University of Hamburg

Department of Wood Science

Mechanical Wood Technology

Prof. Dr. J. B. Ressel

Overview • Wood Structure

• Wood moisture content
• Measurement methods
• Direct measurement methods
• Ovendry method
• Indirect measurement methods
• Conductance method
• Capacitance method
•Electric moisture meters – a comparison
•Checklist for usage of electric moisture
meters
• Hygrometrical method
•EMC and KEYLWERTH-Diagram
COST E 53 Training School - Methods for Measuring Moisture Content … 17.10.2006 / 1

Wood Structure

Wood Structure Macroscopic View

Moisture Content
Measurement • a cross section of a Pith Heart-
methods Sap-
tree trunk shows diffe- Cambium wood wood
Cambium
Xylem
Direct measure-
ment method rent wood tissue areas
• Oven dry method Phloem
Indirect measure-
• green wood always
ment methods contains water
• Conductance m.
• Capacitive m. • sawn wood (timber,
Electric moisture boards, beams …) is Bark Cork-
meters
Checklist for use of
cut from the trunk part Cambium
moisture meters between cambium and
• Hygrometrical m. pith, i.e., the xylem, co-
EMC & KEYLWERT-
Diagramm vering sapwood and
heartwood
• more visible details are
growth rings or annual (Microsoft Encarta©, 2004)

rings consisting of ear-

lywood and latewood
Joerg B.Ressel 2

Wood Structure

Wood Structure Macroscopic View

Moisture Content
Measurement Typical attributes …
methods
wood is a …
Direct measure-
ment method
• inhomogeneous,
• Oven dry method
Indirect measure- • anisotropic,
ment methods
• Conductance m. • porous and
• Capacitive m.
Electric moisture • hygroscopic
meters ① ②
Checklist for use of material
moisture meters
• Hygrometrical m.
Main anatomical directions of / in wood
EMC & KEYLWERT-
Diagramm
L → longitudinal, T → tangential, R → radial
① flat sawn (sidings) and ② quarter sawn
(acc. to Wengert, Meyer, 2002)

Joerg B.Ressel 3
 Wood Structure

Wood Structure Microscopic View

Moisture Content
Measurement Wood Cross Sections
methods
Direct measure- Pine: clearly separated early-
ment method and latewood areas, fine rays,
• Oven dry method resin canals
Indirect measure-
ment methods
• Conductance m.
• Capacitive m.
Electric moisture
meters White Oak: ring-porous hard-
Checklist for use of wood species, clearly defined
moisture meters
annual rings, vessels partially
• Hygrometrical m.
EMC & KEYLWERT-
closed by tyloses, latewood
Diagramm vessels radially oriented, very
wide and large rays

Birch: EW/LW-transition conti-

nuously, diffuse-porous, fine
undulated rays (SWST 2002)
Joerg B.Ressel 4

Wood Structure

Wood Structure Microscopic View

Moisture Content
Measurement
methods
Direct measure-
ment method
• Oven dry method
Indirect measure-
ment methods
• Conductance m.
• Capacitive m.
Electric moisture
meters
Checklist for use of
moisture meters
• Hygrometrical m.
EMC & KEYLWERT-
Diagramm

Softwood - SEM-picture

Spruce: clearly separated EW/LW zones, Hardwood - SEM-Picture

cellwall-thickness, fine rays and resin canals White Oak: clearly defined growth ring border
(rc) (SWST 2002) by vessel size, vessels partially filled with tylo-
ses, very large earlywood vessels (SWST 2002)
Joerg B.Ressel 5

Wood Structure

Wood Structure Microscopic View

Moisture Content
120@10-10m
Measurement Microfibril
methods
120·10-10 m

Elementar fibril
Direct measure-
ment method 30@10-10m
crystalline 30@10-10m
• Oven dry method
region
Indirect measure- Amorphous Amorphous Fibril
ment methods region region
Width ~ 2000·10-10 m

amorphous
• Conductance m. region Crystalline
• Capacitive m. cellulose
Water
Electric moisture molecules Lenght ~ 300@10-10m
meters
S3
Checklist for use of
moisture meters S2
• Hygrometrical m. S1
EMC & KEYLWERT- Pr Morphology of cellulose in the cellwall
Diagramm
• Elementar fibril – Micro fibril – Fibril
Softwood - SEM-Picture • Bundles of cellulose-macromolecules with
amorphous and crystalline regions and
Latewood tracheid cross section with absorbed and attached water molecules
layered wall structure and intercellular
• particular orientation of fibrils in different
spaces (SWST 2002)
cell wall layers
fibril angle
Joerg B.Ressel 6
 Wood Structure

Wood Structure Chemical composition of wood

Moisture Content
Measurement Carbon C 49 % Elementar composition of wood
methods (Fengel, Wegener 1989)
Hydrogen H2 6%
Direct measure-
ment method Oxygen O2 44 %
• Oven dry method
Nitrogen N2 <1%
Indirect measure-
ment methods Inorganic elements
• Conductance m. Na, K, Ca, Mg, Si << 1 %
• Capacitive m.
Electric moisture
meters Molecular composition of
WOOD wood (schematically)
Checklist for use of
moisture meters (acc. to Fengel, Wegener 1989)
• Hygrometrical m. Main Components Extracives
EMC & KEYLWERT- 95 % 5%
Diagramm
Holocellulose
Lignin
(Polysaccharides)
8 - 41 %
46 - 81 %
Polyoses
Cellulose
(Hemicelluloses)
40 - 60 %
6 - 27 %
Joerg B.Ressel 7

Wood Moisture Content

Wood Structure Moisture content

Moisture Content
Measurement • Green wood and wood in use always contains more or less water
methods
Direct measure-
• Water in wood exists as liquid water, as water vapour (a part of
ment method humid air) and/or as bound water
• Oven dry method
Indirect measure-
• Limit states • absolute dry (u = 0 %), oven dried, as dry as a bone
ment methods • water-saturated (umax), depending on void volume
• Conductance m.
• Capacitive m.
Fibre
Electric moisture Bound water saturation Free water
meters
Checklist for use of
moisture meters u0 uFS umax
• Hygrometrical m. Hygroscopic range
EMC & KEYLWERT- Sorption range → swelling and / or shrinking of wood
Diagramm
m − m  m
Definition u= u 0  ⋅ 100 = W ⋅ 100 =  mu − 1 ⋅ 100 [%]
 m  m m 
 0  0  0 
with m0 [g] mass oven dried wood sample
mu [g] mass wet wood sample
Joerg B.Ressel mW [g] mass water in wood sample 8

Wood Water Content

Wood Structure Water content

Moisture Content
Measurement • is the amount of water in wet 250
methods materials related to the mass of 100 ⋅ u
Direct measure- x= [%]
ment method
the wet substance – in contrast 100 + u
200
with mc the reference quantity is
Moisture content u [%]

100 ⋅ x
• Oven dry method u= [%]
the absolute dry sample mass 100 − x
Indirect measure-
ment methods 150
• Conductance m.
• Limit states
• Capacitive m. • absolute dry (x = 0 %) 100
Electric moisture • water-saturated (x < 100 % !)
meters
Checklist for use of 50
moisture meters Definition
• Hygrometrical m.
0
EMC & KEYLWERT- m − m 
Diagramm
x= u 0  ⋅ 100 = mW ⋅ 100 0 20 40 60 80

 m  mu Water content x [%]

 u 

 m  Relation between moisture content

=  1− 0  ⋅ 100 [%] and water content
 m 
 u

Joerg B.Ressel 9
 Measurement of Material Moisture Content

Wood Structure Water content or moisture content determination

Moisture Content
Measurement • physical methods
methods
Direct measure-
• chemical methods (
anaytical methods)
ment method
• Oven dry method
Indirect measure- Classification of measurement methods
ment methods
• Conductance m. Direct Measurement
• Capacitive m. Methods
Electric moisture
meters
Checklist for use of Thermogravi-
moisture meters Indirect Measurement Methods
metric Methods
• Hygrometrical m.
EMC & KEYLWERT-
Diagramm
Analytical Electrical Optical Hygrometrical
Methods Methods Methods Methods

Radiometric Thermal Accoustical

Methods Methods Methods
(acc. to Kupfer et al. 1997)

Joerg B.Ressel 10

Direct Measurement Methods

Wood Structure
Moisture Content
Measurement Thermogravi-
methods
Oven dry method
metric Methods
Direct measure- Infrared Drying
ment method
• Oven dry method Microwave Drying
Indirect measure-
ment methods Dry freezing
• Conductance m.
• Capacitive m. Analytical
Electric moisture K.-FISCHER Titration
Methods
meters Gas Chromato-
Calcium Carbide Method
Checklist for use of graphy Methods
moisture meters
Destillation Method
• Hygrometrical m.
Mass Spectrometry
EMC & KEYLWERT- Methods
Diagramm (acc. to Kupfer et al. 1997)

Indirect measurement methods

Joerg B.Ressel 11

Oven Dry Method … acc. to DIN EN 13 183-1:2002

Wood Structure
Required equipment
Moisture Content
Measurement • Suitable balance,
methods
Direct measure- accuracy 0,1% of sample weight
ment method
• Oven dry method • Drying chamber / dry box,
Indirect measure- temperature range (103 ± 3) °C
ment methods
• Conductance m. • Suitable cutting
• Capacitive m.
Electric moisture
tools for sampling,
meters e.g. saw, knife …
Checklist for use of
moisture meters • Airtight container
• Hygrometrical m.
for samples, e.g.,
EMC & KEYLWERT-
Diagramm plastic bags … if
no balance is avai-
lable when taking
samples

Joerg B.Ressel 12
 Oven Dry Method … acc. to DIN EN 13 183-1:2002

Wood Structure
Measuring procedure
Moisture Content
Measurement 1. Sampling (any shape) and immediate mass determination
mu [g],
methods
weighing accuracy 0,1 % of mu *)
Direct measure-
ment method
• Oven dry method 2. Oven drying in heating chamber at (103 ± 3)°C unti l constant weight
Indirect measure-
ment methods 3. Const. weight is achieved, when the mass difference between two
• Conductance m. sequential weighings at an interval of 6 h is less than 0,1 %
m0 [g]
• Capacitive m.
Electric moisture
m −m 
4. Calculation: u =  u 0  ⋅ 100
meters
[%] Accuracy ± 0,1 % mc !
Checklist for use of
moisture meters  m 
• Hygrometrical m.
 0 
EMC & KEYLWERT-
Diagramm *) for field tests or if no balance is available samples should be stored tempora-
rily in airtight plastic bags with suitable closures

Joerg B.Ressel 13

Oven Dry Method … acc. to DIN EN 13 183-1:2002

Wood Structure Possible errors

Moisture Content
Measurement … despite of errors in reading the balance or the thermometer, set point
methods errors of the equipment etc. …
Direct measure-
ment method
• Oven dry method 1. Initial weight inaccurate due to moisture losses during sampling
Indirect measure-
mu to low
determined mc < true mc
ment methods
• Conductance m. 2. Constant weight not achieved at final weight determination
• Capacitive m.
m0 to high
determined mc < true mc
Electric moisture
meters
3. Wood species containing resin
m0 to low due to loss of volatile
Checklist for use of
moisture meters components of the extractives
determined mc > true mc
• Hygrometrical m. Remedial measures:
EMC & KEYLWERT-
Diagramm
„Drying“ in vacuum, decreasing boiling point with ptotal < 1 bar !

Chemical Drying by means of suitable desiccants, e.g., P2O5
in an exsiccator at ambient room temperature

Joerg B.Ressel 14

Oven Dry Method … acc. to DIN EN 13 183-1:2002

Wood Structure Advantages Disadvantages

Moisture Content
Measurement • low requirements concerning • destructive testing method
methods
measurement technology • time consuming (20 … 60 h)
Direct measure-
ment method • relative inexpensive method • thorough, accurate sampling
• Oven dry method
Indirect measure- required
ment methods The oven dry method acc. to • restricted accuracy due to volatile
• Conductance m.
DIN EN 13183-1 is the refe- extractives (absolute error up to
• Capacitive m.
Electric moisture rence method for juridic dis- 5…10 %) and
meters putes regarding wood mois-
Checklist for use of • beginning thermal degradation (→
ture content problems
moisture meters hydrolysis) with drying at required
• Hygrometrical m.
EMC & KEYLWERT-
temperature
Diagramm
• constant final weight – absolute dry
state – will never be achieved …
absolute water content in humid air
at 100°C > 0 kg/kg !
Direct measurement methods

Joerg B.Ressel 15
 Oven Dry Method using Infrared Radiation*

Wood Structure
Required equipment and procedure
Moisture Content
Measurement • Suitable balance (accuracy 0,1% of sample weight) with integrated
methods
Direct measure- infrared heating device; gauge scale is directly indicating material
ment method moisture content
• Oven dry method
Indirect measure- • Representative sampling of wood chips or particles directly taken
ment methods
• Conductance m.
from truck load or wood yard (
chain saw dust) … raw materials
• Capacitive m. for wood based panels industry
Electric moisture
meters • Predefined amount of wooden particles, e.g., …60…120 g, are irra-
Checklist for use of diated by the IR-bulb until the final state, i.e., constant weight is
moisture meters
• Hygrometrical m.
attained
EMC & KEYLWERT-
Diagramm
• Sufficient accuracy for moisture content determination, e.g., in the
wood based panel industry, where the raw material is purchased on
dry weight basis
* Not to be confounded with the infrared-reflection or the infrared-absorption
method; both are indirect measurement methods, used, e.g., in wood based
panel industry.
Joerg B.Ressel 16

Oven Dry Method using Infrared Radiation

Wood Structure
Equipment
Moisture Content
Measurement
methods
Direct measure-
ment method
• Oven dry method
Indirect measure-
ment methods
• Conductance m.
• Capacitive m.
Electric moisture
meters
Checklist for use of
moisture meters
• Hygrometrical m.
EMC & KEYLWERT-
Diagramm

Moisture Tester ULTRA X 2011 Moisture Tester ULTRA X 2081

(http://www.apinstruments.de/... 05.10.2006)

Direct measurement methods

Joerg B.Ressel 17

Indirect Measurement Methods

Electrical
Conductance Method
Wood Structure Methods
Moisture Content Capacitive Method
Measurement Microwave Method
methods
Direct measure- TDR* Method Time-Domain-Reflectometry
ment method
Radiometric
• Oven dry method Neutron ray Method Nuclear Resonance
Methods
Indirect measure- Methods
α-, β-, γ-ray Methods
ment methods
• Conductance m. X-ray Method
• Capacitive m.
Optical
Electric moisture Infrared-reflection M.
meters
Methods
Infrared-absorption M .
Checklist for use of
moisture meters Fibre Optics
Infractrometric Method
• Hygrometrical m.
Moisture Sensor
EMC & KEYLWERT- Thermal
Methods Heat-conductance M .
Diagramm
Calorimetrical Method

Hygrometrical
Air Humidity Equalisation M.
Methods
Material Equalisation M.

Accoustical
Ultrasonic Method
Methods
(acc. to Kupfer et al. 1997)
Joerg B.Ressel 18
 Conductance Method

Wood Structure
Electric conductance … electric resistance of wood
Moisture Content
Measurement
methods l 1 l •Some
Direct-current conductance values
typical conductance varies
Direct measure- R = ρ⋅ = ⋅ (atsignificantly
25°C) with mc (u) below FSP
ment method A κ A (respectively uFS ≈ 30 %)6
• Oven dry method • silver 62·10 S/m
Indirect measure- R Ω resistance
• Below FSP a roughly linear relation-
ment methods ρ Ωm specific resistance • aluminium 37,7·106 S/m
• Conductance m. κ S/m electric conductance ship exists between the logarithm of
• Capacitive m. • conductance
iron and 9,93·10 6
the logarithm
S/m of mc
l m wire length
Electric moisture A m² wire cross-sectional area
meters • At mc > FSP only15,5·10
brass 6 S/m cor-
a very poorly
Checklist for use of
relation exists between mc and con-
moisture meters • stainless steel 1,4·106 S/m
• Hygrometrical m. ductance. From FSP up to mcmax –
EMC & KEYLWERT- • the complete filling~ of
sea water 0 S/m struc-
capillary
5·10
Diagramm
ture with free water – the-2conductan-
• drinking water ~ 5·10 S/m
ce typically increases by a factor of
• ≤ 50
distilled water 5·10-6 S/m
↳ ± non-conductor)
(↳ (W. L. James 1988)
(Wikipedia → Conductivity 2006)

Joerg B.Ressel 19

Conductance Method

Wood Structure
Electric resistance and wood moisture content
Moisture Content
Measurement
methods
Empirical testing
Calibration curve for
Direct measure- 14 wood species ... at a • In the range 0 ≤ u ≤ uFS (FSP)
ment method temperature h = 20E EC
• Oven dry method the electric resistance varies
12 log 10 R S = 13,25 - 0,32·u
between about 102 and 1014
Electric Resistance log10 R [Ω]

Indirect measure-
ment methods
• Conductance m.
Ω (
100 Ω … 100 TΩ)
10
• Capacitive m.
Electric moisture
• In a semi-logarithmic scale
meters 8 the relation between wood
Checklist for use of
moisture meters
moisture content and resis-
6 tance is almost linear
• Hygrometrical m.
EMC & KEYLWERT-
Diagramm 4 • Above uFS (FSP) this depen-
(u ± 1,5) %
dency decreases rapidly
2 linear range

0 Schematic diagram of the resis-

0 5 10 15 20 25 30
HTR-018 / J BR Wood Moisture Content u [%] uFS
tance-wood moisture content
relation (semi-logarithmic scale)
Joerg B.Ressel 20

Conductance Method

Wood Structure
Empirical determination RΩ = f(u) at const. temperature ϑ
Moisture Content
Measurement
methods
Direct measure-
ment method Relationship between wood mc
• Oven dry method and ohmic resistance for Nordic
Indirect measure- Spruce (acc. to Forsén, Tarvainen 2000;
ment methods
Fig. 13a)
• Conductance m.
• Capacitive m.
Electric moisture
meters RΩ = 100 M Ω
Checklist for use of
moisture meters
u ≈ (15 ± 1) %
• Hygrometrical m.
EMC & KEYLWERT-
Diagramm
Regression model

Joerg B.Ressel 21
 Conductance Method related to a particular moisture meter
(Siemens-Halske) acc. to investigations
on Spruce by Keylwerth & Noack, 1956

Wood Structure
Temperature influence RΩ = f(u, ϑ)
Moisture Content
Measurement • Electric conductance
methods 10 14
Direct measure-
increases as tempe-
ment method 10 13 6 rature of wood in-
• Oven dry method
1012
true moisture content 80EC creases … opposite
Indirect measure-
to the temperature

True Wood Moisture Content ut [%]

ment methods
true moisture content 60°C
• Conductance m. 10 11 effect on resistance in
Electric Resistance R [Ω]

• Capacitive m. 8 metals!
1010 true moisture content 40EC
Electric moisture
meters • For u >10 % the con-
10 9 true moisture content 20EC 10
Checklist for use of
moisture meters
ductance is roughly
• Hygrometrical m. 10 8
12 doubled for ∆ϑ = 10 K
EMC & KEYLWERT- 14
Diagramm 10 7 16
18
20
Temperature correc-
10 6
tion is absolutely ne-
30
105 40
cessary for accurate
60 mc measurement
104 80
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
(acc. to W. L. James 1988)
HTR-019 / JBR Indicated Wood Moisture Content uI [%]
Joerg B.Ressel (acc. to Keylwerth, Noack 1956) 22

Conductance Method

Wood Structure
Temperature influence RΩ = f(u, ϑ)
Moisture Content
Measurement • indicated mc = 15 % in-
Electric conductance
methods 22 % 20 % 18 % 16 %
Direct measure- 30 creases as temperature
ment method t
14 % temperature = 20°C…
of wood increases
en
• Oven dry method nt 12 % true mc to the
opposite = 15 %
tempera-
25 co
Indirect measure- e
ur ture effect on resistance
ment methods st 10 %
temperature = 60°C
oi
• Conductance m. m in metals!
20 o d 8% true mc ≈9%
wo
Indicated mc [%]

• Capacitive m.
e 6%
• For u >10 % the conduc-
tru
Electric moisture
meters
temperature = 100°
tance is roughly C
doubled
Checklist for use of 15
t
true mc = 10 K ≈ 5 %
for ∆ϑ
moisture meters
n ten
• Hygrometrical m. e co
10 tur
EMC & KEYLWERT- ois
Diagramm od
m
Temperature correction
wo
tru
e is absolutely necessary
(Keylwerth, Noack 1956)

5
for accurate mc measu-
rement
0 (acc. to W. L. James 1988)
-20 0 20 40 60 80 100
Te mpe rature [°C]

Joerg B.Ressel 23

Conductance Method κ‖

Wood Structure
Grain angle influence RΩ = f(u, ϑ, δ)
Moisture Content
Measurement According to W. L. James (1988) κ⊥
methods
Direct measure- • conductance parallel to grain ≈ 2·κ⊥
ment method
• Oven dry method
• conductance perpendicular to grain κ⊥
Indirect measure- • conductance κrad ≈ 0,055 κ‖ κtan
ment methods
• Conductance m. • conductance κtan ≈ 0,5 κ‖
• Capacitive m.
κrad
Electric moisture
meters Other factors influencing RΩ = f(u, ϑ, δ, ……..)
Checklist for use of
moisture meters Wood density, content of extractives, porosity etc. also may have an
• Hygrometrical m. influence on the measurement result with the conductance method.
EMC & KEYLWERT-
Diagramm In practice this requires
• at least grouping similar wood species according to comparable pro-
perties leading to a specific calibration functions for the group, or,
• an individual calibration curve for each individual wood species.

Joerg B.Ressel 24
 Conductance Method

Wood Structure
Electric resistance and wood moisture content
Moisture Content
Measurement
methods
Series connection of Ri
R1 R2 R3 .......... R10 10
∑
Direct measure-
res =
ment method Local
R average
measurement
Ri of Ri moisture
ui
• Oven dry method
i=1 content
Indirect measure- = Ri
R res surface
Wet
local moisture content
ment methods
um )u
• Conductance m.
• Capacitive m. Rres ≈ R1
Electric moisture
meters ua
Checklist for use of Parallel connection of Ri
moisture meters 10
1 1 1 1
• Hygrometrical m.
EMC & KEYLWERT-
R res = ∑ Ri = +
R1 R 2
+ ... +
R10
Diagramm i=1
With non-insulated pin electrodes
wood moisture content distri- the wettest layers determine the
bution across the board thick-
measurement result – attention has
ness, divided into 10 even lay-
ers representing resistances to be paid to rewetted surfaces
R1, R2 … R10 (
rain, condensation, spray water)
Joerg B.Ressel 25

Conductance Method acc. to DIN EN 13 183-2:2002

Wood Structure
Conductance-type moisture meters*
Moisture Content
Measurement • Portable instruments, battery-operated
methods
Direct measure- • Direct reading–meter
analogue or digital
ment method
• Oven dry method
• Calibrated in % mc for individual species (spec. group)
Indirect measure- • Species selection according to external (separate) table
ment methods
• Conductance m.
or built-in selection of reference function (curve)
• Capacitive m. • Built-in correction for true wood temperature
Electric moisture
meters • Measurement direction ‖ or ⊥ to grain
Checklist for use of
moisture meters Limiting conditions
• Hygrometrical m.
EMC & KEYLWERT-
• Repeatable conductance measurement only in the range
Diagramm 4 ≤ u ≤ 22 %; ± linear relation between resistance and mc
• Accuracy within this range ± 1,0…1,5 % absolute
• Extended range up to FSP (uFS) with decreasing accuracy
• Above FSP (uFS) significantly limited measurement
repeatability … an indicated mc-reading is more or
less a rough guess !
Joerg B.Ressel 26

Conductance Method acc. to DIN EN 13 183-2:2002

Wood Structure
Conductance-type moisture meters*
Moisture Content
Measurement Sample = resistance in an electric circuit;
methods
Direct measure-
contact via suitable electrodes:
ment method • Surface-contact electrodes
• Oven dry method
Indirect measure- • (Penetrating) pin-type electrodes
ment methods • nail-like pins without insulation
• Conductance m.
• Capacitive m.
• insulated pins
Electric moisture • flat, insulated pin electrodes
meters
Checklist for use of
moisture meters
• Hygrometrical m.
EMC & KEYLWERT-
Diagramm

Some electrode types

Joerg B.Ressel (TROTEC 2005) 27
 Conductance Method acc. to DIN EN 13 183-2:2002

Wood Structure
Conductance-type moisture meters
Moisture Content
Measurement Some features of the Brookhuis FMD6
methods
Direct measure- • different calibration lines for wood and other buil-
ment method ding materials – programmable calibration line
• Oven dry method
Indirect measure-
• temperature correction for wood from -40 … +90
ment methods °C, steps ∆ϑ = 1K
• Conductance m.
• measuring range 5 – 99 % (wood) and 0 – 99 %
• Capacitive m.
Electric moisture
for building materials
meters • measuring accuracy 0,2 % (reference material !)
Checklist for use of
moisture meters • measuring depth depends on pin length
• Hygrometrical m. • memory function – storage up to 75 reports /
EMC & KEYLWERT-
Diagramm 2000 measuring values
• automatic clock
• built-in statistics (avg., max,. min., Std., CV)
• data transfer / communication with PC via serial
interface and particular software FMD-Print Resistance moisture me-
ter FMD 6 (Brookhuis 2006)
Joerg B.Ressel 28

Conductance Method acc. to DIN EN 13 183-2:2002

Wood Structure
Possible faults and measurement errors due to …
Moisture Content
Measurement • no or wrong temperature adjustment and wood species selection
methods
Direct measure- • liquid water on sample surface
high conductance
high indicated
ment method mc
• Oven dry method
Indirect measure- • measurement parallel / perpendicular to grain
small differences
ment methods between indicated mc
• Conductance m.
• Capacitive m. • moisture content more / less above fibre saturation (FSP)
Electric moisture
meters
• meter in bad maintenance condition
Checklist for use of • damaged pin-shaft insulation
moisture meters
• Hygrometrical m. • bent / twisted pins
EMC & KEYLWERT-
Diagramm
• corroded pins – if not from stainless steel
• damaged cables and/or connectors
• low battery

Indirect measurement methods

Joerg B.Ressel 29

Capacitive Method

Wood Structure
Material behaviour in an electromagnetic field
Moisture Content
Measurement • alternating current circuit
methods
Direct measure- • dielectric constant / permittivity of
ment method a material ε
• Oven dry method
Indirect measure- C wet material
ment methods
ε= [ −]
• Conductance m.
• Capacitive m.
C with vacuum
Electric moisture
…i.e., a measure, how much elec- „Open“ plate capacitor with wet mate-
meters
dielectric mc rial (and air) as dielectric in an alterna-
Checklist for use of tric potential energy is stored in
measurement
moisture meters ting current circuit
the material when it is placed in a
• is based on
Hygrometrical m.
particular electric field A
this&εKEYLWERT
EMC
Diagramm
rence
r-diffe- -
• wood (oven dry) εr ≈ 2 - 3,5 C = ε0 ⋅ εr ⋅
d
• water εr ≈ 80 ε0 F/m permittivity of vacuum
• temperature and frequency de- = 8,854·10-12 F/m
pendency of εr ! εr - relative permittivity
ε = ε0·εr dielectric constant
• significant material density influ- A m² capacitor area
ence on measurement ! d m plate distance
Joerg B.Ressel 30
 Capacitive Method

Wood Structure
Dielectric constant
Moisture Content
Measurement • dielectric constant / permittivity of water
methods
depends on the water condition, e.g.,
Direct measure- Relative permittivity of some
ment method free water, adsorbed water, ice, water substances at 18 °C and 50
• Oven dry method vapour … Hz, if not otherwise indicated
Indirect measure-
ment methods Medium εr
Dielectric constant ε" [-]

100
• Conductance m. tightly fixed Vacuum 1,0
• Capacitive m. adsorbed
Electric moisture water Air 1,0006
meters 10
Checklist for use of Wood, oven dry ~ 2 - 3,5
moisture meters
„free“ water Paper 1-4
• Hygrometrical m.
1 Water 80,1
EMC & KEYLWERT- loosely
Diagramm adsorbed
20°C
Water (f = 2,54 GHz) 77
water
0,1 Water (mist, fog) 1,77
1,0E+07 1,0E+08 1,0E+09 1,0E+10 1,0E+11
Ice (-20 °C) ~ 100
Frequency f [Hz]
Ice (-20 °C, f > 100 kHz) 3,2
Frequency dependencies of water in wood Permittivity (Wikipedia → Permittivity 2006)
Joerg B.Ressel (Kupfer 1997) 31

Capacitive Method

Wood Structure
Power factor
Moisture Content
Measurement • a dielectric material in an oscillating electric field at constant frequency
methods
will absorb energy from the field power proportional to the product of
Direct measure-
ment method the frequency and the power factor resp. the loss factor dc
• Oven dry method
Indirect measure-
1
ment methods
dc = tan δ = 1,0E+00

RωC
Loss facto r d c [-]

85

• Conductance m.
°C

• Capacitive m. κ 1,0E-01
Electric moisture =
meters
ω⋅ ε
25
°C

Checklist for use of 1,0E-02 15

moisture meters °C

• Hygrometrical m. R ~ 1/κ 1,0E-03

EMC & KEYLWERT-
Diagramm
1,0E-04
1,0E+05 1,0E+06 1,0E+07 1,0E+08 1,0E+09 1,0E+10

Frequency f [Hz]
C~ε
Replacement circuit diagram Frequency dependency of water loss factor
for capacitor losses (Kupfer 1997)
Joerg B.Ressel 32

Capacitive Method

Wood Structure
Dielectric constant and power factor (acc. to W. L. James 1988)
Moisture Content
Measurement
methods Effect of moisture content
Direct measure-
ment method • ε ↑ with ↑ mc • dc ↑ with ↑ mc … also influenced
• Oven dry method by mc, ϑ and f …
Indirect measure-
• with decreasing frequency the
ment methods effect of mc is much greater • dc is a non-linear function of mc,
• Conductance m.
ϑ and f
• Capacitive m. • ± linear relation between mc
Electric moisture
meters
and log ε at all frequencies;
Checklist for use of ↑ slope of this relation with ↓ f
moisture meters
• Hygrometrical m.
EMC & KEYLWERT-
Diagramm
Effect of density
• ε ↑ nearly linear with ↑ ρ • dc ↑↑ with ↑ ρ up to ρ = 0,4 g/cm³
… ρ = f(mc)
• ρ > 0,4 g/cm³ ↝ dc ↑ slightly with
↑ρ

Joerg B.Ressel 33
 Capacitive Method

Wood Structure
Dielectric constant and power factor
Moisture Content
Measurement
methods Effect of density on capacitance moisture meter readings
Direct measure-
ment method
Regressions for
600 kg/m³
• Oven dry method mc readings and
500 kg/m³
Indirect measure- actual mc for
ment methods 400 kg/m³
• Conductance m.
Scots Pine at dif-
• Capacitive m. ferent densities
Electric moisture (acc. to Forsén, Tar-
meters vainen 2000; Fig. 30)
Checklist for use of
moisture meters
• Hygrometrical m.
EMC & KEYLWERT-
Diagramm

Joerg B.Ressel 34

Capacitive Method

Wood Structure
Dielectric constant and power factor (acc. to W. L. James 1988)
Moisture Content
Measurement
methods Effect of temperature
Direct measure-
ment method • ε ↑ with ↑ ϑ – except at very high • dc ↑ or ↓ with ↑ ϑ depending on
• Oven dry method mc … reversed relation possible mc and f
Indirect measure-
ment methods
(probably related to ↓ FSP with ↑
• Conductance m. ϑ); this indicates a thermally acti-
• Capacitive m. vated mechanism of polarization
Electric moisture
meters
…
Checklist for use of
moisture meters
• Hygrometrical m. Effect of species
EMC & KEYLWERT-
Diagramm • Species with comparable densities have similar electric properties,
exceptions are, e.g., species with large concentrations of soluble
salts and other electrolytes …

Joerg B.Ressel 35

Capacitive Method acc. to DIN EN 13 183-3:2002

Wood Structure
Capacitance-type moisture meters (from W. L. James 1988)
Moisture Content
Measurement
methods
• The wood specimen is penetrated by the electric field associated with
Direct measure- the capacitor of the frequency determining circuit of an oscillator when
ment method the electrode of the meter contacts the wood.
• Oven dry method
Indirect measure- • The frequency of the oscillator is changed according to the effect of
ment methods
• Conductance m.
the specimen on the capacitance of this capacitor, i.e., according to
• Capacitive m. the dielectric constant of the specimen.
Electric moisture
meters • A frequency discriminator generates a signal, read on a meter, pro-
Checklist for use of
moisture meters
portional to the changes in frequency. Using the relation between
• Hygrometrical m. dielectric constant and moisture, the meter can be calibrated to read
EMC & KEYLWERT- moisture content.
Diagramm

Joerg B.Ressel 36
 Capacitive Method acc. to DIN EN 13 183-3:2002

Wood Structure
Power-loss type moisture meters (from W. L. James 1988)
Moisture Content
Measurement
methods
• The wood specimen is penetrated by the electric field radiating from
Direct measure- an electrode that is coupled to a low-power oscillator in the meter.
ment method
• Oven dry method • Power absorbed by the specimen loads the oscillator and reduces its
Indirect measure- amplitude of oscillation, which is in turn indicated by the meter dial.
ment methods
• Conductance m.
Since the loss factor depends on moisture content, the meter dial can
• Capacitive m. be related to percent moisture.
Electric moisture
meters
Capacitive-admittance type moisture meters (from W. L. James 1988)
Checklist for use of
moisture meters
• Hygrometrical m.
• The electrode of this meter is a capacitive element in a resistance-
EMC & KEYLWERT- capacitance bridge circuit. When a wood specimen contacts the elec-
Diagramm trode, its capacitance and losses (admittance) are increased so that
the bridge is unbalanced in proportion to the dielectric constant and
loss factor of the specimen. The meter dial reads the amount of bridge
imbalance, which can be related to the moisture content of the wood
specimen causing the imbalance.

Joerg B.Ressel 37

Capacitive Method acc. to DIN EN 13 183-3:2002

Wood Structure
Capacitive type moisture meters
Moisture Content
Measurement
methods
with thin materials (thickn. < 2 cm)
Direct measure- plane, smooth surface required,
ment method mc measurement with stacked
• Oven dry method material without air-gap between
Indirect measure-
ment methods
sample layers,
• Conductance m. minimum sample size 10 x 10 cm²
• Capacitive m.
Electric moisture
meters min. distan-
Checklist for use of ce from the
moisture meters
sample ed-
• Hygrometrical m.
ges 1 cm
EMC & KEYLWERT-
Diagramm (Doser 2001)

suitable pad material,

e.g., styrofoam or similar
– no metal! or lifting the
material to be measured
(Doser 2001)

Joerg B.Ressel 38

Capacitive Method acc. to DIN EN 13 183-3:2002

Wood Structure
Capacitive type moisture meters
Moisture Content
Measurement This instrument is presented for final and
methods
Direct measure-
rapid inspections. Some features:
ment method
• Oven dry method
• peak-hold mode (max. mc) or scanning
Indirect measure- mode FMW-T
ment methods
• Conductance m. • setting for density range from 250 - 1100
• Capacitive m. kg/m³, steps ∆ = 10 kg/m³ wood
Electric moisture
meters • relative setting for building materials
Checklist for use of • measuring range 2 – 30 % (wood) and
moisture meters
• Hygrometrical m. 0 – 60 % for building materials
EMC & KEYLWERT-
Diagramm
• measuring accuracy 0,5 % (on reference FMW-B
material)
Brookhuis capacitance mois-
• temperature range 0 – 60°C ture meters FMW-series (2006)
• measuring depth 25 mm
• memory function – storage up to 50
measuring values
Joerg B.Ressel 39
 Electric moisture meters - Summary

Wood Structure
Moisture Content
Electric moisture meters (from P. Mitchell 2006)
Measurement
methods
• hand held moisture meters are typically either resistance meters (pin
Direct measure- type) or dielectric meters (flat plate)
ment method
• Oven dry method • rapid and accurate estimation of wood moisture contents < 30%;
Indirect measure-
ment methods
none of the meters provide accurate readings above 25…30% mc
• Conductance m.
• in state-of-the-art moisture meters species and temperature correc-
• Capacitive m.
Electric moisture
tions are built into the digital circuitry
meters
Checklist for use of • new meters are capable of taking multiple measurements and sto-
moisture meters ring them internally, providing the ability to calculate and display
• Hygrometrical m.
EMC & KEYLWERT-
mean and standard deviation statistics, and the option of uploading
Diagramm the moisture content data to a computer (
mc measurement series
as part of a quality control procedure)
• both types of meters offer the same accuracy over about the same
range of moisture contents …(?)

Joerg B.Ressel 40

Electric moisture meters - Summary

Wood Structure
Vergleich
Moisture Content
A comparison between both methods
Measurement
methods
Conductance method Capacitive method
Direct measure- At least two electrodes have to be dri- Non-destructive testing; sensor only
ment method
ven into the material = measurement touches surface, measurement depth
• Oven dry method
Indirect measure-
depth, damage to material and any ≈ 25…30 mm, plane surface for suffi-
ment methods surface coatings cient electrode contact required
• Conductance m.
• Capacitive m.
Measurement of wettest layer in the Only average mc determination over
Electric moisture sample – non-isolated pin electrodes; measurement depth
meters local mc determination with isolated pin
Checklist for use of electrodes ↝ mc-profile determination
moisture meters
• Hygrometrical m. More time consuming measurement Fast ↝ applying electrodes, low contact
EMC & KEYLWERT- ↝ electrode placement pressure
Diagramm
Temperature correction required Below 5…40°C temperature correction
not strictly required
Species correction required Species correction required – in parti-
cular related to material density (speci-
fic gravity)

Joerg B.Ressel 41

Electric moisture meters - Summary

Wood Structure
Vergleich
Moisture Content
Another comparison (acc. to Forsén, Tarvainen 2001)
Measurement
methods
• major differences exist between individual moisture meters
Direct measure-
ment method • capacitance meters show much wider (measurement) variation com-
• Oven dry method pared to resistance type meters
Indirect measure-
ment methods • correct temperature setting is important for resistance type meters
• Conductance m.
• Capacitive m. • correct density setting is essential for capacitance type meters
Electric moisture
meters • sample conditions, i.e., dimensions of sawn timber, mc level and mc
Checklist for use of
moisture meters
gradient are affecting the measurement accuracy
• Hygrometrical m.
EMC & KEYLWERT-
• the choice of the “correct” place (depth, width) where to measure the
Diagramm average moisture content significantly determines the result
• best accuracy of resistance type meters is within 8 % to 20 % mc
• capacitance type meters tend to indicate too low mc values due to
low measuring depth and mc gradients

Joerg B.Ressel 42
 Use of electric moisture meters

Wood Structure
Checklist for usage of electric moisture meters
Moisture Content
Measurement (acc. to recommendations by Forsén, Tarvainen 2001, p. 72)
methods
Direct measure-
• Checking operating conditions
ment method • battery voltage
• Oven dry method
Indirect measure-
• stability of the instrument at different temperatures
ment methods • any checks recommended by the manufacturer
• Conductance m.
• Capacitive m. • Calibrating the moisture meter – reference resistances (r
resistance
Electric moisture meters) or calibration block (
capacitance meters)
meters
Checklist for use of • check with well-conditioned wood samples – different mc classes,
moisture meters comparing results with results from the oven-dried method
• Hygrometrical m.
EMC & KEYLWERT- … when performing measurements
Diagramm → average mc
• choose correct wood species
→ surface mc
• adjust true wood temperature
→ mc distribution
• measurement target ….. → maximum mc
• number of measurements (… in accordance with an approved standards)
Indirect measurement methods
Joerg B.Ressel 43

Hygrometrical method

Wood Structure
Vergleich
Material equalisation with environment – sorption isotherms
Moisture Content
Measurement • taking up / detaching water from the inner wood surface (
void
methods
system in cell walls) = adsorption / desorption
Direct measure-
ment method • bond of H2O-molecules by electro-chemical and physical forces
• Oven dry method
Indirect measure- • sorption takes only place in the range 0 ≤ EMC ≤ FSP
ment methods
• Conductance m.
• driving forces
concentration equalization or partial vapour pressure
• Capacitive m. equalization between humidity in the wood and the environment:
Electric moisture
meters
EMC = f(ϑ, φ) … and sorption direction!
Checklist for use of • EMCads ≤ EMCdes
∆EMC = hysteresis
moisture meters
• Hygrometrical m. • sorption isotherms describe EMC = f(φ) at ϑ = const. and 0 ≤ φ ≤ 100 %
EMC & KEYLWERT-
Diagramm • with rising temperature the slope of the isotherms decreases
• ∆EMC decreases with ↑ ϑ and disappears at approximately ϑ ≥ 70°C
• FSP decreases by 1 % with ∆ϑ = +10 K
• sorption isotherms depend on wood species – they are influenced by
density, porosity, extractives, reaction wood (↝ change of chemical
composition)
Joerg B.Ressel 44

Hygrometrical method

Wood Structure 32 Example of a

Moisture Content
Sorptionsisotherm
Measurement of Sitka spruce at
Fibre saturation FSP sorption isotherm
methods 28 h = 25EEC • temperature = const.!
Equilibrium moisture content EMC [%]

Direct measure-
ment method • first desorption
• Oven dry method 24
First-time desorption • desorption
Indirect measure-
ment methods • adsorption
• Conductance m.
20
Repeated desorption • hysteresis
• Capacitive m.
Electric moisture 16 Sorption (mean • fibre saturation FSP
meters value from de-
Checklist for use of and adsorption) Hysteresis • EMC = f(ϑ, φ)
moisture meters 12 • oscillating sorption
• Hygrometrical m.
EMC & KEYLWERT-
• mean sorption isotherm
Diagramm 8
oscillating sorption
in the range
30 # n # 70 %
4 Adsorption

0
0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1,0
H TR-01 2 / J BR Relative humidity n [-]
Joerg B.Ressel 45
 Hygrometrical method

Wood Structure 32 Temperature influ-

Moisture Content Fiber saturation FSP
Measurement EC
20E ence on sorption
28
• ↑ ϑ → ↓ slope of iso-
methods
EC
40E
Equilibrium moisture content EMC [%]

Direct measure-
ment method EC
60E therms
24 Mean sorption isotherms
• ↑ ϑ → ↓ EMC and
• Oven dry method EC
80E
Indirect measure-
ment methods EC
100E
20 ↓ FSP at φ = const.
• Conductance m.
• Capacitive m.
Electric moisture 16
meters
Checklist for use of
moisture meters 12
• Hygrometrical m.
EMC & KEYLWERT-
Diagramm 8

0
0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1,0
MSHT-0121 / J BR
Relative humidity n [-]
Joerg B.Ressel 46

Hygrometrical method

Wood Structure
Wood and humid air
Moisture Content
Measurement • sorption isotherms only describe a final condition – the EMC – not the
methods
Direct measure-
dynamics of moisture equalisation, i.e., the changing rate of the mc!
ment method • the KEYLWERTH-Diagram shows the relation between environmen-
• Oven dry method
Indirect measure-
tal climate (defined by ϑ and φ) and EMC; it is derived from mea-
ment methods surements with Sitka Spruce (picea sitchensis)
• Conductance m.
• Capacitive m.
• beside the basic grid temperature- (= dry bulb temperature) and rela-
Electric moisture tive humidity the diagram also shows const. EMC curves and curves
meters of const. wet bulb temperature, to be used for climate measurement
Checklist for use of
moisture meters by means of a psychrometer (required air flow vL ≥ 2 m/s)
• Hygrometrical m.
• additionally these relations are also available in table form, showing
EMC depending on climatic parameters (ϑ and φ / ϑT and ϑF, / ϑT
EMC & KEYLWERT-
Diagramm
and ∆ϑ = ϑT - ϑF)
• the indicated EMC might be used for all wood species with sufficient
relability
KEYLWERTH-Diagram

Joerg B.Ressel 47

Hygrometer

Wood Structure Psychrometer

Moisture Content
Measurement Technical data
methods Clockwork
driven fan
Direct measure- Sensors resistive thermometer Pt100
ment method DryAirbulb sensor 1 or 2 x Pt100
Air
• Oven dry method Wet bulb sensor 1 x Pt100
Indirect measure-
Max. permissible current 3 mA
ment methods
• Conductance m.
Protection mode IP 54
• Capacitive m. Housing stainless steel No. 1.4571
Luft
Electric moisture Environmental temperature -10 … +100°C
meters Working temperature -10 … +100°C
Dry bulb Wet bulb
Checklist for use of tempe- ≤ 0°C use psychrom.
tempe- constant for ice
moisture meters rature rature
• Hygrometrical m. 6 hT [°C] 6 hF [°C]
EMC & KEYLWERT-
Diagramm

Wet bulb
covered
by wet
wick ASSMANN-Aspira-
Air Air tions-Psychrometer
Joerg B.Ressel 48
 Hygrometer

Wood Structure Psychrometer

Moisture Content
Measurement Psychrometer in a dry kiln (equipped
methods
Direct measure-
with two Pt100 sensors)
ment method
• Oven dry method
Indirect measure-
ment methods
• Conductance m. Dry bulb thermometer
• Capacitive m.
Electric moisture
meters
Wet bulb thermometer
Checklist for use of
moisture meters
Water tank with
• Hygrometrical m.
wet wick
EMC & KEYLWERT-
Diagramm

Joerg B.Ressel 49

Equilibrium moisture content

Wood Structure KEYLWERTH-Dia-

Moisture Content 120
Measurement
gram (schematic)
methods
• intersection of psy-
Direct measure-
ment method 100 chrometer tempera-
Dry and wet bulb temperature [°C]

• Oven dry method tures ϑT (y-axis) und

Indirect measure-
TDB ϑF (curves from y-axis
ment methods 80
EMC
→ EMC (curves) and
• Conductance m.
• Capacitive m.
φ (x-axis)
TWB
Electric moisture
60 • intersection of DBT
meters
r.h. and r.h. (x-axis) →
Checklist for use of
moisture meters EMC (curve) and
40
TDB WBT
• Hygrometrical m.
EMC & KEYLWERT- EMC
Diagramm TWB
• Analogous TWB and
20
r.h. can be derived
r.h. from TDB and EMC

0
100 80 60 40 20 0
HTR-0 0 3 / J BR Relative humidity n [%]

Joerg B.Ressel 50

Equilibrium
moisture content

Wood Structure Use of the KEYL-

Moisture Content
WERTH-Diagram
Measurement
methods • Psychrometer tempe-
Direct measure-
ment method
ratures TDB and
• Oven dry method TWB → EMC and φ TDB = 60 °C → EMC = 8,7 %
Indirect measure-
ment methods
• Dry bulb temperature TWB = 50 °C → r.h. = 58 %
• Conductance m. TDB and r.h. → EMC
• Capacitive m. and WBT
Electric moisture
meters
Checklist for use of the usage of the psy- TDB = 25 °C → EMC = 6,1 %
moisture meters r.h. = 30 % → TWB = 15 °C
• Hygrometrical m.
chrometer requires an
EMC & KEYLWERT- airflow minimum of vL
Diagramm ≥ 2 m/s at the wet
wick to achieve the
adiabatic cooling limit!

Indirect measurement methods

Joerg B.Ressel 51
Wood Structure
Moisture Content
Measurement
methods
Direct measure-
ment method
• Oven dry method
Indirect measure-
ment methods
• Conductance m.
• Capacitive m.
EMC table
Electric moisture
meters
Checklist for use of
moisture meters
• Hygrometrical m.
EMC & KEYLWERT-
Diagramm

Joerg B.Ressel 52

Wood Structure
Moisture Content
Measurement
methods
Direct measure-
ment method
• Oven dry method
Indirect measure-
ment methods
• Conductance m.
• Capacitive m.
Electric moisture
Thank you for your attention
meters
Checklist for use of
moisture meters
• Hygrometrical m.
EMC & KEYLWERT-
Diagramm

Joerg B.Ressel 53