Math 213a: Homework 1

Vinh-Kha Le
September 2018

Problem 1. We parametrize the line connecting P = [ζ0 , ζ1 , ζ2 ] and P0 = [0, 0, 1] as P x + P0 y. Letting

x = ζ2−1 and y = −1 gives us the point
 
ζ0 ζ1 ζ2
, , − 1 = [ζ0 , ζ1 , 0].
ζ2 ζ2 ζ2

Because this point lies in T , we have

π(P ) = π[ζ0 , ζ1 , ζ2 ] = [ζ0 , ζ1 , 0].

This means that π acts locally on the tangent bundle by

∂ ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂
π∗ = , π∗ = , and π∗ = 0.
∂ζ0 ∂ζ0 ∂ζ1 ∂ζ1 ∂ζ2
Let Q be a point on M where the multiplicity of π is greater than 1. Let k denote this multiplicity. We can
pick local charts ζ and ξ centered at Q and π(Q), respectively, such that π looks like the map ζ 7→ ζ k . This
gives us a tangent vector that π∗ maps to
∂ dξ ∂ ∂
π∗ = = kζ k−1 .
∂ζ dζ ∂ξ ∂ξ

Because k is greater than 1, this vector vanishes at Q. This means that all vectors ∂/∂ζ tangent to M at Q
are a scalar multiples of ∂/∂ζ2 in the ambient space CP2 .
Suppose for the sake of contradiction that Q lies on the infinite portion of CP2 . We showed above that
all vectors ∂/∂ζ tangent to M at Q have no ∂/∂ζ0 component. However, vectors lying tangent to the infinite
line in CP2 also have no ∂/∂ζ0 component. This means that the tangent spaces of M and the infinite line of
CP2 fail to span the tangent space of the ambient space. We conclude that M does not intersect the infinite
line transversely at Q. By contradiction, Q lies in the affine portion of CP2 . Renormalize with ζ0 = 1 so
that ζ1 = z and ζ2 = w.
Without loss of generality, let Q = (0, 0). Observe that w provides a local chart of M because all tangent
vectors at Q have no ∂/∂z component. Also observe that z provides a local chart of T because T is the
z-axis on the affine portion of CP2 . By taking biholomorphisms with the coordinate charts ζ and ξ, we get

z(w) = ak wk + O(wk+1 ).

The polynomial R(0, w) has a root of multiplicity k at w = 0. Furthermore, because M is nonsingular, ∂z R

does not vanish at Q, and so R has a z term. This means we can write R(z, w) as

R(z, w) = zR1 (z, w) + wk R2 (w).

By direct computation, we find that (R, ∂w R) does not have wp terms for 0 ≤ p ≤ k − 2. Clearly, these terms
are linearly independent. In fact, they form a basis of C[z, w]/(R, ∂w R) because we can obtain all other
monomials by killing off terms. We conclude that the intersection multiplicity at Q of the curves defined by
R(z, w) = 0 and ∂w R(z, w) = 0 is
dimC C[z, w]/(R, ∂w R) = k − 1.

1
 By Bezout’s theorem, the total number of intersection points between these curves is given by
`
X
(kj − 1) = d(d − 1).
j=1

Note that ∂w R(z, w) has degree d − 1 because otherwise the only term in R(z, w) with degree d would take
the form z d . This would mean that M intersects the infinite line along ζ1 = 0. Such an intersection would
not be transverse.
Choose an arbitrary triangulation TT and refine it so that the branch points of π are all vertices of the
triangulation. Let TM be the preimage of TT under π. It is clear that π is a d-fold covering map outside
its ramification points. Because all the branch points of π are vertices, the edges and faces do not contain
branch points. Thus, we have n1 (M ) = dn1 (T ) and n2 (M ) = dn2 (T ).
If π has multiplicity k at Q, not necessarily greater than 1, it is a k-fold covering map locally around Q.
Because π is a d-fold covering map, we know that the multiplicities of the vertices that map to the same
vertex in T sum to d. Fix a vertex V in TT . If we denote the multiplicity of Q by kQ , we have
X X
d= kQ and so d = |π −1 (V )| + (kQ − 1).
Q∈π −1 (V ) Q∈π −1 (V )

Summing over all vertices in TT gives us

X `
X
dn0 (T ) = n0 (M ) + (kQ − 1) = n0 (M ) + (k` − 1).
Q∈TT k=1

The last equality comes from the fact that kQ − 1 is nonzero only at branch points Qj .
Because T is homeomorphic to a sphere, it has Euler characteristic 2. It follows that
`
X
e(M ) = dn0 (T ) − (k` − 1) − dn1 (T ) + dn2 (T ) = 2d − d(d − 1).
k=1

Thus, the genus of M is

d(d − 1) (d − 1)(d − 2)
g(M ) = 1 − d + = .
2 2
Consider the map
1
V → HdR (M ; R) : Re ϕ 7→ [Re ϕ]
that treats the real part of a holomorphic form as a real-valued form and sends it to its cohomology class.
This map is well-defined because
d Re ϕ = Re dϕ = 0,
since M is one-dimensional as a complex manifold. It suffices to show that this map is injective. This is
1
because HdR (M ; R) has 2g(M ) generators.
Let Re ϕ be an element in the kernel. Then Re ϕ is exact and can be written as some exterior derivative
dψ. The integral of Re ϕ along any closed curve γ is
Z Z Z
Re ϕ = dψ = ψ = 0.
γ γ ∂γ

Because this is true for all closed curves,

Z P
P 7→ Re ϕ
P0

is a single-valued function on a compact manifold M . Because Re ϕ is the real part of a holomorphic form
and is thus a harmonic form, the above function is also harmonic. By the maximum principle, it is constant.
So is its harmonic conjugate
Z P
P 7→ Im ϕ.
P0

2
Thus the map
Z P
P 7→ ϕ
P0

is constant, and its derivative ϕ is identically zero.

We now show that the form implicitly defined by

P (z, w)dz P (z, w)dw

=−
∂w R(z, w) ∂z R(z, w)

is holomorphic on M when deg P ≤ d − 3. Let p denote the degree of P . Because M is nonsingular, ∂w R and
∂z R cannot both vanish, and so at least one of the above expressions is well-defined on the affine portion of
CP2 . Now consider the chart at infinity. Recall that P0 = [0, 0, 1] does not belong in C. We let ζ = w/z and
ξ = 1/z so that polynomials Q of degree k extend as
 
1 ζ
Q̃(ζ, ξ) = ξ k Q , = 0.
ξ ξ

We compute that

∂ζ R̃(ζ, ξ) = ξ d−1 ∂w R(z, w), P̃ (ζ, ξ) = ξ p P (z, w), and dz = −ξ −2 dξ.

We can rewrite the form as

ξ d−3 P̃ (ζ, ξ)
− .
ξ p ∂ζ R̃(ζ, ξ)
This is holomorphic so long as p ≤ d − 3. There are

(d − 1)(d − 2)
= g(M )
2
monomials in z and w with degree at most d − 3. Because these monomials are linearly independent, their
span has complex dimension g(M ) and real dimension 2g(M ). Because V has real dimension less than or
equal to 2g(M ), we have found all the holomorphic forms on M .
Problem 2. Recall that we define the functions cn and dn as the inverse of the integrals
Z 1 Z 1
dz dz
w= p and w = p .
2 2 2
(1 − z )(1 − k + k z )2 (1 − z )(z 2 + k 2 − 1)
2
cn w dn w

Because the square root is not well-defined, we construct a space on which the branches of the square root
live. It is easy to see that (1 − z 2 )(1 − k 2 + k 2 z 2 ) and (1 − z 2 )(z 2 + k 2 − 1) have 4 distinct zeroes for all
k 6∈ {−1, 0, 1} by quadratic formula. We take cross-cuts connecting 1 to z0 and −1 to −z0 , where
√
k2 − 1 p
z0 = for cn and z0 = 1 − k 2 for dn.
k
We layer two copies of CP and identify each side of the cross-cuts in a crisscross manner. Topologically, we
have punched into two spheres two slits each and connected each pair of slits along the correct side of a
circle. This is the construction of a torus. Let us call this Riemann surface M . We show that the Riemann
surface has a complex coordinate chart by taking charts from the original copies of CP at the non-branch
points. At each branch point zb , we take z = zb + ζ 2 so that the form looks like

d(zb + ζ 2 )
p = 2dζ
(zb + ζ 2 ) − zb

around the branch points. Note that the form, which we will denote by ϕ, is nowhere zero. Let π denote
the obvious projection of M onto CP.

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 The homology class of the torus has two generators γ1 and γ2 . Let
Z Z
ω1 = ϕ and ω2 = ϕ.
γ1 γ2

These are R-linearly independent because otherwise there exist real number λ and µ such that λ Re ω+µ Im ω
for both integrals ω. Thus, the form (λ − iµ)ϕ
Z
Re(λ − iµ)ϕ = λ Re ω + µ Im ω
γ

has vanishing integrals along all closed curves γ. We showed in Problem 1 that such a form is identically
zero and thus cannot be ϕ, since it is nowhere zero.
Because the integral between two points is unique mod cycles, integration provides a map Φ : M →
C/Zω1 + Zω2 . We take the map
Φ−1 π
C → C/Zω1 + Zω2 −−→ M −
→ CP

as the inverse to the multi-valued ill-defined integral map

Z 1
z 7→ ϕ.
z

We call this composite map cn or dn√depending on which form√ϕ we chose at the beginning.
Given a change of variables ẑ = 1 − k 2 z 2 and thus kz = 1 − ẑ 2 , we have
kdz kdz kdẑ dẑ
ẑ 2 = 1 − k 2 z 2 , ẑdẑ = −k · kzdz, and √ = =− = −√ .
1−k z2 2 ẑ kz 1 − ẑ 2
Recall that we implicitly define sn through the integral
Z sn w Z sn w
dz kdz
w= p = p
2 2 2
(1 − z )(1 − k z ) (k − k z 2 )(1 − k 2 z 2 )
2 2
0 0

Observe that k 2 − k 2 z 2 = 1 − k 2 z 2 + k 2 − 1 = ẑ 2 + k 2 − 1. Applying the above change of variables gives us

√
Z sn w Z 1−k2 sn2 w
kdz dz
p =− p .
0 (k 2 − k 2 z 2 )(1 − k2 z 2 ) 1 (1 − z 2 )(z 2 + k 2 − 1)
Combining these facts gives us
Z 1
dz
w= √
p .
1−k2 sn2 w (1 − z 2 )(z 2 + k 2 − 1)
√
Because 1 − k 2 sn2 w satisfies the implicit definition of dn w, they are equal.
The same change of variables with k = 1 gives us
p p dz dẑ
ẑ = 1 − z2, z = 1 − ẑ 2 , and √ = −√ .
1 − z2 1 − ẑ 2
Observe that 1 − k 2 z 2 = 1 − k 2 + k 2 − k 2 z 2 = 1 − k 2 + k 2 ẑ 2 . Applying this change of variables gives us
√
Z sn w Z 1−sn w
dz dz
p =− p .
0 (1 − z 2 )(1 − k2 z 2 ) 1 (1 − z )(1 − k 2 + k 2 z 2 )
2

Combining these facts gives us

Z 1
dz
w= √
p .
1−sn2 w (1 − z 2 )(1 − k2 + k2 z 2 )

4
 √
Because 1 − sn2 w satisfies the implicit definition of cn w, they are equal.
Squaring these identities gives us

cn2 w + sn2 w = 1, and dn2 w + k 2 sn2 w = 1.

Applying the inverse function theorem to the implicit definitions of cn and dn gives us the differential
equations
d cn w d dn w
q q
2 2 2 2
= − (1 − cn w)(1 − k + k cn w) and = − (1 − dn2 w)(dn2 w + k 2 − 1).
dw dw
Observe that
1 − k 2 + k 2 cn2 w = 1 − k 2 + k 2 − k 2 sn2 w = dn2 w.
This gives us
d cn w
= − sn w dn w.
dw
Similarly, the observation

dn2 w + k 2 − 1 = 1 − k 2 + k 2 cn2 w + k 2 − 1 = k 2 cn w

gives us
d dn w
= −k 2 sn w cn w.
dw
√
Problem 3. Fix a p = e1 − e2 so that

S(w) = sn(pw), C(w) = cn(pw), and D(w) = dn(pw)

are single-valued meromorphic functions on C. By the identities from Problem 3, we have

S(w)2 + C(w)2 = sn2 (pw) + cn2 (pw) = 1, k 2 S(w)2 + D(w)2 = k 2 sn2 (pw) + dn2 (pw) = 1.

Furthermore, we have
 2
0 d sn(pw)
S (w) = p 2 2
= p2 cn2 (pw) dn2 (pw) = (e1 − e2 )C(w)D(w).
d(pw)

The Weierstrass ℘-function is given as

Z ∞
dζ
w= p .
℘(w) 4(ζ − e1 )(ζ − e2 )(ζ − e3 )

Now recall the implicit definition

Z sn(pw)
dz
pw = p .
0 (1 − z 2 )(1 − k2 z 2 )
√
By taking ẑ = z 2 and dz = dẑ/ 4ẑ, we get
Z sn2 (pw)
dz
pw = p .
0 4z(1 − z)(1 − k 2 z)

We claim that
e1 −e2
Z ∞ Z
pdζ ℘(w)−e2 dz
pw = p = p
℘(w) 4(ζ − e1 )(ζ − e2 )(ζ − e3 ) 0 4z(1 − z)(1 − k 2 z)

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under the Möbius transformation
e1 − e2 (e1 − e2 )dζ
z= and dz = − .
ζ − e2 (ζ − e2 )2
Observe that
ζ − e1 ζ − e3
1−z = and 1 − k 2 z = .
ζ − e2 ζ − e2
Putting these together gives us
e1 −e2
℘(w) √
e1 − e2 dζ
Z Z
℘(w)−e2 dz
p =− p .
0 4z(1 − z)(1 − k 2 z) ∞ 4(ζ − e1 )(ζ − e2 )(ζ − e3 )

Reversing the bounds of integration and letting p be given by the above choice of square root completes the
proof of the identity
e1 − e2
S(w)2 = sn2 (pw) = .
℘(w) − e2
We repeat this methodology for cn and dn. Note that because of the squaring in the identities, our choice
of p need not be consistent between the Jacobi elliptic functions. Nonetheless, they can be.
As above, squaring the variable of integration gives us
Z 1 Z 1
dz dz
pw = p = p .
2 2
4z(1 − z)(1 − k + k z) 4z(1 − z)(z + k 2 − 1)
cn2 (pw) dn2 (pw)

Under the Möbius transformation

ζ − e1 (e1 − e2 )dζ
z= and dz = ,
ζ − e2 (ζ − e2 )2
we observe that
e1 − e2 ζ − e3
1−z = and 1 − k 2 + k 2 z = .
ζ − e2 ζ − e2
This transforms the Weierstrass ℘-function integral as
Z ∞ √ Z 1
e1 − e2 dζ dz
p = p
℘(w) 4(ζ − e1 )(ζ − e2 )(ζ − e3 ) ℘(w)−e1
℘(w)−e2
4z(1 − z)(1 − k 2 + k 2 z)

and thus
℘(w) − e1
C(w)2 = cn2 (pw) = .
℘(w) − e2
Under the Möbius transformation
ζ − e3 (e3 − e2 )dζ
z= and dz = ,
ζ − e2 (ζ − e2 )2
we observe that
e3 − e2 e3 − e2 e3 − e2 (e3 − e2 )(ζ − e1 )
1−z = and z + k 2 − 1 = − = .
ζ − e2 e1 − e2 ζ − e2 (e1 − e2 )(ζ − e2 )
This transforms the Weierstrass ℘-function integral as
Z ∞ √ Z 1
e1 − e2 dζ dz
p = p
℘(w) 4(ζ − e1 )(ζ − e2 )(ζ − e3 ) ℘(w)−e3
℘(w)−e2
4z(1 − z)(z + k 2 − 1)

and thus
℘(w) − e3
D(w)2 = dn2 (pw) = .
℘(w) − e2

6
 we have that cn2 K + 1 = 1 and thus cn K = 0. Similarly, we have that
Problem 4. Because sn K = 1, √
2
dn K + k = 1 and thus dn K = 1 − k 2 = k 0 . Because sn(K + iK 0 ) = 1/k, we have
2

1 1 − k2 k0
cn2 (K + iK 0 ) = 1 − sn2 (K + iK 0 ) = 1 − = − and thus cn(K + iK 0
) = −i .
k2 k2 k
Similarly, dn2 (K + iK 0 ) = 1 − k 2 sn2 (K + iK 0 ) = 0 and thus dn2 (K + iK 0 ). We verify the sign of cn(K + iK 0 )
by letting k ∈ (0, 1) and reviewing our choice of branches during the definition of cn and dn. The simplest
method is through the differential equations and examining whether the function is increasing or decreasing
on each half- or quarter-period.
Using the addition formula, we have
sn w cn K dn K + sn K cn w dn w cn w dn w cn w
sn(w + K) = = = .
1 − k 2 sn2 w sn2 K 1 − k 2 sn2 w dn w
Using the Pythagorean identities, we obtain
p
p dn2 w − cn2 w k 0 sn w
cn(w + K) = 1 − sn2 (w + K) = =− .
dn w dn w
Similarly, we obtain
p
p dn2 w − k 2 cn2 w k0
dn(w + K) = 1− k2 sn2 (w + K) = = .
dn w dn w
Using what we have above, we obtain

cn(w + K)
sn(w + 2K) = = − sin w.
dn(w + K)

Similarly, we obtain

k 0 sn(w + K) k0
cn(w + 2K) = − = − cn w and dn(w + 2K) = = dn w.
dn(w + K) dn(w + K)

We can once again apply the addition formula to obtain

sn w cn(K + iK 0 ) dn(K + iK 0 ) + sn(K + iK 0 ) cn w dn w dn w

sn(w + K + iK 0 ) = = .
1 − k 2 sn2 w sn2 (K + iK 0 ) k cn w

Using the Pythagorean identities, we get

ik 0 ik 0 sn w
cn(w + K + iK 0 ) = − and dn(w + K + iK 0 ) =
k cn w cn w
Using the addition formula and symmetry relations, we get

sn(w + K + iK 0 ) cn K dn K − sn K cn(w + K + iK 0 ) dn(w + K + iK 0 ) 1

sn(w + iK 0 ) = 2 2 2 0
= .
1 − k sn K sn (w + K + iK ) k sn w

Using the Pythagorean identities, we get

i dn w i cn w
cn(w + iK 0 ) = − and dn(w + iK 0 ) = − .
k sn w sn w
Using what we have above, we obtain
1
sn(w + 2iK 0 ) = = sn w.
k sn(w + iK 0 )

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Similarly, we obtain

i dn(w + iK 0 ) i cn(w + iK 0 )
cn(w + 2iK 0 ) = − = − cn w and dn(w + 2iK 0
) = − = − dn w.
k sn(w + iK 0 ) sn(w + iK 0 )

By applying the above multiple times, we verify the periods of cn and dn. For cn we have

cn(w + 4K) = − cn(w + 2K) = cn w and cn(w + 2K + 2iK 0 ) = − cn(w + 2iK 0 ) = cn w.

For dn we have
dn(w + 2K) = dn w and dn(w + 4iK 0 ) = − dn(w + 2iK 0 ) = dn w.