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4- Lithology Interpretation Using Crossplots

When wireline log data are provided, an interpretation is expected. This occurs after careful
Quality Control of the logs and selecting the interpretation methodology. We first begin with
identifying the reservoir interval and the reservoir formation minerology and lithology.

4.1 Lithology Identification

Logs are regularly used to identify the reservoir lithology. The following logs are most useful for
this purpose:

 Gamma Ray logs

 Sonic logs
 Formation Density logs including PEF
 Neutron logs

Often none of these logs can, solely, solve problems concerning the matrix composition of
reservoir rocks or porosity, especially if the lithology is complex. Fortunately, Neutron, Density
and Sonic logs respond differently to matrix minerals, to the presence of gas or light oil and to the
geometry of the pore structure. It requires the use of the combined data from two or more of
these measurements to identify and quantify the lithology. The combinations and techniques,
which are being used most frequently, are:

 Dual mineral model: use of two-porosity cross-plots – Neutron and Density, Neutron and
Sonic, Sonic and Density log data
 Three mineral models: use of tri-porosity cross-plots – M-N and matrix identification (MID)
plots
 Other cross-plots such PEF-Gamma Ray, Potassium-Thorium, PEF-Th/K ratio and PEF-K
for clay minerals identification

Many of these cross plots have different applications in particular identifying the mineralogy as
well as porosity.

4-1.1 Two-Porosity Cross-Plots

4.1.1 Two-Porosity Cross-Plots
These are part of every reservoir evaluation. Since only two porosity logs are involved, these
plots can only be used

 If not more than two minerals are present.

 If both these minerals are known for porosity evaluation.

The plot can help to quantify the percentage of each mineral and to determine a better value of
porosity. The plots can only be used for clean, liquid saturated formations and boreholes filled
with water base mud. If formations are shaly, clay corrections (Vcl) must be made to the log
responses before they are entered for porosity determination.
The use of two porosity measuring devices means that a two-mineral reservoir model can be
assumed when solving for the bulk volume percentages of each mineral and the porosity. This is
usually done by solving the following system of equations:

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where
F = fractional porosity
Vk, (k = 1, 2) = bulk volume fraction of the total matrix
Xmak, (k = 1, 2) = log response X to the clean mineral at 0%
porosity.

Each of equations ( 4.2.1 ) through ( 4.2.3 ) represents the actual separation of the total log
response into its respective fluid and matrix components. The assumption is made that the
porosity devices have been corrected for the effects of clay, light hydrocarbons, secondary
porosity and borehole rugosity.

Neutron-Density Cross-Plot
The charts in Figure 4- 2-1 and Figure 4- 2-2 are used to identify the mineral and lithology. The
former is used when a fresh-water drilling mud fills the borehole; the latter when the drilling mud
is salt water based. The large separations between the quartz, limestone and dolomite lines
indicate good resolution to distinguish between these three types of lithology. The presence of
the most common evaporites (rock salt, anhydrite) can also be identified.
The plot requires that the borehole be close to gauge, as both logs are affected by rugose or
washed-out borehole walls, thus giving possibly erroneous readings. In this chart shales fall
typically in the area where; 30% < PhiN < 40% and 2.35 < Rohb < 2.50.

Neutron-Sonic Cross-Plot
On this plot ( Figure 4- 2-3 ), large separations between the quartz, limestone and dolomite lines
indicate good resolution to identify these three types of lithology. It is like the previous cross-plot
in that it has good resolution to distinguish between sandstone, limestone and dolomite
lithologies. The plot is not as badly affected by poor borehole conditions as the N-D plot. Shale
points fall in the area 30 % < FN < 40% and 70 < Dt < 100. The porosity values assume that the
sonic-time average algorithm (blue line) has been used for the Sonic response conversions to
porosity. Should the field observation algorithm (red lines) be better suited to the reservoir, the
porosity scale would have to be altered accordingly.

Density-Sonic Cross-Plot
This plot is the least useful combination of any two porosity logs. As can be seen it shows poor
resolution to distinguish between sandstone, limestone and dolomite matrix but it is quite useful
for identifying some evaporite minerals that may exist in reservoir rock.

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Figure 4- 2-1: Neutron - Density Cross Plot - Fresh Muds (Apparent Limestone Porosity –
Courtesy Schlumberger)

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Figure 4- 2-2: Neutron - Density Cross Plot - Salt Muds (Apparent Limestone Porosity – Courtesy
Schlumberger)

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Figure 4- 2-3: Neutron - Sonic Cross Plot - Fresh Muds (Apparent Limestone Porosity – Courtesy
Schlumberger)

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Figure 4- 2-4: Density - Sonic Cross Plot - Fresh Muds (Courtesy Schlumberger)
Effect of Hydrocarbons on Cross – Plots

Gas or light hydrocarbons cause the rb value from the Formation Density log to decrease thus
the PhiD will increase. The porosity PhiN from the Neutron log will decrease. On a Neutron-
Density cross-plot this results in a shift (from the liquid filled point of the same porosity) upward
and to the left, almost parallel to the iso-porosity lines. If a gas correction is not made,
the lithology indication from the chart can be quite erroneous.

4-1.2 Three-Porosity Cross-Plots

4.1.2 Three-Porosity Cross-Plots
M-N Cross-Plot
Three-porosity cross-plots are commonly used where more than two minerals are involved and
three porosity log responses are available. Instead of building a three-dimensional graph with the
Sonic, Formation Density and Neutron responses, the three readings are reduced to a two-

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dimensional cross-plot. On such a plot identifiable mineral will occupy unique points in space,
and lithological mixtures can be more easily interpreted.

where the neutron response is in apparent limestone porosity units.

Figure 4- 2-5 shows an M-N plot.
The M values are the slopes of the porosity lines in the Formation Density–Sonic cross-plot.
The N values are the slope in the Formation Density-Neutron crossplot.
These slopes are independent of the porosity value and depend only upon the fluid and matrix
characteristics if a linear straight-line response between the matrix and fluid is assumed. Thus,
each mineral has a unique set of M and N values.
In equations ( 4.2.5 ) and ( 4.2.6 ) ΦNfl and ΦN must be fractional. ΦNfl is always taken as 1.0.
The M and N values for a mineral can be defined if the matrix parameters for a given mineral are
used in the M and N equations given above in place of the log values. The point of intersection
will occupy a unique point on the plot.
The plot can be divided into tri-mineral triangles rather than into dual mineral fluid point triangles
as was the case for the dual-porosity cross-plots. Points that lie within a triangle are assumed to
be composed of the three minerals which comprise the vertices of the enclosing triangle.
See Figure 4- 2-6
If the triangles are properly scaled, the percent volumes of the three minerals involved can be
derived.

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Figure 4- 2-5: M-N Cross-plot (Courtesy Schlumberger)

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Figure 4- 2-6:Mineral Identification in M-N Plot

Here, two points exist for sandstone because the range of matrix travel time (Δtma) of sandstones
varies from about 51.2 msec/ft to about 55.5 msec/ft. Three points exist for dolomite to
compensate for the non-linearity of the neutron response in the lower range of porosities in the
case of dolomite.
In order to use this plot, the effects of clay, secondary porosity and light hydrocarbons (especially
gas) on the log responses must be considered. (points will shift slightly left and down, as can be
compared in above two figures.

Matrix Identification (MID) Cross-Plot

The charts in Figure 4- 2-7 , Figure 4- 2-8 and Figure 4- 2-9 as well as Figure 4- 2-10 are used
for this method. It is totally independent from porosity and mud type and it uses meaningful
parameters directly related to rock properties. This gives it an advantage over the M-N plots.
Again, the Sonic, Formation Density and Neutron logs are required. Lithology and porosity can
be defined, and gas-bearing zones can be identified.

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The Neutron and Density log readings at each level are combined to define an apparent matrix
density, (ρma)a. The Neutron and Sonic logs are combined to define an apparent matrix travel
time, (Δtma)a. These two parameters are then entered the cross-plot to define rock mineralogy and
porosity. The presence of gas shifts the plotted points to the NE quadrant of the plot. Secondary
porosity shifts points towards the left of the plot. Shales tend to plot in the region above the
anhydrite point.

Figure 4- 2-7: Determination of ρmaa from Neutron and Density logs in fresh muds (Courtesy
Schlumberger)

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Figure 4- 2-8: Determination of ρmaa from Neutron and Density logs in Salt muds (Courtesy
Schlumberger)

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Figure 4- 2-9: Determination of Δtmaa from Neutron and Sonic logs (Courtesy Schlumberger)

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Figure 4- 2-10: The matrix identification (MID) plot (Courtesy Schlumberger)

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Figure 4- 2-11: Nomogram to determine Umaa from Pe, ρh and ФX (Courtesy Schlumberger)

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Figure 4- 2-12: Chart to determine lithology from Umaa–ρmaa

The charts are used in the following manner:

 Chart in Figure 4- 2-7 or Figure 4- 2-8 (the former is for the case of fresh drilling mud, the
latter for the case of salty drilling mud): A value for (ρma)a is found by interpolating the
values of ρb and ΦN for any level (point) of interest on the logs.
 Chart in Figure 4- 2-9 : A value for (Δtma)a is found by interpolating the values of Δtlog and
ΦN for the same level (point) of interest on the logs.
 Chart in Figure 4- 2-10 : Both these values are entered the chart. Crossplot these values
to identify the rock mineralogy by its proximity to the labelled points on the chart. The
presence of secondary porosity in the form of vugs or fractures produces displacements
parallel to the (Δtma)a axis. The presence of gas will displace points as shown on the chart.
Identification of shaliness is best done by plotting some shale points to establish the shale
trend lines.

The MID plot can be extended using data from the Litho-Density log.
To apply this method the charts in Figure 4- 2-11 and Figure 4- 2-12 can be used.

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 Chart in Figure 4- 2-11 : The value of Pe (or PEF) from the Litho-Porosity log is plotted on
the Y-axis against the value of ρb on the slanted lines coming from the X-axis on the top of
the chart. A vertical is dropped from the point of intersection to the value of ΦX on the
slanted lines that come from the X-axis on the bottom of the graph. The value of ΦX is
given by equation below;

Where ΦX =Φe.
Where Φ2D–C and Φ2N–C correspond, respectively, to the clay corrected porosities obtained from the
Formation Density and Neutron log.
A horizontal line from this point of intersection will give the value of Umaa , the apparent matrix
volumetric cross-section.

 Chart in Figure 4- 2-12 : Cross-plot Umaa against ρmaa to identify the rock mineralogy by its
proximity to the labelled points on the chart.

Clay minerals identification

Clay minerals identification

Several crossplots can be used to identify the type of clay minerals present in the formation.
Amongst such crossplots, PEF-Gamma Ray, Potassium-Thorium, PEF-Th/K ratio and PEF-K are
often used. Figures 4-2-13 and Figure 4-2-14 show PEF-K and K-TH for clay minerals
identification.

Figure 4- 2-13: Chart to determine type of clay minerals from PEF-K crossplot

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Figure 4- 2-4: Chart to determine type of clay minerals from TH-K crossplot

4-2 Dipmeter Log

4.2 Dipmeter Log
The primary function of the Dipmeter log (measurement of dips) is to measure the magnitude and
direction of the slope of sedimentary features, which includes both bedding planes and other
paleofacies characteristics. Simultaneously, measurements are carried out for borehole
geometry, hole inclination and hole direction.
As techniques have been refined over almost 50 years of dip analysis, applications of the
resultant measurements have been expanded until it has become the principal well logging tool
for describing detailed interval correlation features as well as helping to reveal the
sedimentological processes responsible for them.
Dipmeter logs were developed to resolve the "3-points define a plane" problem in a single well
bore by measuring some physical property of the rocks in at least three directions around the
borehole. Tool design evolution over the years was directed towards improving precision and
redundancy to acquire more accurate dips more frequently in the borehole. In order to obtain true
dip angle and dip direction, the tool orientation in space had to be monitored. Techniques for
doing this also evolved dramatically over the years.

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Figure 4- 2-15: Evolution of dipmeter tools (Crain’s petrophysical handbook)

Initially developed as two pad resistivity sensors FMS (located on 2 of the 4 pads of the SHDT
dipmeter), by Schlumberger, the tool was advanced over years to FMI image tools which gives
about 98% coverage in an 8" borehole.
An alternative tool (UBI) working on acoustic principle is sometimes used to identify the features
with 100% borehole coverage.

4-2.1 Identification of Lithological Features

4.2.1 Identification of Lithological Features
Image logs have now become an essential and accurate log for assessing structure and
stratigraphy of reservoir rocks. Identification of fracture intensity and fracture orientation are
another important use for these logs.
Lithological features like:

 Beddings
 Resistive fractures
 Conductive fractures
 Faults
 Stylolites
 Breccia
 Vugs
 Induced Fractures etc.

Bedding
A bedding corridor is a sub horizontal tabular swarm of small and large shear, which traverses
the entire reservoir and extends as reservoir extending. Borehole image logs are the main data
source for identification and quantification of bedding corridor. see Figure 4- 2 16

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Figure 4- 2 16: Bedding planes in vertical well (Manhal Sirat et al. 2015)

Figure 4- 2-17: Detailed View of electrically conductive and resistive fractures

· Conductive Fractures
Conductive fractures are usually open fractures which are shown by the darker wave on the
borehole image log (In Water based muds).shown in Figure 4- 2-17

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· Resistive Fractures
Unlike the conductive fracture, resistive fractures are filled with the resistive materials such as
quartz and calcite.
Resistive fractures are preferentially filled with resistive minerals such as calcite and quartz. They
are normally indicated by the light colored regions on the log (in Water Based Muds)

Faults
Faults are normally any surface or narrow zone with visible shear displacement along the zone
(termination of beds and facies changes). Identification and description of faults is one of the
major applications of image log. After getting the image from wellbore, it’s unwrapped from 0° to
360°, fault crossing the borehole appears as sinusoid. Figure 4- 2-18 show normal and reverse
faults.

Figure 4- 2-18: Representation of Fault on FMI Log (Erfan Hosseini. 2015)

Stylolites
Stylolites occur in sedimentary formation but are of particular importance in carbonate formation.
It appears like a thin, saw-tooth veins. They can be easily recognized on cores as irregular plans
of discontinuity between rock units. Stylolites are normally formed during compaction, through
the mechanism of pressure solution. Therefore, they concentrate fine grain insoluble residues

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along their irregular seam. Image logs the facilitated the detection of stylolite.(see Figure 4-
2-19 )
Three types of stylolite identifiable on the FMI Image are given below

Figure 4- 2-19: Stylolite (http://www.rci.rutgers.edu/)

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Figure 4- 2-20: Stylolite (http://www.rci.rutgers.edu/)

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Figure 4- 2-21: Light bad Stylolite, resistive calcite (Courtesy Schlumberger)

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Figure 4- 2-22: Associated with extensional fractures (Courtesy Schlumberger)

Breccia
Breccia is a rock composed of broken fragments of minerals or rock cemented together by a fine-
grained matrix that can be similar to or different from the composition of the fragments. Breccia
can also be identified by image logs.(see Figure 4- 2-23 and Figure 4- 2-24 )

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Figure 4- 2-23: Breccia (http://www.impact-structures.com)

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Figure 4- 2-24: Breccia visible in image log (Feng Ming Zhou 2013)

Vugs
Vugs are small to medium-sized cavities inside rock typically formed by dissolution processes,
leaving behind irregular voids. In vuggy carbonates, well connected vugs may result in higher
permeability zones within the reservoir. These vugs can also be identified by the image log, as
given in following figure.

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Figure 4- 2-25: Well through vuggy formation (Courtesy Schlumberger)

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