buoyancy acts on the body.
Buoyant force is a vertical force and is equal to the weight of the fluid
displaced. Hence center of buoyancy = center of gravity of fluid displaced.
Meta centre: It is the point about which a body starts oscillating when the
body is tilted by a small angle.
Kinematics of flow:
There are two methods to describe the fluid motion. They are
lagrangian method and Euler method. In lagrangian method a fluid particle
is followed during its motion and its velocity, acceleration and density are
described.
Velocity Potential:
Stream function:
It is defined as the scalar function of space and time such that its
partial derivative with respect to any direction gives the velocity component
at right angles to this direction.
Steady Flow : is defined as the type of flow in which the fluid characteristics
like velocity, pressure and density at any point does not change with time.
Uniform motion : is defined as the type of flow in which the velocity at any
given time does not change with respect to space.
Laminar flow : is the one in which the fluid particles move in well defined
paths, with one layer of fluid moving over another layer of fluid smoothly.
Streamlines are straight and parallel. This is also called as viscous flow.
Turbulent Flow : is the one in which the fluid move in Zigzag manner
randomly. Eddy formation takes place and thus there is a loss of energy.
Compressible Flow : Here the density of fluid changes from point to point.
Discharge :
Bernoulli's Equation :
Continuity Equation :
Venturimeter:
Orifice meter:
Pitot's Tube:
• Rectangular notch,
• Triangular notch
• Trapezoidal notch
• Parabolic notch and
• stepped notch
Dimensional Analysis:
τ = µ du / dy
Lift : This is the component of resultant force which is exerted by the fluid
on the body normal to the direction of motion. Lift occurs only when the
body is inclined at an angle to the direction of fluid flow.
HYDRAULIC MACHINES:
Turbines:
There are three types of turbines. They are Pelton, Francis and
Kaplan turbines. Turbines are classified as
• Impulse turbine : Here the water at the inlet of turbine contains only
kinetic energy.
• Reaction turbine :If the water at the inlet posses both kinetic energy
and pressure energy then it is called as reaction turbine.
• Tangential flow. The water flows tangential to the runner.
• Radial flow : If the water flows in the radial direction through runner
then it is called as radial flow. Further they are classified into Inward
radial and outward radial.
• Axial flow : The water flows in a direction parallel to the axis of
rotation of runner.
• Mixed flow : If the water enters radially, but leaves in a direction
parallel to the axis of rotation of runner, then it is called as mixed
flow turbine.
Draft Tube:
Pumps:
Principle:
• High head or
• Discharge huge quantity of water.
Reciprocating Pump:
The piston moves back with the crank and connecting rod
attachment. The crank rotates by electric motor. Both the valves are one
way valves or Non return valves, allowing the water to flow only in one
direction.
When the piston moves from right to left vacuum is created in
cylinder. But the liquid is at atmospheric pressure. Hence because of this
pressure drop, the liquid is forced through the suction valve into cylinder.
When it moves from left to right the pressure in cylinder is above
atmospheric suction valve closes and delivery valve opens and liquid is
forced into delivery pipe.
SI Engine CI Engine
Petrol is fuel, which has a high self Diesel is used, has a low self ignition
ignition temperature temperature.
Knocking takes place at the end of Knocking takes place at the beginning
combustion. of combustion.
Engine Construction:
Cylinder Block:
Cylinder Head :
Crank Case:
Cylinder Liner:
There are used inside cylinder block. They are used to prevent wear
of cylinder block. There are 2 types of liners. They are dry and wet liners.
In Dry liners the outer surface of the liner bears against the cylinder block
and hence has to be machined accurately. It is put in position by shrinking.
This induces some amount of stress on the liners. The liner should not be
too loose or tight in the cylinder block. Both can cause scuffing. The
former because of poor heat dissipation and resulting in higher operating
temperatures. The later due to distortion of the cylinder block, liner
cracking , hot spots etc. They are not in direct contact with cooling water.
The thickness is about 1.5 mm to 3.0 mm. They are hardened by nitriding
or chrome plating.
In Wet liners the surface is in direct contact with cooling water. Hence no
need for accurate machining. Thickness is about1.5 mm - 6.0 mm. It forms
the complete cylinder barrel and its flange fits with groove of cylinder
block.
Piston:
Piston Rings :
These are fitted in the grooves of piston to maintain the seal between
the piston and cylinder wall. The following are the important functions.
There are two types of rings. They are compression rings and oil
control rings. The compression rings seals the Air / Fuel as the mixture is
compressed. But the oil rings scrap off excessive oil from the cylinder wall
and return to oil pan.
The piston rings are split, so that they can be slipped insider the
piston groove. Usually the Outer diameter of ring is larger than cylinder
bore. When it is installed in the piston, the joint is closed and piston tightly
presses against the cylinder walls. The number of compression rings
depends upon the compression ratio. The Piston pin connects the piston and
small end of connecting rod.
Piston clearance :
Combustion Chamber :
The region between cylinder head and piston head when the piston
is at TDC is called as combustion chamber. The inlet and outlet valves are
closed and spark plug projects in it. Depending on the location of spark
plug and valves there are different types of combustion chamber.
1. Spherical
2. I shape
3. T shape
4. F shape and
5. L shape.
Connecting Rod:
Connects the piston and crank shaft. The small end is connected to
piston and bigger end is connected to crankshaft. The function of the
connecting rod is to convert the linear motion of the piston to rotary motion
of crankshaft. It is has a I -Beam section.
Crank Shaft:
Contains crank pins, balancing weights and main journals. Fly wheel
is attached to the rear end of crank shaft.
Cam Shaft:
Engine Valves:
To admit the air-fuel mixture in the engine cylinder and evacuate the
exhaust gases at correct timings these valves are used. They are divided into
three main categories namely Poppet valve, sleeve valve and Rotary valve.
Cylinder valve:
There are attached to the top of the cylinder block by means of studs
fixed to the block. Gaskets are used to provide a tight leak proof joint at the
interface of the head and the block The cylinder head forms part of the
combustion chamber. It also contains spark plug or the injector head and
cooling water jackets. Valve openings are also provided in the head upon
which is mounted the complete valve operating mechanism. Depending
upon the valve and port layout, the cylinder head may be classified as loop-
flow type, offset cross flow type or the in-line cross flow type.
In loop flow type the inlet and exhaust valves manifolds are in the
same side. It facilitates preheating of the intake air. The offset cross-flow
type gives lower exhaust valve temperature. The in-line cross flow type
gives better engine performance though costlier. The cylinder head may be
cast integrated with cylinder block in case of racing engines. However,
detachable cylinder head offers many advantages over the integral
construction.
1. Production is easier,
2. De-carbonizing and valve grinding is simplified and
3. Slight changes in compression ratio is possible.
Engine Performance:
Piston Displacement:
The volume displaced by the engine, when it moves from TDC to
BDC.
Engine Displacement:
The volume displaced by all pistons when they move from TDC to
BDC.
Compression Ratio:
Volumetric Efficiency:
BHP:
The actual power that the engine delivers for outside work is called as
BHP. It is usually 70 % of IHP.
Stochimetric A / F ratio:
Different cycles:
Carnot
2 Isothermal process & 2 adiabatic process
Cycle
Ericsson
2 Isothermal process & 2 Constant volume process
Cycle
Lenoir
1 Isentropic, 1 Constant volume & 1 Constant Pressure process
Cycle
Brayton
2 Isentropic, 1 Constant volume & 2 Constant Pressure process
Cycle
Rating of fuels:
Lead tetraethyl lead is used as anti knock agent in petrol engines and
Amyl nitrate is used as antiknock agent in diesel engines.
Carburetion:
1. Solex carburetor.
2. Carter carburetor
3. SU Carburetor.
Methanol
Biomass:
Bio mass means organic matter. The simplest form of reaction in the
process of photosynthesis is given by
Plane Motion:
Center of Percussion:
Simple Mechanisms:
- Rigid link
- Flexible link and
- Fluid link.
Structure:
Types of Motion
Kinematics Pair:
Lower Pair:- When two elements of a pair have surface contact during
relative motion, then it is called as lower pair. E.g.. Sliding, shaft in
bearings, turning and Screw pairs.
Higher Pair:- When two elements in the pair have line or point contact
when relative motion takes place and the relative motion between them is
partly turning and sliding then it is a higher pair.
Kinematic Chain: When the kinematic pairs are coupled in such a way that
the last link is joined to the first link to transmit definite motion. It is a
combination of kinematic pairs, joined in such a way that each link forms a
part of the pair and the relative motion between the links is in CCM or
SCM.
Mechanism:
When one link in a kinematic pair is fixed then the chain is called a
mechanism. It is used for transmitting or transforming motion. A simple
mechanism contains around four links and a complex mechanism contains
more than 4 links.
Friction:
Screw friction:
Threads are of two types. They are V-Threads and Square threads. V
threads are stronger and offer more frictional resistance to motion. V-
Threads are used in nuts and bolts. Square threads are used in Screw jacks.
Simple Pendulum:
Belt Drives:
Belts are used to transmit power from one shaft to another by means
of a pulley. When the driver rotates, it carries the belt due to grip between
its surface and the belt. The belt in turn carries, the driven pulley which
starts rotating. The grip between the pulley and the belt is obtained by
friction. This friction grip if required is increased by tightening the belt.
The amount of power transmitted depends upon
Leather, Rubber, cotton and Balata are the materials used for belt.
Flat belt, V-Belt and round belt are the different types of belt. The following
are the common terms used in belts.
Slip: This is caused because of less friction. The effect is that, it educes the
overall velocity ratio.
N2 / N1 = ( d1+ t ) / ( d2 + t ) x ( 1 - S / 100 )
Creep: When the belt passes from slack side to the tight side, a certain
portion of belt extends and contracts again when moving from tight to slack
side. Because of this, there is a relative motion between belt and pulley
called creep.
V- Belts:
These belts are used when two pulleys are nearby each other. The
included angle is usually 30o -40o. In order to have good grip the V-Belt is
in contact with side faces of the groove.
Chain Drives:
Pitch of Chain: It is the distance between the hinge center of one link and
the hinge center of the adjacent link.
Gears:
Parallel Gears: The shafts are parallel. Spur gears are where the teeth is
parallel to axis of wheel. But in helical gears the teeth are inclined at an
angle to the axis. A double helical gear is called as herringbone gears.
Non Parallel and Intersecting Gears: Bevel and Helical bevel gears are the
examples.
S. Terms Definition
No
1 Pitch Circle A imaginary circle which by pure rolling action would give the
same motion as the actual gear.
2 Pitch Circle The diameter of Pitch circle. Gears are specified by this PCD.
Diameter
3 Addendum The radial distance between the PCD and top of tooth. Addendum
circle is drawn through the top of teeth and concentric to PC.
Gear Trains:
Two or more gears are made to mesh with each other to transmit power
from one shaft to another shaft. Such a combination is called as gear train.
Flywheel:
1 / Cs = m =Coefficient of steadiness.
Governors :
Centrifugal governors :
The main principle of working of the centrifugal governor is based upon the
balancing of centrifugal force on the rotating balls by an equal and opposite radial
force, known as the controlling force.
Inertial governors :
Equilibrium speed: Is the speed at which the governor balls are at complete
equilibrium and the sleeve does not tend to move up or down.
2 ( N2 - N1 ) / ( N2 + N 1 )
Hunting: In this the governor switches between the maximum and minimum
position.
Lubrication :
In this the moving or sliding surfaces are separated from each other
by a thick film of fluid which is at least 1000 angstrom thick so that direct
surface-to-surface contact and welding of junctions rarely occurs. This is
also called as hydrodynamic lubrication.
Boundary lubrication:
When the moving surfaces are under very high pressure and speed, a
high local temperature is attained and under such condition the fluid film is
completely broken because of decomposition or vapoursation and there is
direct metal to metal contact at that high spots of the sliding materials. High
load and speed in turn generates heat with the following mentioned effects.
CAM:
1. Uniform Velocity
2. Uniform acceleration
3. SHM and
4. Cycloidal motion.
Types of Vibrations:
Stress:
There are different types of stress. They are tensile stress, compressive stress
and shear stress.
Tensile stress : When the resistance by a body is against the increase in length then it
is tensile stress.
Compressive stress : If the resistance offered by the body is against the decrease in
length, then the stress induced is compressive stress.
Shear stress:
If two equal and parallel forces F, not in the same line act on parallel faces of a
member, then the member is said to be loaded in Shear. Consider the rectangular
block shown in the figure, a force F is applied tangentially along the top and bottom
face. ( The force is called as shear force ). The shear stress formula indicates only the
average shear stress. In reality the distribution of shear stress is far from uniform. In
reality it varies parabolically from zero at the edges to a maximum at the center.
Shear stress = Shear force / Area = P / ( L x H )
Thermal Stress :
Bending stress:
Strain:
Hooke's Law:
Within in elastic limits, the ratio of stress to strain is constant. This constant
is called Young's modulus of elasticity. In case of shear force, if the ratio of shear
stress to shear strain is also constant. That constant is called as shear modulus of
rigidity. This young's modulus of elasticity is a measure of stiffness. The greater the
Young's modulus for a material, the better it can withstand greater forces. More about
the relation between, stress and strain is discussed in the following paragraphs.
Stress-strain curve:
The relationship between the stress and strain that a material displays is known
as a Stress-Strain curve. Stress-strain diagrams can be generated foraxial
tension and compression, and shear loading conditions.
• Tension specimens have a narrow region in the middle along the so-
called gage length.
• Compression specimens are much thicker and shorter than tension specimens
with no cross-sectional variations.
In either case, data are collected in terms of applied force and the change in
the gage length. The normal stress is obtained by dividing the applied force by the
cross-sectional area of the specimen, and the normal strain is obtained by dividing the
change in gage length by its original value. The plot of stress versus strain gives the
stress-strain diagram.. These curves reveal many of the properties of a material
(including data to establish the Modulus of Elasticity, E). A typical stress-strain
diagram for a ductile metal undergoing tension is given below.
Proportional limit:
During the first portion of the curve (up to a strain of less than 1%), the stress
and strain are proportional. The greatest stress at which a material is capable of
sustaining the applied load without deviating from proportionality or stress to strain.
This holds until the point 'a', the proportional limit, is reached. Stress and strain are
proportional because this segment of the line is straight.
Elastic limit:
From a to b on the diagram, stress and strain are not proportional, but
nevertheless, if the stress is removed at any point between O and b, the curve will be
retraced in the opposite direction and the material will return to its original shape and
length. In other words, the material will spring back into shape in a reverse order to
the way it sprung out of shape to begin with. In the region Ob, then, the material is
said to be elastic or to exhibit elastic behavior and the point b is called the elastic
limit. The point on the stress strain curve beyond which the material permanently
deforms, upon removal of the external load.
If the material is stressed further, the strain increases rapidly, but when the
stress is removed at some point beyond b, say c, the material does not come back to
its original shape or length but returns along a different path to a different point,
shown along the dashed line in figure. The length of the material at zero stress is now
greater than the original length and the material is said to have a permanent set.
Plastic behavior:
Yield strength:
This is the point at which the material exceeds the elastic limits and will not
return to the original shape, if stress is removed. This value is determined by
evaluating a stress-strain diagram produced during a tensile test.
The stress-strain curve for different material is different. The figure below
shows the comparison of the curves for mild steel, cast iron and concrete. It can be
seen that the concrete curve is almost a straight line. There is an abrupt end to the
curve. This, and the fact that it is a very steep line, indicate that it is a brittle material.
The curve for cast iron has a slight curve to it. It is also a brittle material. Both of
these materials will fail with little warning once their limits are surpassed. Notice that
the curve for mild steel seems to have a long gently curving "tail". This indicates a
behavior that is distinctly different than either concrete or cast iron. The graph shows
that after a certain point mild steel will continue to strain (in the case of tension, to
stretch) as the stress (the loading) remains more or less constant. The steel will
actually stretch like taffy. This is a material property which indicates a high ductility.
If the original cross-sectional area is used to calculate the stress for every
value of applied force, then the resulting diagram is known as the Engineering Stress-
Strain Diagram. However, if the applied force is divided by the actual value of the
cross-sectional area, then the resulting diagram is known as the True Stress-Strain
Diagram. Therefore, in engineering stress-strain diagram the ultimate and failure
strength points do not coincide whereas in the true diagram they do. The difference in
the two diagrams becomes apparent in the inelastic region of the curve where the
change in the cross-sectional area of the specimen becomes very significant.
Yielding:
Yielding occurs when the design stress exceeds the material yield strength.
Design stress is typically maximum surface stress (simple loading) or Von Mises
stress (complex loading conditions). The Von Mises yield criterion states that yielding
occurs when the Von Mises stress, σv exceeds the yield strength in tension. Often,
Finite Element Analysis stress results use Von Mises stresses. Von Mises stress is
------------------------------------------
( σ1- σ2 )2 + ( σ2- σ3 )2 + ( σ1-
σ3 )2
σ
= ----------------------------------------
v
2
Where σ1, σ2, σ3 are principal stresses. Safety factor is a function of design
stress and yield strength. The following equation denotes safety factor, fs. Where Y S
is the Yield Strength and D S is the Design Stress
YS
fs= ---
DS
Poisson Ratio:
Within elastic limits the ratio of lateral strain to longitudinal strain is constant
and is equal to Poisson ratio. When a load is applied on a body, there is a dimensional
increase along the longitudinal direction and dimensional decrease in lateral
direction. Poisson ratio is constant for a given material.
• Rubber has a Poisson ratio close to 0.5 and is therefore almost incompressible.
• Cork, on the other hand, has a Poisson ratio close to zero. This makes cork
function well as a bottle stopper, since an axially-loaded cork will not swell
laterally to resist bottle insertion.
• For non-dilatant materials the Poisson ratio is 0.6.
• The Poisson ratio for most metals falls between 0.25 to 0.35. However the
limiting values of Poisson ratio is -1 and 0.5
• Theoretical materials with a Poisson ratio of exactly 0.5 are
truly incompressible, since the sum of all their strains leads to a zero volume
change.
Volumetric Strain ( ev ):
Ductility:
It is the capability of a material to be drawn into wires. There are two methods
used for its measurement. One based on total elongation produced and other based on
total reduction in sectional area.
% increase in elongation = ( L- l ) / l
% reduction in cross sectional area = ( A - a ) / A x 100
Impact Test:
This test is used to find out the resistance of a body against shock load. This
is called as Izod impact test. The test specimen is a 10 mm square rod and notched at
a face. The notch is at a depth of 2 mm and a radius of 0.25 mm at the bottom. It is
fixed in a vice. The pendulum is raised and the value stored is around 165 joules.
Fatigue:
Sometimes members are subjected to loads that vary in magnitudes. They may
be even reversible loading. ( The member is subjected to repeated tensile and
compressive stress ). These members fail at point lower than ultimate stress. This
property is called fatigue of materials. At a certain range of applied stress, the
number of cycles becomes infinite. That limit is called as Endurance limit.
Strain Energy:
Types of Loading:
Torsion in Shafts:
Torsional Rigidity:
Beams:
• Cantilever beams,
• Freely supported beams,
• Fixed beams and
• Continuous beams.
These are members that are subjected to compressive load along the
axis. Short columns fail by crushing. Thus we have to take care of crushing
load. But long columns fail by buckling or bending, hence we have to take
care of crippling load. This buckling load is less than the crushing load.
This value of bucking load is low for long members and vice versa.
Thus buckling load depends on
Effective length:
Of a given column with the given end conditions is the length of the
equivalent column of the same section with hinged ends. The crippling load
is same in both cases. The effective length under different conditions is
given by
Proof resilience:
Factor of Safety:
1. Loading uncertainty
2. Type of loading - Static, dynamic and impact.
3. Machine strength uncertainty
4. Work environment - corrosive
5. Reliability requirements and
6. Effect of manufacturing process.
Bulk Modulus:
Stress concentration:
Disc springs:
Disc spring / Belleville spring, Occupy small space and gives high
spring rates. Parallel arrangement takes a higher load for a given deflection
and series arrangement gives a larger deflection. Leaf springs are used in
automobiles. They are energy absorbing devices. There are two types.
Constant width and constant strength springs.
HARDNESS
The Rockwell test uses two loads, one applied directly after the
other. The first load, known as the "minor", load of 10 kilograms is applied
to the specimen to help seat the indenter and remove the effects, in the test,
of any surface irregularities. In essence, the minor load creates a uniformly
shaped surface for the major load to be applied to. A minor load causes an
initial penetration and holds the indenter in place. Then, the dial is set to
zero and the major load is applied. Upon removal of the major load, the
depth reading is taken while the minor load is still on. The difference in the
depth of the indentation between the minor and major loads provides the
Rockwell hardness number. The hardness number may then be read directly
from the scale.
For soft materials a 1/16" diameter steel ball is used with a 100-
kilogram load and the hardness is read on the "B" scale. In testing harder
materials, a 120 degrees diamond cone is used with up to a 150 kilogram
load and the hardness is read on the "C" scale. There are several Rockwell
scales other than "B" & "C" scales, (which are called the common scales).
The other scales also use a letter for the scale symbol prefix, and many use a
different sized steel ball indenter. A properly used Rockwell designation
will have the hardness number followed by "HR" (Hardness Rockwell),
which will be followed by another letter which indicates the specific
Rockwell scale. An example is 60 HRB, which indicates that the specimen
has a hardness reading of 60 on the B scale.
where
HV = 1.854(F/D2),
Knoop hardness:
Shore:
Introduction:
This gives the stress or strain at selected points, usually strain gauges
are used to obtain stresses at selected points.
Disadvantages:
Strain gauges:
A strain gauge may be defined a any instrument or device that is
employed to measure the linear deformation over a given gauge length,
occurring in the material of a structure during the loading of structure.
Depending upon the magnification system, the strain gauges may be
classified as follows
BERRY GAUGE
TINIUS AND OLESON GAUGE
The rack and pinion principle along with various types of gear trains
is employed in gauges in which the magnification system is incorporated in
an indicating dial. In general a dial indicator consists of an encased gear
train actuated by a rack cut in the spindle, which follows the motion to be
measured. A spring imposes sufficient spindle force to maintain a
reasonable uniform and positive contact with moving part. The gear train
terminates with a light weight pointer which indicates spindle travel on a
graduated dial. Lost motion in the gear train is minimized by the positive
force of a small coil spring. Dial gauges are permanently attached to
structure to indicate the deflection on deformation obtained under working
conditions These gauges then indicate excessive deformation due to either
an overload or damage to the structure.
Principle of Operation:
Grinding removes metal from the work piece in the form of small
chips by the mechanical action of abrasive particles bonded together in a
grinding wheel.
Grinding operations :
Base: It has a driving mechanism ( hydraulic device, tank and motor. ) It has
column at the back for supporting the wheel head.
Saddle: It is the frame. It carries the table in its cross wise movement. It is
used to give cross-feed to the work. It can be moved by hand feed or auto-
feed.
• Maximum diameter of the wheel that can be held one the spindle.
• Maximum size of the job that can be ground.
• The type of drive of the work table ( Hydraulic / electrical )
2. Centered Grinding:
The axial movement of the work piece past the grinding wheels is
obtained, by tilting the regulating wheel at a slight angel from horizontal.
An angular adjustment of 0o to 10o is provided in the machine for this
purpose. There are three main types of center less grinding.
Through-feed grinding:
The grinding wheel is canted with respect to the other two axes so
that a component of its surface velocity pushes the part in the direction
shown below. This auto feeding characteristic is useful for rapidly
processing many parts in quick sequence. Because of the axial movement,
through-feed parts can only have right circular cylindrical ground surfaces.
The wheel cannot be dressed to grind more complex shapes.
In-Feed Grinding:
Because of the set up time involved for each part, in-feed grinding
does not have the high throughput of through-feed grinding. In-feed
grinding is illustrated below.
End-Feed Grinding:
Center less grinding is used when large quantities of the same part
are required. Production is high and cost are relatively low because there is
not need to drill center holes nor to mount the work in holding device.
Almost an material can be ground with this technique. Minimum time is
lost in loading and unloading. Since no axial force is acting on the work
piece, long slender work pieces can be used without being distorted.
Large grinding wheels are used and hence wear is less and minimum
amount of adjustment. A low order of skill is required to attend the
centerless grinding much of the time.
4. Cylindrical grinder:
These are the machines that are designed for simple external
grinding. The wheel head is made to operate to and from the work table but
cannot be swiveled. The work table holds the work head and tail stock and
can be swiveled for slight tapers. The head stock is rigidly attached to the
work table and cannot be swiveled. It is located to the left of the operator.
These grinders are used to produce
• Plain or stepped surface,
• External cylinders.
• Tapers,
• Concave or convex radii,
• Under cuts and
• Form grinding by dressing the grinding wheel the desired shape.
It is different from the above grinder in the sense that the wheel head
can be swiveled on its base and can be fed to and from the table. The upper
work table can be swiveled and is equipped with scales and adjusting screws
for setting the table to produce slight tapers. Steep tapers may be ground by
swiveling the headstock on its base. The universal grinding machine is a
tool room machine.
5. Internal Grinder:
• Work rotating type machine is commonly used in tool and die rooms.
In this grinder, the wheel head may be stationary with a reciprocating
work table or the wheel head may reciprocate and the work table
remains stationery.
• Planetary internal grinder is where the wheel spindle is arranged that
besides rotating on its axis it can be made to run eccentrically, thus
making it possible to grind large holes of varying diameter depending
upon how much the wheel spindle is made to run eccentric. The
work is mounted on a table which has vertical, horizontal and
longitudinal adjustments similar to those of the plain milling
machine.
• Centreless internal grinder works on a roller chucking principle in
which the rollers hold the work and impart the rotary motion to the
work. The wheel head has reciprocating motion and may be fed in
and out by hand. This machine issued for work of a repetitive nature.
GRINDING WHEELS:
Those grains which actually perform the cutting operation are called
active grains. In peripheral grinding, each active grain removes a short chip
of gradually increasing thickness in a way that is similar to the action of a
tooth on a slab milling cutter. Because of irregular shape of the grains, there
is considerable plowing action, between each active grain and the new work
surface. The plowing results in progressive wear, causing the formation of
worn areas on the active grains. As grinding proceeds the number and size
of these worn areas increase, thus increasing the interference or friction,
resulting in an increase in the force acting on the grain. Eventually this
force become large enough to tear the work grain from the bond of the
wheel and thus expose a new cutting edges. Thus grinding wheel has self
sharpening characteristics.
Grain size: The number indicating the size of the grit represents the number
of openings in the sieve used to size the grain. Larger the grit size number,
finer the grit.
Grade: Indicates the strength of the bond and, therefore the hardness of the
wheel. In a hard wheel the bond is strong and it securely anchors the grit in
place, and therefore, reduces the rate of wear. In a soft wheel, the bond is
weak and he grit is easily detached resulting in a high rate of wear.
Structure: This indicate the amount of bond present between the individual
abrasive grains, and the closeness of the individual grains to each other. An
open structure will cut more freely. That is, it will remove more material in
a give time and produce less heat.
Bond: Is a substance which, when mixed with abrasive grains holds them
together, enabling the mixture to be shaped in the form of the wheel, and
after suitable treatment to take on the form of the wheel and the necessary
mechanical strength for its work. The degree of hardness possessed by the
bond is called as 'grade' of the wheel, and this indicates the ability of the
bond to hold the abrasive grains in the wheel. There are several types of
bonding materials used for making wheels.
Types of bonding:
Vitrified bonding ( V ):
Vitrify means to change into glass by heat and fusion. Thus when
clay, feldspar or flint are mixed with the abrasive grains and heated to
1200o C, the ceramic material melts and forms a lass like coating and
bonding agent for the grains. The forming of wheels is mostly done by the
puddled or pressed process.
It has high porosity and strength which makes this type of wheel
suitable for high rate of stock removal. It is not adversely affected by water,
acid, oils at ordinary temperature conditions.
Silicate bonding ( S ):
Silicate wheels have a milder action and cut with less hardness than
vitrified wheels. For this reason they are suitable for grinding fine edge
tools, cutlery etc.
Shellac bonding ( E ):
This is used for heavy duty, large diameter wheels where a fine
finish is required. These are expensive and comparatively very rare. They
are used where their exceptionally cool cutting abilities are essential to
prevent burn damage or to provide very fine finish. Applications include
metallurgical sample cutting and Tool & Cutter grinding for reclaiming
broken slot and end mills. Shellac wheels may be made to 3 mm or less in
thickness. Shellac wheels posses considerable elasticity.
Rubber bonding ( R ):
Resinoid bonding ( B ):
This is used for high speed wheels. Such wheels are used in
foundries for dressing castings. Resinoid bond wheels are also used for
cutting off parts. They are strong enough to with stand considerable abuse.
Resinoid bond is made from powdered synthetic resin used as phenol
formaldehyde. This is mixed pressed and heated to 177o C. After cooling,
this makes a wheel which is less brittle, tougher and more flexible than the
vitrified bond and which can be run up to 2900 m/min.
Wheel structure:
Wheel structure defines how "open" or "closed" the wheel surface is.
An "open" wheel is one with the grits spaced relatively far apart, a "closed"
wheel is one with the grits spaced close together. For conventional wheels, it
is assigned a number, normally between 1 [most closed] and 15 [most open].
It is a measure of the percentage of grit by volume. The less volume of grit,
the more open the wheel structure is with more space for coolant and chip
clearance.
Types of Lay:
Finish required: Rough finish requires coarse grains and open structure.
High finish requires fine grain and dense structure.
Area of contact: The are of contact depends on the size of the work piece,
the grinding wheel and the nature of operation. When the area of contact is
more a soft grade and coarse grain wheel is to be selected. For less area of
contact select hard grade and fine grain wheel.
Work speed: Select a hard wheel for high work speed and a soft wheel for
low work speed.
Condition of the machine: For rigid and new machines, select a soft grade
and open structured wheel. For light and old machines, select a hard grade
and dense structured wheel.
There are 5 main types of grinding fluid. Of these four are water
based and the other is a neat oil. With the water based fluids, the main
constituent is water with a concentrate added to a specified percentage. The
concentrate should always be added to the water, rather than the other way
round, so that a stable emulsion will be formed.
Glazing:
Loading:
When soft materials like aluminium, copper, lead etc are ground the
metal particles get clogged between the abrasive particles. This condition is
called as loading. The effects of glazing and loading are almost same.
Following are the effects.
• Work production,
• Wheel performance and
• Grinding economy.
Dressing Truing
• Diamond,
• Steel and
• Abrasive.
Dressing tools:
A diamond dressing tool has a hard diamond point mounted in a
metal shank. The shank is fitted in a tool holder for location on the grinding
machine to perform dressing. Diamond dressers are most effective for
precision grinding wheels. The low feed of a diamond dresser can glaze the
wheel. They are specified by their weight in carats. Usually 0.5 carat to 1
carat diamond is used for dressing up to 300 mm diameter of wheels.
When only light dressing is required abrasive sticks are used. There
are abrasive materials made in the form of square or round sticks or put in
metal tubes for convenient handling. This type of dresser is more common
in tool and cutter grinders where truing and dressing is necessary.
[2] Grinding ratio: This is defined as the ratio of the volume of component
material removed to the volume of the wheel consumed in the process. It is
therefore a measure of the efficiency with which the wheel is being used.
This measurement can be used to check if the wheel specification is correct.
A low grinding ratio may mean the wheel is too soft and is therefore
breaking down too easily under the grinding forces. Care is needed here, as
too hard a wheel can sometimes give a low grinding ratio as well. Too hard
a wheel encourages chips to stick to the wheel surface and this can cause
grits to fall out too soon.
Grinding speed:
It is the rate of travel of the wheel surface past a point on the work
piece. Wheel speed is otherwise called surface speed. It is expressed in
terms of meters per second.
N = V x 1000 / π x d
Feed:
In grinding refers to the movement of the wheel per stroke across the
work surface. The feed in grinding depends on the work speed, wheel width
and the finish required. It is generally 3/4th to 2/3rd of the wheel face width
for rough grinding and 1/4th to 1/8 of the wheel face width in case of the
finish grinding. When feed is high the wheel wear increases surface finish
deteriorates and the dimensional accuracy of the work piece is affected.
Depth of cut:
Job Sites
• Compressor blades,
• Engine ducts,
• Panels
• connecting rods and
• Axle castings.
Classification of composites:
• Large particle
Particle
1 • Dispersion strengthened
reinforced
Fibre • Continuous
2
reinforced • Discontinuous ( Aligned
and randomly oriented)
• Laminates
Structural
3 • Sandwich panels
composites
2. Fibre-reinforced composites:
• Whiskers,
• Fibres and
• Wires.
Whiskers are thin single crystals that have extremely large length to
diameter ratios. As a consequence of their small size that have extremely
high degree of crystalline perfection and are virtually are strongest known
materials. In spite of these high strengths whiskers are not utilize
extensively as a reinforcement medium because they are very expensive.
Moreover it is difficult and often impractical to incorporate whiskers into
matrix. Whisker material include graphite, silicon carbide, silicon nitride.
Aramid fibres are high strength, high modulus materials. This group
of materials is known as polyparaphenylene tere pthalamide (Trade name is
Kevlar). There are various grades, with various mechanical properties.
Even though Aramids are thermoplastics they are resistant to combustion
and stable to relatively high temperatures. The temperature range over
which they retain their high mechanical properties is between -200 to 200
degree centigrade. They are cheaper than carbon fibres. They are 50%
cheaper than carbon fibre for the same weight, and thickness. For a heavily
loaded structures a hybrid combination of Kevlar and carbon fibres are
used. Boron fibre reinforced composite is used mainly in the manufacture of
Helicopter blades.
Carbon-carbon composite:
• Pultrusion
• Filament winding
• Pre preg production process.
3. Structural composites:
• Light weight,
• Stiff,
• Resistant to corrosion,
• resistant to fatigue,
• Easily moldable to complex shapes and
• Weight reduction of the range of 20 % - 40 %.
When a plane flies there are four forces at work that keep the plane
flying. These forces are lift, thrust, gravity, and drag. For the aircraft to
generate lift, it wings have a special airfoil section as shown in the figure.
The air moving over the top of the wing is caused to go faster than
the slower moving air on the bottom. Faster moving air has less pressure, so
this causes the pressure on the bottom of the wing to be greater and the
plane is lifted. This effect is known as the Bernoulli Principle. When a plane
creates sufficient lift it overcomes the force of gravity that is pulling the
plane down.
Air pressure plays a big part in flight also. Air pressure is a force
pushing on every square inch of an airplane. When a plane is parked the air
pressure is distributed evenly around the plane's surface. When a plane is in
flight the pressure on top of the wings pushes down less and the pressure on
the bottom of the wings pushes more. This is what causes the plane to feel a
lift.
The Lift Diagram shows some of the basic terms relating to a wing section.
These terms are common to R/C flight.
Drag:
Another force that has a great part in flight is drag. Drag is the force
pulling the plane backwards. Drag is the resistance created by the air
molecules struck by the aircraft, being spread apart and flowing around the
plane as it flies through them. Drag is created when the air collides with the
airplanes wings and creates friction. This friction causes the plane to slow
down and feel a drag. When wings are produced the designers make the
wings in such a manner to create lift but also minimize friction with the air.
Drag increases in proportion to the square of the velocity. So if the aircraft
flies three times as fast, then drag is nine times.
Curve "C" shows the profile drag curve. Profile drag remains relatively
constant throughout the speed range with some increase at the higher
airspeeds.
Curve "D" shows total drag and represents the sum of the other three
curves. It identifies the airspeed range, line "E", at which total drag is
lowest. That airspeed is the best airspeed for maximum endurance, best rate
of climb, and minimum rate of descent in autorotation.
Weight:
Weight is the force of gravity trying to pull the plane back to earth.
The important thing about this force is that it acts as though all the weight
of the aircraft is centered at one point. That point is called the Center of
Gravity or CG. When loading passengers and their baggage, always keep
in mind that the CG must be located within specified limits for that
particular aircraft.
Thrust:
Thrust is the force that causes a plane to move forward and is created
by the plane's propeller or jet engines. Thrust is created by a propeller by
using the same concept as lift. The propeller is specially shaped like an
airfoil but it uses the lift to pull the plane forward instead of pushing the
plane up.
Axes in a Flight:
An aircraft pivots about three (3) axes; the yaw or vertical axis
controlled by the rudder, the pitch or lateral axis controlled by the elevator,
and the roll or longitudinal axis controlled by the ailerons. It can pivot about
any one of these individually or in combination based on the control
surfaces that are moved and the direction of the movement.
When the rudder is moved to the right, the aircraft will rotate to the
right about the yaw axis and vice versa. When the elevator is moved up, the
aircraft will pitch the nose upwards. The ailerons move in opposite
directions. When the left aileron is moved up and right one down, the
aircraft will rotate to the left and vice versa.
Lift, drag and moment ( Resultant force X arm of the aerofoil ) are
the forces in a aircraft during flight. These values can be determined
experimentally in a wind tunnel.
1. Wings
2. Fuselage ( Passengers and Pay load )
3. Empennage ( Tail plane and fin )
4. Control surface ( Ailerons, flaps, elevators and rudders ) and
5. Landing gear.
1. Brakes
2. Navigation
3. Communication
4. Fuel and power plant
5. Instrumentation
6. Blind landing aids.
7. Weapons and electronic counter measures.
8. Cabin furnishing
9. Cabin equipment
10. Cargo equipment
11. Air pressurization and
12. Air-conditioning & Oxygen.
Aircraft Maneuvers :
1. Take off
2. Climb
3. Cruise
4. Turn and bank
5. Descent and
6. Landing.
Magnetic compass -- Like the compass in a car or boat, it tells about the
airplane's heading -- the direction it's flying. It requires no power source.
Attitude indicator -- This instrument is like the horizon we see looking out
from the pilot's seat. It tells whether the nose of the airplane is pointed above
or below the horizon and whether the airplane is turning (banking) to the left
or right (left wing down or right wing down). This instrument uses a
gyroscopically controlled horizon, moving behind a fixed representation of
an aircraft, to indicate your plane's movement about both the lateral axis
(nose position) and the longitudinal axis (wing position) relative to the
actual horizon. When flying under Visual Flight Rules (VFR), the pilot
should ignore this instrument and use the actual horizon instead. In fact,
the other instruments should be only checked periodically. in a quick scan
pattern, as the pilot should be mostly looking outside the aircraft.
Altimeter -- This instrument shows the airplane's altitude in feet above sea
level. The altimeter uses a sealed tin called an aneroid barometer to
measure altitude. It compares the atmospheric pressure outside your
aircraft to the pressure inside the tin. As outside pressure changes, the tin
expands or contracts from the pressure sealed inside. Each tick mark on the
instrument face represents one hundred feet of altitude. Each rotation of the
needle represents 1000 feet.
Vertical speed indicator -- This instrument tells you how quickly the
aircraft is climbing or descending in feet per minute. When in level flight, it
reads "0". It operates by measuring the relative change in atmospheric
pressure. Since the change is relative, unlike the altimeter, it does not
require calibration. There is a lag in the measuring process, however, and
therefore it is important not to take any corrective action until you have
given the instrument time to do it's thing. A second or less is all it takes.
Turn coordinator -- When turning the airplane, this instrument shows the
rate and the direction of the turn. In this way we can adjust to a slower or
faster rate of turn. This instrument has a representation of an aircraft which
banks to indicate the direction and rate of the aircraft turns. It also has a
liquid-damped ball which will be in the center of the glass tube when the
aircraft is in a coordinated turn. If the aircraft is skidding around the turn,
the ball will be displaced to the side of the tube in the direction of the turn.
Application of rudder in the direction of the turn will bring the aircraft
back to coordinated flight and the ball back to it's middle position in the
tube.
Angle of Attack :
The angle made by the chord of aerofoil to the relative air flow.
Chord is obtained by line joining lead edge with trailing edge.
Stall :
It is the condition where the air separates from wing surface and
causes loss in lift and drag. C L and CD increase with increasing angle of
attack. But at 16o there is a drop in CL and rapid rise inC D. At this point, (
Stall ) the aircraft cannot fly safely.
Sweep Angle :
is the angle made by Quarter chord line along the lateral axis. In Mig
27 and Tornado, the sweep angle can be varied during flight.
The curvature of mean line between top and bottom surfaces is called
Camber. Increase in Camber increase Lift and Drag. Leading edge radius
also affects lift and drag. A large radius is used in low speed aircraft.
Aspect Ratio :
Flaps :
Flaps are attached to the trailing edge of the wings, they are used to
change the camber of wings. Flaps augment lift at the time of take off, but
during normal flight, it is retracted back to reduce drag. Slats are attached to
the front portion of wings. Flaps are relatively large, movable, hinged
panels located inboard of the ailerons on each wing. Lowering them into
the airflow under the wing increases both lift and drag significantly. Their
main purpose is to permit a slower airspeed during a landing approach.
They are also useful in shorten the distance required to take-off from short
runways or from airports at higher altitudes. It is recommended that one-
third flaps be set routinely for any take-off. Hanging low to the ground they
can be easily damaged by debris being kicked up by the propeller or the
landing gear.
The Rudder :
The Vertical Stabilizer is the vertical fin at the rear of the aircraft. The
rear portion of the vertical stabilizer is a hinged section called the rudder.
The rudder is moved on its hinges by pedals on the floor of the cockpit.
The truth of the matter is that the rudder is of little or no real value in
controlling the aircraft in the air during normal flight. On the ground, in
single engine aircraft, it is useful for taxiing and take-off when the other
control surfaces are still ineffective due to the low speed of the aircraft. In
multi-engine aircraft it can be necessary to counter the loss of an engine. It
is useful, and sometimes necessary, during stall and spin recovery when
other control surfaces have lost effectiveness, and it is helpful in
maintaining co-ordinated flight during turns. In a turn the inside wing has
lost some lift and without the use of the rudder the aircraft would "skid"
through the turn, a very sloppy and uncomfortable way to fly. Once
this option is set permanently, your aircraft will fly with simulated rudder
movement and keep your turns coordinated automatically.
The Ailerons :
The ailerons are a set of hinged surfaces found at the rear edge of
each wing. They are controlled by the side-to-side movement of the
joystick or yoke (control wheel). By moving the aileron, on the side of the
aircraft you wish to turn toward, up into the flow of air over the wing, some
lift is lost and the wing drops. At the same time the aileron on the outside
wing has been moved downward, producing additional lift on that side and
that wing rises. The combined effect is to turn the plane in the direction you
have moved the stick. Are ailerons the only way to turn an aircraft? The
answer is no. A Piper Cub, for instance, can be turned by merely sticking
your arm out of the open cockpit as if you were signaling a turn in that
direction. The drag produced will turn the plane in the direction you
signaled.
Holding the control surfaces in one position for long periods of time
can be tiring. This is especially true of the elevator. So small tabs on the
edge of the control surfaces can be set to hold the surface in a steady
position. On most modern aircraft this allows the pilot to remove his hands
from the controls and/or use only light pressures to maintain steady flight
conditions.
The Brakes :
At the tip of each rudder pedal is a foot brake. These brakes are not
only used to help stop the aircraft, but are necessary to steer the aircraft on
the ground if the plane does not have a steerable nose wheel. This is
especially true at lower speeds when the rudder is ineffective. Aircraft are
also equipped with a parking brake. Any time the aircraft is stopped with
the engine running the parking brake MUST be set for safety reasons.
Brakes should be used sparingly on landing to avoid blowing out the tires.
Jet aircraft use spoilers which are inserted into the air stream to slow down
the plane and most jet engines are capable of reversing thrust to slow the
aircraft. This feature is also helpful in backing out of parking spaces at the
gate.
Riveting is just like that. On one end, is the rivet gun. On the other end is a
bucking bar ( Bucking bar is a chunk of steel of some convenient shape and
weight, with a smooth striking surface ). In the middle is the rivet itself. The
pneumatic rivet gun impacts the rivet, which acts as a medium and sends the
impulse through to the bucking bar resting on the other end. The bucking
bar swings away from the rivet. The small force of the bucker holding that
bar in place "swings" the bucking bar back at the rivet. Now here's where
riveting diverges from the ball demonstration, if the rivet gun had shot a
single impulse, the bucking bar would strike the rivet and then the gun
would get pushed away in turn, conservation of momentum and all that. But
the difference is that the gun is held firmly in place and is sending a
continuous stream of impulses through the rivet. As soon as the bucking bar
hits the rivet, another impulse from the gun counteracts that momentum and
cancels it out. In the process, the momentum canceling effect
is absorbed by the rivet, which gets smushed a little bit. This happens
several times per second, and the rivet gets driven down and flattened.
The most common types of rivets fall into the following categories:
Solid rivets:
Precautions:
The most common types of riveting other than the standard methods
are cold riveting, hot riveting, and automated riveting. Each of the riveting
methods have advantages, whether it is strength, ease of production, or cost.
Countersinking of Rivets:
Advantages of Riveting:
Rivets are usually constructed with straight shanks. They are not
threaded like bolts or screws and are therefore easier and less expensive to
produce. Rivets can come with various head configurations which offer
different surface finishes. They can be produced such that the head of the
rivet is flush with the surface or some types can have the head ground to be
flush with the surface. Standard rivet types have a round smooth head which
can be polished or painted to match the surface of the fastened material.
Rivets can be assemble in a variety of methods. There are hand tools and
hand guns which are used for riveting and there are large machines that
perform riveting operations. The advantage of the hand-held rivet guns is
that they are very maneuverable. They can also be used on curved or
varying surface contours.
Elongation:
Yield-point elongation:
Anisotropy:
Grain size:
The grain size is important because it affects the mechanical
properties of the material and the surface appearance of the formed part. The
coarser the grain, the rougher the surface.
Residual stresses:
Spring back:
Wrinkling:
Shearing: The operation is carried out beyond the ultimate strength. E.g.
Blanking, piercing and perforating.
Squeezing: Metals are worked in compressive load. E.g. Drop stamping and
coining.
Blanking:
Piercing:
In this blanks and holes with smoother edges and closer tolerance are
made. High cost savings are obtained. tolerances to the extend of 0.025
mm is obtained in thin metals and 0.08 in thick metals. In conventional
blanking and piercing to attain the desired tolerance the parts have to be
reworked. The process is slower.
Perforation:
Notching:
Power Brake:
Routing Machines:
Routers are used to create blanks with contours. There are two types
of routing machines. They are
In radial arm router, the work piece is held stationery and cutter
moves around the work piece. But in case of fixed head router, the router
had is stationery and the work is moved around cutter. this is used for
smaller components. Routing time is usually few sections. In CNC routers,
all operations except loading and unloading of sheet metals can be
mechanized.
Stage 1 : The material is held on the machine and stretched equally on both
sides upto the elastic limit of the material.
Peen forming:
Nozzle type machines are used for peen forming. Compressed air is
used to properly steels hot. There are around 20 nozzles and each nozzle is
capable of delivering around 23 Kgs / Min. The nozzle direction is
adjustable. Centrifugal wheel machines are also used.
Spinning:
Where:
Y = yield stress
t = thickness
S = panel stiffness = ( E )(t a)( shape)
The value of a ranges from 1 to 2 for most panels. As for the shape,
the smaller the curvature, the greater the dent resistance because of its
flexibility. Therefore dent resistance increases with increasing strength and
thickness and decreases with increasing elastic modulus, E, and stiffness and
decreasing curvature.