Proceedings of the ASME 2016 Pressure Vessels and Piping Conference

PVP2016
July 17-21, 2016, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada

PVP2016-63108

THE EFFECT OF CARBON DIFFUSION ON CREEP BEHAVIOURS FOR A DISSIMILAR JOINT

BETWEEN P91 AND 12CR1MOV STEELS

Yanping Zhao Jianming Gong

School of Mechanical and Power Engineering, School of Mechanical and Power Engineering,
Nanjing Tech University Nanjing Tech University
Nanjing, PR China Nanjing, PR China
Yong Jiang
School of Mechanical and Power Engineering,
Nanjing Tech University
Nanjing, PR China

ABSTRACT
Dissimilar joints have been widely used in many
applications, especially for steam piping in the superheater
and reheater of power plants. However, these dissimilar metal
welds tend to fail less than half of their design life, and carbon
diffusion is the main cause of the premature failure. Dissimilar
joints operated at high temperature or after post-weld heat
treatment (PWHT) exhibit carbon-enriched zone (CEZ) in the
high alloy part and carbon-depleted zone (CDZ) in the low
alloy part, causing by the chemical potential gradients across
the weld interface. The carbides dissolute in the low alloy part
while precipitate in the high alloy part. At the same time, a
consequent of strength gradients are generated between the
CEZ and CDE. The CDZ results in a loss of creep strength
due to the carbides dissolution while an increase of strength
due to the carbides precipitation.
In this work, welding consumable of GTR-2CM was
used to join P91 and 12Cr1MoV metals together. The stable
phases and carbon activities of these metals are calculated by
THERMO-CALC software. Carbon diffusion between
P91/GTR-2CM/12Cr1MoV dissimilar joint after aging at
550 ℃ for varying time are predicted by employing
dispersed multiphase model in DICTRA software. Volume
fractions of carbides varying with distance from both sides of
the weld interfaces were also investigated, showing that the
formation of CDZs and CEZs is related to the dissolution and
precipitation of M23C6 and M7C3 carbides. The dissolution and
coarsening of M7C3 and M23C6 particles in the CDZ and CEZ
were also modelled by DICTRA software.
The creep properties of base metals, weld metal and the
dissimilar joint were investigated at 550 ℃ . The stress
dependence of minimum creep rate and rupture life obeyed
the Norton’s power law, and the stress exponents can be used
to identify the creep mechanism. Monkman-Grant (MG)
relations were also used to study the creep rupture data.
The simulation results of carbon diffusion can be used to
study the creep properties of CDZ and CEZ for the
P91/GTR-2CM/12Cr1MoV dissimilar joint. The threshold
stress concept can be incorporated into the analysis of creep
power law. The magnitudes of threshold stress within CEZ
and CDZ can be calculated according to the volume fraction
and average diameter of carbides from carbon diffusion.
1. INTRODUCTION
In order to improve the economic benefit of power plant
boiler, dissimilar joint has been widely used in Supercritical
and Ultra-supercritical generating units [1]. That is, the low
alloy heat-resistant steel such as 1.25Cr0.5Mo (T/P11),
1Cr0.5MoV (12Cr1MoV) and 2.25Cr1Mo (T/P22) steels, are
being used in power plants with lower steam temperature and
pressure, whereas, the high alloy heat-resistant steels such as
9Cr1Mo (T/P91) and 12Cr steels, which are more expensive
and of higher creep strength, are used in places with higher
temperature and pressure. Therefore, a dissimilar joint can be
obtained by joining these two different kinds of steels together.
However, premature failure always occurs after long time
service at high temperature [2]. It was reported that the
reduction of creep strength for the dissimilar joints are caused
by the combination impacts of metallurgical and mechanical
factors, and could be explained by followings from
previous studies [3-9].
Carbon diffuses from the high alloy part to the low alloy
part, as the decreasing of chemical potential gradient across
the weld interface. This can lead to the formation of CEZ near

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 the weld interface on the high alloy part, whereas CDZ
formed on the low alloy part adjacent to CEZ [3]. A creep
strength difference occurs between the CEZ and CDZ on the
dissimilar joint, i.e. the creep strength increases due to the
precipitation and coarsening of carbides within CEZ and
decreases due to the dissolution of carbides within CDZ [4].
Thus, stresses concentrated in the CDZ of weak strength,
which will cause the initiation and growth of creep void in this
zone and leading to the final creep failure [5].
Study on carbon diffusion across the weld interface of
the dissimilar joint has been done using both experimental and
numerical methods [6-13]. A sharp change in hardness between
the base metal and weld metal occurs as a result of the carbon
diffusion [6]. The differences across the weld interface will
increase as the increasing of aging time, and the measurement
of hardness can be used to indicate the degree of carbon
diffusion. In addition, electron probe microanalysis (EPMA)
can be used to measure the carbon distribution across the weld
interface of the dissimilar joint [7]. In addition, the
microstructure of different regions such as base metal, weld
metal, and heat affected zone (HAZ) can be analyzed by
different techniques, such as optical microscopy (OP),
scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and transmission
electron microscopy (TEM) [8,9].
In recent years, multi-component diffusion models in
DICTRA software developed by Engström et al [10] has been
widely used to solve the problem of carbon diffusion for a
dissimilar joint. In this model, the thermodynamic equilibrium
calculation with THERMO-CALC software has been applied
to evaluate the matrix phase and dispersed carbides for the
multi-component diffusion model. This model has been
proved to be effective in predicting carbon diffusion in
multicomponent and multiphase system [11-13]. On the other
hand, coarsening model in DICTRA [14] also takes into
account of both multi-component thermodynamic and
diffusion calculations. This model can be used to deal with
many moving boundary problems, such as dissolution and
coarsening of carbides, which will reduce the number of
experiments required [15,16].
In order to evaluate the rupture life of a dissimilar joint
under service condition, numerous creep tests have been done
in laboratory under different stress and temperature levels. In
general, these tests were performed under higher stress and
temperature, thus, resulting a shorter rupture time. However,
the failure mode for the tested dissimilar joint is different to
the actual service failure. Numerical calculation has been
proved to be an effective method to balance the testing creep
rupture data and the simulating service life [17].
In this paper, creep tests were performed at 550 ℃
under varying stresses for both base metals (P91 and
12Cr1MoV), weld metal (GTR-2CM) and the
P91/GTR-2CM/12Cr1MoV dissimilar joint. Carbon diffusion
simulations were carried out, and volume faction of carbides
can be obtained for CEZs and CDZs. The results from the
carbon diffusion simulation can be applied into the coarsening
models. The carbide coarsening was simulated in the CEZs,
whereas dissolution was simulated in the CDZs near the weld
interface after ageing. With the information of volume fraction
and diameter of carbides within different regions across the
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weld interface, the threshold stresses for the CEZs and CDZs
can be obtained. The calculated the threshold stresses were
incorporated into the Norton’s power law based on the
creep-tested data. Thus, the creep behaviours for the CEZs
and CDZs of the dissimilar joint can be obtained.
2. MATERIAL AND EXPERIMENTAL
The dissimilar joint pipe with dimensions of 273 mm
outer diameter and 20 mm wall thickness was used in this
investigation. The base metals in this dissimilar joint are
12Cr1MoV pearlitic heat resistant steel and P91 martensitic
steel. The metal inert-gas welding process was used to weld
them together using GTR-2CM type electrode. In this welding
technique, the voltage was between 12 and 14 V, the current
was between 100 and 120 A, the preheat temperature was
150 ℃, and the inter-pass temperature was between 250 ℃
and 300 ℃. After welding, the joint pipe was heat treated at
700 ℃ for 2 h followed by air-cooling. The chemical
composition of the base metals and weld metal are listed in
Table 1. Both base metals and cross weld specimens for creep
testing is extracted from the P91/GTR-2CM/12Cr1MoV
dissimilar joint. The creep behaviors of base metals (P91 and
12Cr1MoV) and cross weld specimens (both base metals and
weld metal included) were tested at the temperature 550 ℃
and in the stress range of 160 to 220 MPa.
3. SIMULATION MODELS
3.1 Carbon diffusion model
Carbon diffusion usually occurs in the dissimilar joint
after long time ageing or PWHT at high temperature. The
driving force for this phenomenon is the chemical potential
gradient, which causes carbon diffuses from the high alloy
part to the low alloy part. In addition, phase transformation
occurs accompanying with carbon diffusion process. A band
of carbides form on the high alloy part, whereas a carbide free
region develops on the low alloy part near the weld interface.
Thus, the diffusion of carbon will result in the formation CEZ
and CDZ adjacent to one another across the weld interface of
the dissimilar joint [3].
DICTRA software provides a dispersed model to simulate
the carbon diffusion process [10]. In this model, carbon
diffusion is assumed to occur only in the continuous matrix
phase and the spheroidal carbides distributed in the matrix
will impede the diffusion. The multi-phase model is
performed on one-dimensional mesh geometry with
double-geometric grid. Carbon diffusion can be calculated
with numerical method from multicomponent diffusion
equations using kinetic data, and the carbides are calculated
from local equilibrium using thermodynamic data. To take
into account the impeding effect of the dispersed carbides, the
labyrinth factor is introduced from being multiplied into the
carbon diffusion coefficient. The carbide morphology, size
distribution and the volume faction have a great effect on the
labyrinth factor. This value is assumed to be (fm)2 according to
Engström et al [10] and fm is the volume fraction of matrix
phase.
 Table 1 Chemical composition of two base metals (P91 and 12Cr1MoV) and the weld metal (GTR-2CM)
Material C Si Mn
P91 0.109 0.295 0.428
GTR-2CM 0.09 0.49 0.62
12Cr1MoV 0.143 0.24 0.55
3.2 Carbide coarsening model
The carbide coarsening and dissolution process can be
described as the changing of mean particle size with aging
time at high temperature. The mean particle size increases
during the coarsening process and decreases during the
dissolution process.
The coarsening of the carbide was performed by
assuming a system with a particle of maximum size at the
center of the spherical cell. The calculated particle size has the
form of LSW distribution, i.e. the maximum particle size is
1.5 times larger than the average size [18]. The driving force for
the coarsening process is the reduction of the free energy,
which is caused by the decrease of surface area per unit
volume. In this model, a contribution from the interfacial
energy is added to the Gibbs energy of the particle according
to equation (1)
2𝜎𝑉𝑚
−∆𝐺𝑚 = (1)
𝑟 𝑉
2 𝑓
where σ is the interfacial energy in J/m , r is the particle radius
in m, and Vm is the molar volume in m3/mol.
This model is based on the assumption of local
equilibrium between maximum size particle and the matrix
interface. The simulation can be considered as one
dimensional moving boundary problem. The Gibbs energy
contribution from the interfacial energy is also taken into
account at the moving boundary, whereas the chemical
composition of the model cell at the outer boundary is
calculated by the equilibrium with the average size particle.
Thus, the chemical composition of the carbide and matrix
close to the interface can be calculated from the interfacial
energy and the thermodynamic information.
According to the equation (1) the Gibbs energy added to
particle of maximum size is negative. The Gibbs energy
addition for the particles of maximum size is smaller than the
particle of average size. Therefore, a difference in chemical
composition occurs between the region close to the maximum
particle and the matrix and between the matrix and the outer
cell boundary, which will cause the coarsening of the
maximum particle. The dissolution of the carbide can be
simulated in a similar way. The Gibbs energy added to particle
is positive in dissolution model, which will cause larger Gibbs
energy addition for the particles than matrix. In the coarsening
and dissolution models, both the particle and cell are in
spherical shape during the whole process.
In order to simulate the coarsening or dissolution process,
three kinds of calculation are required, i.e. equilibrium
calculation, solving of flux equations and the diffusion
equations. Thermodynamic equilibrium is used to evaluate the
composition of particle and matrix close to the interface. Flux
equations are used to calculate the component passing through
the interface, where the mass conservation law is used. The
diffusion equations are used to evaluate the growth or
dissolution of particle, as it controls the rate components come
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Composition, wt %
P S Ni Cr Mo V
0.038 0.0071 0.166 9.12 0.88 0.28
0.023 0.009 0.18 2.69 1.02 ---
0.009 0.008 0.003 1.11 0.31 0.22
and out of the interface. These calculations are performed in
DICTRA software using thermodynamics and kinetics
databases, and the initial conditions required in the
simulations are the radius of carbide and cell, interfacial
energy, molar volume of carbide, and the chemical
composition of the phases. The value of the interfacial energy
σ varies from 0.1 to 1 J/m2. This value is greatly related to the
actual system state to be calculated and usually can be
obtained by fitting the simulation results to the experimental
one. The lower value indicates that the interfaces of the
precipitates are coherent with the matrix, while the higher
value indicates that the interfaces are incoherent. The molar
volume and chemical composition can be calculated from the
equilibrium calculation with thermodynamic database. The
carbide radius is from experimental result, and cell radius can
be calculated with following equation:
3 𝑅3
1
𝑅2 = √ 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑏 (2)
where R1 and R2 are the radius of carbide particle and cell,
respectively. Vfcarb is the volume fraction of carbides.
4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
4.1 Experimental creep behaviours for a dissimilar joint
Creep strain vs. time curves at various stress levels at
550 ℃ for P91 [19], 12Cr1MoV base metals and
P91/GTR-2CM/12Cr1MoV dissimilar joint are shown in Fig.
1. The creep curves for different steels all showed a primary
creep stage, followed by the secondary and tertiary creep
stages. The primary stage is short with a small creep strain;
the time for secondary stage is the longest; and rapid
accumulation of strain occurs in the tertiary creep resulting in
the necking prior to fracture.
The creep behavior of weld metal is hard to obtain by
using specimens cut from actual dissimilar joint, as the size of
this area is rather small. The chemical composition of
2.25Cr1Mo steel [20] is similar with GTR-2CM weld metal.
Thus, the creep behavior of 2.25Cr1Mo steel can be used to
represent the GTR-2CM weld metal.
The minimum creep rate as a function of applied stress
for P91, 12Cr1MoV base metals, GTR-2CM weld metal and
P91/GTR-2CM/12Cr1MoV dissimilar joint at 550 ℃ is
plotted in double logarithmic as shown in Fig. 2. It can be
observed that the dissimilar joint showed the highest
minimum creep rate, whereas P91 base metal showed the
lowest minimum creep rate. The minimum creep rate of
dissimilar joint and 12Cr1MoV base metal were higher than
those of P91 base metal and weld metal. The minimum creep
rate increases with the increasing of applied stress, and their
relationship obeyed by the Norton’s power law [21] as
𝜀𝑚̇ = 𝐵𝜎 𝑛 (3)
where 𝜀̇𝑚 is the minimum creep rate, and B and n are stress
3 Copyright © 2016 by ASME
 coefficient and stress exponent, respectively. The stress
exponents for dissimilar joint and 12Cr1MoV base metal are
11.080 and 10.813, respectively, while that for weld metal and
P91 base metal are 4.675 and 12.465, respectively.
The rupture time as a function of applied stress for P91,
12Cr1MoV base metals, GTR-2CM weld metal and
P91/GTR-2CM/12Cr1MoV dissimilar joint at 550 ℃ is
plotted in double logarithmic as shown in Fig. 3. The rupture
time for dissimilar joint is the shortest, whereas that for P91
base metal is the longest. It can be observed that dissimilar
joint and 12Cr1MoV base metal exhibited shorter rupture time
compared with weld metal and P91 base metal. The rupture
time decreases with the increasing of applied stress, and the
variation of rupture time with stress also obeyed the power
law [21] as
1
𝑡𝑓 = 𝑣 (4)
𝐴𝜎
where tf is rupture time, and A and v are stress coefficient and
stress exponent, respectively. These stress exponents for
dissimilar joint and 12Cr1MoV base metal are 10.873 and
10.615, respectively, while that of weld metal and P91 base
metal are 6.479 and 12.890, respectively.
From the strain vs. time curves for different alloys, it can be
observed that the time for secondary stage is the longest,
whereas the strain for the tertiary stage is the largest. Thus, it
is of great importance to study the relationship of minimum
creep rate, rupture time and time to minimum creep rate. Fig.
4 shows rupture time against minimum creep rate in double
logarithmic plotting. Their relationship can be described in
MG relation [22], i.e.
𝜀̇𝑚 ∙ 𝑡𝑓𝛼 = 𝐶𝑓
where α is MG exponent and Cf is the MG coefficient. It has
been point out those values of α and Cf will be independent of
test temperature, heat treatment and chemical composition of
a particular alloy.
The time to minimum creep rate is defined as time when
the creep rate reaches the start point of accelerated creep rate
of tertiary creep. The time to minimum creep rate can be
calculated as a fraction of rupture time, i.e.
𝑡𝑚 = 𝑓 ∙ 𝑡𝑓 (6)
where f is a constant. Modified 9Cr-1Mo steel exhibited
tm=0.28tf, which is independent of temperature [19]. In this
research, f=0.25 for both base metals (P91 and 12Cr1MoV)
and weld metal (GTR-2CM) was used to calculate the time to
minimum creep rate for simplicity.
The relationship between minimum creep rate (𝜀̇𝑚 ) and
time to minimum creep rate (tm) can also be described by the
MG relation [23], i.e.
𝛼
𝜀̇𝑚 ∙ 𝑡𝑚 = 𝐶𝑚 (7)
where α is MG exponent which is the same as in eq. (5), and
Cm is another MG coefficient. The values of n, B, v, A, α, Cf
and Cm for base metal (P91 and 12Cr1MoV) and weld metal
(GTR-2CM) are shown in Table 2. In this table, the stress
exponents (n and v) for the dissimilar joint and 12Cr1MoV
base metal are similar, which indicates similar creep
mechanism [19]. The values of Cf and Cm can be used to
indicate the creep ductility for both base metals, weld metal
and dissimilar joint. Since the transient creep strain can be
ignored, thus, the majority of creep ductility comes from the
tertiary creep stage. The low values indicate the contribution
(5) of secondary creep strain to overall creep stain is small.

Table 2 Parameters of power law and MG relationships for base metal (P91 and 12Cr1MoV), weld metal (GTR-2CM) and
P91/GTR-2CM/12Cr1MoV dissimilar joint.

Material parameters
Material
n B v A α Cf Cm
P91 12.465 1.453e-34 12.890 3.424e-34 0.993 0.0409 0.0103
GTR-2CM 4.675 3.111e-15 6.479 6.331e-18 1.075 0.0719 0.0162
12Cr1MoV 10.813 2.154e-29 10.615 1.898e-27 1.028 0.0375 0.0090
Dissimilar joint 11.080 2.188e-30 10.873 2.574e-28 1.014 0.0269 0.0066

(a) (b)

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(c)
Fig. 1 Creep strain vs. time curves tested at 550 ℃ of different
stress levels for (a) P91 [19], (b) 12Cr1MoV and (c)
P91/GTR-2CM/12Cr1MoV dissimilar joint.
Fig. 2 Stress dependence of minimum creep rate at 550 ℃ for base
metals (P91 and 12Cr1MoV), weld metal (GTR-2CM) [20] and
P91/GTR-2CM/12Cr1MoV dissimilar joint.
Fig. 3 Stress dependence of rupture time at 550 ℃ for base metals
(P91 and 12Cr1MoV), weld metal (GTR-2CM) [20] and
P91/GTR-2CM/12Cr1MoV dissimilar joint.
4.2 Equilibrium Phase predictions for dissimilar joints
The THERMO-CALC software with OTCFE
thermodynamic database was used to calculate the equilibrium
phase problems for both base metals (P91 and 12Cr1MoV)
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and weld metal (GTR-2CM). This software was based on the
CALPHAD approach [25], by calculating the Gibbs energy of
phases under a given condition of temperature, pressure and
chemical composition. The equilibrium phases are obtained
from the minimization of the total Gibbs energy.
Fig. 4 Rupture time vs. minimum creep rate diagram showing the
validity of MG relation for base metals (P91 and 12Cr1MoV), weld
metal (GTR-2CM) [20] and P91/GTR-2CM/12Cr1MoV dissimilar
joint.
Fig. 5 shows the phase diagrams varying with carbon
content and temperature for base metals (P91 and 12Cr1MoV)
and weld metal (GTR-2CM) with compositions given in Table
1. The P91 base metal is martensite type steel, and the phase
diagram of this steel is shown in Fig. 5(a). The stable phases
of this steel are ferrite matrix and M23C6 carbides at 550 ℃.
The phase diagram of GTR-2CM weld metal is shown in Fig.
5(b). The M23C6 and M6C carbides are stable in the ferrite
matrix at 550 ℃. The 12Cr1MoV base metal is pearlitic steel,
and the phase diagram of this steel is shown in Fig. 5(c). The
stable phases of this steel are M23C6, MX and M7C3 carbides
in the ferrite matrix at 550 ℃. The mass fraction and type of
these carbides for different steels at 550 ℃ are listed in Table
3. It can be observed that the carbides dispersed in these
alloys are M23C6, M6C, MX and M7C3, and the amount of
M6C and MX in these alloys is very low. Thus, the main
carbides considered in the simulations are M23C6 and M7C3
carbides, and the distribution of M6C and MX is neglected.
(a)
 was used to calculate the carbon diffusion for
P91/GTR-2CM/12Cr1MoV dissimilar joint serviced at high
temperature for long time. The simulation was calculated at
550 ℃ for 100,000 h, 200,000 h and 300,000h, which
represent the whole service process. The initial chemical
conditions of these alloys shown in Table 1, and carbides
(M23C6 and M7C3) distributions in Table 3 are considered in
these calculations.
The overall carbon profile varying with the distance from
both sides of the interfaces for the P91/GTR-2CM/12Cr1MoV
dissimilar joint is given in Fig. 7. It can be observed that the
carbon diffusion direction is the same as that inferred by the
carbon activity results. There are two diffusion couples:
Carbon diffuses from GTR-2CM weld metal to the P91 base
metal resulting in a CEZ in the P91 base metal and a CDZ in
(b)
the GTR-2CM weld metal close to the weld interface. On the
other part, carbon diffuses from the 12Cr1MoV base metal to
the GTR-2CM weld metal resulting in a CEZ in the
GTR-2CM weld metal and a CDZ in the 12Cr1MoV base
metal close to the weld interface. In general, the width of
CEZs and CDZs is becoming larger with an increase in aging
time. In addition, the carbon diffusion degree between P91
base metal and GTR-2CM weld metal is smaller than that
between GTR-2CM weld metal and 12Cr1MoV base metal.
This is because the carbon activity different between P91 base
metal and GTR-2CM weld metal is lower that that between
GTR-2CM weld metal and 12Cr1MoV base metal, as show in
Fig. 6.
The corresponding volume fraction of M 23C6 and M7C3
carbides varying with the distance from both sides of the
(c) interfaces for the P91/GTR-2CM/12Cr1MoV dissimilar joint
Fig. 5 Simulated phase diagrams for (a) P91 base metal, (b) are also plotted in Figs. 8 and 9, respectively. It can be
GTR-2CM weld metal, and (c) 12Cr1MoV base metal observed that the precipitation of M23C6 carbide occurs on the
CEZs and the dissolution of this carbide occurs on the CDZs
Table 3 Existing phases and their amounts at 550 ℃ for different near both sides of the weld interfaces. The carbide distribution
steels calculated by THERMO-CALC software has a great relationship with the carbide type and amount
Phase content, wt % shown in Table 3. The precipitation or dissolution of M23C6
Material BCC M23C6 M6C M7C3 MX carbide occurs on the CEZs and CDZs, respectively, of both
P91 97.88 2.12 --- --- --- the base metals (P91 and 12Cr1MoV) and weld metal
GTR-2CM 98.13 1.62 0.25 --- --- (GTR-2CM). However, the dissolution of M 7C3 carbide only
12Cr1MoV 98.06 1.40 --- 0.23 0.31 occurs on the CDZ of 12Cr1MoV base metal.

4.3 Carbon diffusion prediction for dissimilar joint

Fig. 6 shows carbon activity of base metals (P91 and
12Cr1MoV) and weld metal (GTR-2CM) calculated by
THERMO-CALC with OTCFE thermodynamic database. The
difference of carbon activity for different steels can be used to
evaluate the welding joint stability. Carbon diffuses from the
high carbon activity part to the low part, and the degree in
carbon diffusion will increase as the difference between the
carbon activities becoming larger. [26]. It can be observed that
carbon activity of 12Cr1MoV base metal is larger than
GTR-2CM weld metal than P91 base metal, and the difference
between these steel are becoming smaller as increasing of
temperature. Thus, it can be inferred that carbon diffuses from
the 12Cr1MoV base metal to the GTR-2CM welds metal then
to the P91 base metal.
Fig. 6 Simulated temperature dependent carbon activity of base
The DICTRA software with OCTFE and MOB2 database metals (P91 and 12Cr1MoV) and weld metal (GTR-2CM)

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 Fig. 7 Simulated carbon profile on P91/GTR-2CM/12Cr1MoV dissimilar joint after aging for 100,000 h, 200,000 h and 300,000 h at 550 ℃

Fig. 8 Volume fraction of M23C6 carbide on P91/GTR-2CM/12Cr1MoV dissimilar joint after aging for 100,000 h, 200,000 h and 300,000 h at
550 ℃

Fig. 9 Volume fraction of M7C3 carbide on P91/GTR-2CM/12Cr1MoV dissimilar joint after aging for 100,000 h, 200,000 h and 300,000 h at
550 ℃

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 4.4 Carbide coarsening in CEZ and dissolution in CDZ at time to minimum creep rate (tm) is required for the
The coarsening or dissolution for M23C6 and M7C3 calculation of threshold stress in the following section.
carbide were simulated by DICTRA software using OTCFE
and MOB2 databases. Because of lack of experimental data,
the interfacial energy was assumed to be 0.4 J/m2 for M23C6
and M7C3 carbide [27]. The chemical compositions for M23C6
and M7C3 carbides are different within P91 base metal,
GTR-2CM weld metal and 12Cr1MoV base metal at 550 ℃,
and their values can be obtained from equilibrium calculations.
These carbides were described by four major components, i.e.
Fe, C, Cr and Mo. The volume fraction of M23C6 and M7C3
carbides, shown in Fig. 8 and 9, are applied to the simulations
of carbide coarsening and dissolution processes in the CEZs
and CDZs, respectively.

Fig. 12 Simulation of growth of the M23C6 carbide in CEZ of

GTR-2CM weld metal at 550 ℃

Fig. 10 Simulation of growth of the M23C6 carbide in CEZ of P91

base metal at 550 ℃

Fig. 13 Simulation of dissolution of the M23C6 carbide in CDZ of

12Cr1MoV base metal at 550 ℃

Fig. 11 Simulation of dissolution of the M23C6 carbide in CDZ of

GTR-2CM weld metal at 550 ℃

For the diffusion couple between P91 base metal and

GTR-2CM weld metal, Fig. 10 shows the coarsening of M23C6
carbide in CEZ of P91 base metal, whereas Fig. 11 shows the
dissolution of M23C6 carbide in CDZ of GTR-2CM weld
metal. For the diffusion couple between GTR-2CM weld
metal and 12Cr1MoV base metal, Fig. 12 shows the
coarsening of M23C6 carbide in CEZ of GTR-2CM weld metal,
whereas Fig. 13 and Fig. 14, respectively, shows the
dissolution of M23C6 and M7C3 carbide in the CDZ of
12Cr1MoV base metal. It should be noted that the coarsening
or dissolution time for carbides in different material is greatly
related to the time to minimum creep rate (tm) of the
corresponding material, since the average diameter of carbides
8 Copyright © 2016 by ASME
Fig. 14 Simulation of dissolution of the M7C3 carbide in carbon
enriched zone of 12Cr1MoV base metal at 550 ℃
4.5 Creep behaviours predicted in CEZs and CDZs
Threshold stress is generally defined as the lower
limiting stress below which no creep deformation can be
achieved. This value is greatly related to the
dislocation-particle interactions, which means that the
interaction between carbides and dislocations can restrict the
movement of dislocations and resulting in departure side

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 pinning [28]. In this paper, the carbides responsible for the weld metal near the weld interfaces of the dissimilar joint are
existence of threshold stress are M23C6 and M7C3. The longer compared with P91 base metal and GTR-2CM weld
threshold stress concept can be incorporated into the power metal, respectively. However, the rupture time for CDZs in
law of stress dependence minimum creep rate, and their GTR-2CM weld metal and 12Cr1MoV base metal near the
relationship can be expressed in the form of weld interfaces of the dissimilar joint are shorter compared
𝑀 𝐶 𝑀 𝐶
𝜀̇𝑚 = 𝐴(𝜎 − 𝜎𝑡ℎ23 6 − 𝜎𝑡ℎ7 3 )𝑛 (8) with GTR-2CM weld metal and 12Cr1MoV base metal,
where 𝜀̇𝑚 is the minimum creep rate, σ is the applied stress, respectively.
𝑀 𝐶 𝑀 𝐶
𝜎𝑡ℎ23 6 is the threshold stress due to M23C6 carbides, 𝜎𝑡ℎ7 3 is
the threshold stress due to M7C3 carbides, and n and A are the
stress exponent and coefficient as shown in Table 2.
The threshold stresses can be considered as a fraction of
the Orowan stress. The calculation is given by the following
equation [29]
𝜆
𝛼𝑀𝐺𝑏𝑙𝑛( b )
𝜎𝑡ℎ = 𝛼𝜎𝑂𝑟 = (9)
4𝜋(1+𝑣)𝜆
M23C6
where α is the fraction value, for the sake of simplicity, α
and αM7C3 is assumed to be equal to 0.4 [23]; M = 2.5 is the
Taylor factor; G is the shear modulus of the materials; b =
0.247 nm is the Burgers vector for the ferrite matrix; ν = 0.35
is Poisson’s ratio; and λ is the inter-particle spacing in nm.
The inter-particle spacing λ is related to volume fraction
and size of the carbides, as described [30]: Fig. 15 Variation of minimum creep rate with applied stress for P91
0.5
6𝑉𝑓𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑏 base metal and CEZ in P91 base metal at 550 ℃
𝜆 = 𝑑𝑎𝑣𝑒 [0.5/ ( ) − (2/3)0.5 ] (10)
𝜋
where Vfcarb is the volume fraction of carbides, dave is the
average diameter of the carbides. In order to incorporated
equation (9) and (10) into equation (8), the magnitude of Vfcarb
and dave is calculated at t=tm.
Thus, the effect of carbide coarsening and dissolution
processes in the CEZs and CDEs near the weld interfaces of
the dissimilar joint can be taken into account to the creep
behavior by the threshold stress concept. The volume fraction
(Vfcarb) and average diameter (dave) varying with ageing time
for M23C6 and M7C3 carbides, were used to predict the creep
behaviours of the CEZs and CDZs near the weld interface of
the P91/GTR-2CM/12Cr1MoV dissimilar joint. It should be
noted that threshold stress value caused by the carbide
dissolution (within CDZ) is assumed to be opposite to the
value caused by the carbide precipitation (within CEZ). Fig. 16 Variation of minimum creep rate with applied stress for
For the P91/GTR-2CM/12Cr1MoV dissimilar joint, the GTR-2CM weld metal and CDZ and CEZ in GTR-2CM weld metal
stress dependence of minimum creep rate for CEZ in P91 base at 550 ℃
metal, CEZ and CDZ in GTR-2CM weld metal, and CDZ in
12Cr1MoV base metal, calculated according to the threshold
stress concept, are shown in Fig. 15, Fig. 16 and Fig. 17,
respectively. The experimental results for P91 base metal,
GTR-2CM weld metal and 12Cr1MoV base metal were also
plotted in Fig. 15, Fig. 16 and Fig. 17, respectively. It can be
observed that the minimum creep rate for CEZs in P91 base
metal and GTR-2CM weld metal are lower compared with
P91 base metal and GTR-2CM, respectively. However, the
minimum creep rate for CDZs in GTR-2CM weld metal and
12Cr1MoV base metal are lower compared with GTR-2CM
weld metal and 12Cr1MoV base metal, respectively.
The magnitude of rupture time can be calculated by MG
relationship according to equation (5). Fig. 18, Fig. 19 and Fig.
20 show the rupture time varying with stress for CEZ in P91
base metal, CEZ and CDZ in GTR-2CM weld metal and CDZ
Fig. 17 Variation of minimum creep rate with applied stress for
in 12Cr1MoV base metal, respectively. It can be observed that
12Cr1MoV base metal and CDZ in 12Cr1MoV base metal at 550 ℃
the rupture time for CEZs in P91 base metal and GTR-2CM

9 Copyright © 2016 by ASME

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Fig. 18 Variation of rupture time with applied stress for P91 base
metal and CEZ in P91 base metal at 550 ℃
Fig. 19 Variation of rupture time with applied stress for GTR-2CM
weld metal and CDZ and CEZ in GTR-2CM weld metal at 550 ℃
Fig. 20 Variation of rupture time with applied stress for 12Cr1MoV
base metal and CDZ in 12Cr1MoV base metal at 550 ℃
5. CONCLUSIONS
Creep bahaviours of base metals and the dissimilar
joint were studied experimentally. The stress dependence
of minimum creep rate and rupture life obeyed the
Norton’s power law, and the stress exponents for the
12Cr1MoV base metal and dissimilar joint are similar
indicating similar creep mechanism. The relationship of
minimum creep rate, time to minimum creep rate and
10
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rupture time also obeyed the MG relations. The MG
constants are very low indicating that the majority of creep
strain comes from the tertiary creep stage.
DICTRA software was used to calculate the carbon
diffusion for P91/GTR-2CM/12Cr1MoV dissimilar joint.
The formation of CEZ is caused by the precipitation of
M23C6 and M7C3 carbides, whereas, the formation of CDZ
is caused by the dissolution of these carbides. The width of
CEZs and CDZs increases with the aging time. The degree
of carbon diffusion between P91 base metal and GTR-2CM
weld metal is smaller than that between GTR-2CM weld
metal and 12Cr1MoV base metal.
The dissolution and coarsening of carbides were
modelled by DICTRA. Thus, the average diameter of M7C3
and M23C6 carbides in different CEZs and CDEs for the
P91/GTR-2CM/12Cr1MoV dissimilar joint can be obtained
after different aging time.
The calculated volume fraction and average diameter
of carbides within the CEZs and CDEs for the
P91/GTR-2CM/12Cr1MoV dissimilar joint were used to
calculate the threshold stress for different regions. By
incorporating the threshold stress concept into the Norton’s
power law, the creep behaviours of CEZs and CDZs can be
obtained.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors gratefully acknowledge the support
provided by innovation program for graduate students in
JiangSu Province of China (No. KYLX_0750).
LIST OF ABBREVIATION
post-weld heat treatment (PWHT)
carbon-enriched zone (CEZ)
carbon-depleted zone (CDZ)
Monk-Grant (MG)
electron probe microanalysis (EPMA)
heat affected zone (HAZ)
optical microscopy (OP)
scanning electron microscopy (SEM)
transmission electron microscopy (TEM)
Lifshitz-Slyozov-Wagner (LSW)
Ferrite (BCC)
Austenite (FCC)
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