Basics of pre-university

mathematics

J. A. Angelova, D. A. Kolev

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F
Dept. of Mathematics
University of Chemical Technology and Metallurgy
8 Kliment Ohridsky, blvd.,
Sofia 1756, BULGARIA
A
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2011
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Sofia
 Contents

Preface iv

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Notations and abbreviations v

1. Sets and basic operations 1

1.1. Subsets 2
1.2. Unions 3
1.3. Intersections 4
1.4. Complements
1.5. Cartesian products F
1.6. Basic properties of set operations
Exercises
4
5
6
6
A
2. Numbers 8
2.1. Real numbers 8
2.2. Integers 10
2.3. Rational numbers 11
2.4. Irrational numbers 12
Exercises 13
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3. Functions, graph representations, classification 14

3.1. Functions and mappings 14
3.2. Representation of functions 16
3.3. Functions classification 17
3.4. Composition of functions 18
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3.5. Inverse functions 18

Exercises 19

4. Linear and quadratic functions. Inequalities 20

4.1. Linear functions 20
4.2. Quadratic functions 21
Exercises 24

5. Exponentiation and power functions 26

5.1. Powers 26
5.2. Exponentiation 26
5.3. Identities and properties 27
i
 CONTENTS ii

5.4. Power functions 28

5.5. Basic irrational equations and inequalities 29
Exercises 31

6. Systems of equations and inequalities 32

6.1. Systems of two equations in two variables 32
6.2. Polynomial functions and their signs 36
6.3. Systems of algebraic inequalities 37
Exercises 42

7. Exponential and logarithmic functions 44

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7.1. Exponentiation, identities and properties 44
7.2. Exponential functions 45
7.3. Exponential equations and inequalities in one variable 45
7.4. Logarithms, identities and properties 47
7.5. Logarithmic functions 48

8.
Exercises

Trigonometry
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7.6. Logarithmic equations and inequalities in one variable

8.1. Definition of trigonometric functions

49
51

52
52
8.2. Classification of trigonometric functions 55
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8.3. Identities 57
8.4. Inverse trigonometric functions 59
8.5. Trigonometric equations and inequalities 61
Exercises 65

9. Sequences and progressions 66

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9.1. Number sequences 66

9.2. Arithmetic progression 69
9.3. Geometric progressions 71
Exercises 72
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10. Limits and continuity of functions. 74

10.1. Limits of functions 74
10.2. Continuity of functions 76
Exercises 79

11. Derivatives. Extrema. Inflection points 81

11.1. Definition of derivatives 81
11.2. Interpretations of derivatives 82
11.3. Differentiation rules and table of derivatives 83
11.4. Extreme values 85
11.5. Inflection points 87
Exercises 88
 CONTENTS iii

Appendix A. Notes on the pronunciation of some basic formulae 90

Appendix B. Plane geometry 92
Vectors 92
Angles 92
Triangles 93
Quadrilaterals 96
Regular polygons 97
Circles 98
Appendix C. Solid geometry 100

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Dihedral angles 100
Polyhedrons 100
Cylinders, cones and spheres 103
Bibliography 107
Index 113
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 Preface

This textbook contains basics of school mathematics, essential for

students of technical universities. The main purposes of the proposed

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materials are: to acquire some basic knowledge in the field of mathemat-
ics, to calibrate school knowledge of algebra and analysis, to popularize
mathematical language, so the students can meet the university’s re-
quirements.
Lessons contain fundamentals of: sets, numbers, functions, trigonom-

F
etry, number sequences, limits and derivatives of functions. They include
also important topics as algebraic equations and inequalities along with
their methods of solving. All elementary functions are given with their
graphs, properties, limits and derivatives. The topic for sequences in-
cludes arithmetic and geometric progressions. The essentials of elemen-
tary plane and space geometry one can find in appendicies as vademe-
A
cum.
All topics covered in this book are illustrated by appropriate exam-
ples, and some of them are supplied by graphical solutions. The basic
definitions and concepts of the classical algebra and analysis are pre-
sented strictly and by sufficient precision.
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The materials are formatted in full compliance with the UCTM-

Sofia programs of mathematics. The authors would be delighted if this
book would become a favorite reading for anyone who will choose the
engineering as a future profession.
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iv
 Notations and abbreviations

∅ empty set

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N set of natural numbers, N = {1, 2, . . . }
Z set of integers, Z = {0, ±1, ±2, . . . }
Q set of rational numbers, Q = { pq : p ∈ Z, q ∈ N}
√ √
I set of irrational numbers, such as 5 −7, 2, e, π
R set of reals, R = (−∞, +∞)
[a, b]
(a, b)
[a, b)
F
closed interval, {x ∈ R : a ≤ x ≤ b}; a, b ∈ R, a < b
open interval, {x ∈ R : a < x < b}; a, b ∈ R, a < b
left closed right open interval,
{x ∈ R : a ≤ x < b}; a, b ∈ R, a < b
(a, b] left open right closed interval,
{x ∈ R : a < x ≤ b}; a, b ∈ R, a < b
A
β(x0 , δ) δ-neighborhood of a point x0 - (x0 − δ, x0 + δ)
A×B Cartesian product of sets A and B
A∪B union of sets A and B
A∩B intersection of sets A and B
A⊆B a set A is a subset of B
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B\A the complement of A in B

f : X −→ Y a function f with domain X and range Y
f −1 : Y −→ X inverse function of the function f
F ◦ u(x) composite function F[u(x)]
df (x)
f  (x) = first order derivative
dx
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∀ universal quantifier - “for all”

∃ existential quantifier - “there exists”
=⇒ follows
⇐⇒ equivalent
→ tends
≈ approximately equal
gcd greatest common divisor
lcm least common multiple
TIT Test Interval Technique
AP Arithmetic Progression
GP Geometric Progression

v
 1

Sets and basic operations

The base of modern set theory is set by Georg Cantor∗ and Richard
Dedekind† in the 1870s.

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Definition 1.1. A set is a collection of distinct objects, that are
called elements or members.
A set that has no members is called the empty set and is denoted
by the symbol ∅.
The elements of a set can be anything: numbers, people, cars, letters
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of an alphabet, other sets, and so on. A set cannot contain multiple
copies of an element, i.e. {a, a, a, b}={a, b}. Sets are conventionally
denoted with capital letters, A, B, ..., and their members by small letters.
If a is an element of A we write a ∈ A.
Definition 1.2. Two sets A and B are said to be equal, A = B, if
A
they have the same elements.
All sets can be precisely described in words, lists or mathematical
notations.
Example 1.1. Let consider the following sets:
A is the set whose members are the first four positive integers,
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B is the set whose elements are the colors of the Bulgarian flag,
C = {4, 2, 1, 3},
D = {white, green, red},
E = {n2 − 10 : n is a prime number and n ≤ 9}, the colon (:) means
“such that“.
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The sets A, B, D are defined in words and the sets C and E - by

mathematical notations.
One and the same set can be defined in different ways. The sets A
and C defined above, are identical, since they have the same members.
Similarly, B = D, and E = {6, 1, 5, 39}, as n = 2, 3, 5, 7.
∗ Georg Ferdinand Ludwig Philipp Cantor (1845 - 1918) was a German mathemati-
cian, best known as the inventor of a set theory. He defined infinite and well-ordered
sets, the cardinal and ordinal numbers and their arithmetic. Cantor’s work is of great
philosophical interest.
† Julius Wilhelm Richard Dedekind (1831 - 1916) was a German mathematician
who did important work in abstract algebra, algebraic number theory and the foun-
dations of the real numbers. The notion Dedekind cut, named after him, now is a
standard definition of the real numbers. 1
 1.1. SUBSETS 2

Note 1.1. A prime number is a positive integer greater than 1 and

can be divided only by 1 and itself.
Set identity does not depend on the order in which the elements are
listed, nor on their repetitions in the list.
Special sets. There are some special sets, such as:
N denotes the set of all natural numbers, i.e. N = {1, 2, 3, ...}.
Z denotes the set of all integers positive, negative or zero, so
Z = {0, ±1, ±2, . . . }.
Q denotes the  set of all rational numbers - proper and improper
p

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fractions, i.e. Q = : p ∈ Z , q ∈ N . For example, 34 ∈ Q, −1117 ∈ Q,
q
and integers are in this set, too.
I is the set of all irrational numbers, numbers that are not rational,
i.e. non-repeating (non-periodic) or non-terminating decimals. Exam-
ples
√ of irrational√numbers
√ are roots of numbers that are not perfect roots

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( 4 16), such as 2, 3 −5 and transcendental numbers like π and e.
R is the set of all real numbers, R = (−∞, ∞). This set includes all
rational numbers Q, together with set of all irrational numbers I.
C is the set of all complex numbers.
A
0 1
Figure 1.1. The set of real numbers R

The real set R can be compared with an axis, known as the real
R

axis, i.e. a straight line so that every point on the line corresponds to
the unique real number (see Figure 1.1).
The sets may have finitely or infinitely many elements and may be
countable or uncountable.

The next sets contain finite number of members, thus they are finite:
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the empty set: ∅, the set of natural numbers less than 5: {1, 2, 3, 4},
{1, 1.5, π, e}, {2; −3; 23 ; −5, 1}.
Infinite sets are: the natural numbers N, the set of even positive
numbers B = {2, 4, 6, 8, ...}, the primes: {2, 3, 5, 7, 11, . . . }, the rational
numbers: Q, an interval of the reals (0, 1), the set of all real numbers R.
The first four sets are countable, but the last two are uncountable.

1.1. Subsets
Definition 1.3. The set A is said to be a subset of B, A ⊆ B, if
every member of the set A is a member of the set B (A is contained
in B). Equivalently, we can write B ⊇ A (B includes or contains A).
 1.2. UNIONS 3

The relationship between sets established by ⊆ is called inclusion or

containment.
Definition 1.4. If A is a subset of B but not equal to B, then A is
called a proper subset of B, A ⊂ B or B ⊃ A (B is proper superset of
A), see Figure 1.2.

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Figure 1.2. A is a subset of B

people.
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Example 1.2. The set of all men is a proper subset of the set of all

The following inclusion is valid {1, 4, 5} ⊂ {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}.

The empty set is a subset of every set and every set is a subset of
itself: ∅ ⊂ A, A ⊆ A.
A
Intervals of reals. Intervals of reals are subsets of R.
Given two real numbers a and b, a < b, the closed interval [a, b] is
the set of all real numbers x, such that a ≤ x ≤ b, and the open interval
(a, b) = {x ∈ R : a < x < b}, see Figures 1.3 and 1.4.
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Figure 1.3. Closed interval [a, b] Figure 1.4. Open interval (a, b)
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For all type of intervals - [a, b]; half-open - [a, b), (a, b]; (a, b); the
numbers a and b are called respectively, lower and upper endpoint. In-
tervals (−∞, a] and [a, ∞) are also half-open. When x ∈ [a, b], we say x
is between a and b, if x ∈ (a, b) - x is strictly between a and b.

1.2. Unions
Definition 1.5. Let A and B are two sets. The union of A and B,
A ∪ B, is the set of all elements which are members of either A or B,
i.e. A ∪ B = {x : x ∈ A or x ∈ B}, see Figure 1.5.
Some examples on unions.
 1.4. COMPLEMENTS 4

Figure 1.5. The union of A and B, A ∪ B

Example 1.3. The following identities are valid:

{1, 2} ∪ {red, white} = {1, 2, red, white},
{1, 2, green} ∪ {red, white, green} = {1, 2, red, white, green},

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{1, 2} ∪ {1, 2} = {1, 2}.

1.3. Intersections
Definition 1.6. Let A and B be two sets. The intersection, A ∩ B,
is the set of members of both A and B, i.e. A ∩ B = {x : x ∈ A and x ∈
B}, see Figure 1.6 F
If A ∩ B = ∅, then A and B are said to be disjoint.
A

A B
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Figure 1.6. The intersection of A and B, A ∩ B

Some examples on intersections.

Example 1.4. Find the next sets:
{1, 2} ∩ {red, white} = ∅,
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{1, 2, green} ∩ {red, white, green} = {green},

{1, 2} ∩ {1, 2} = {1, 2}.

1.4. Complements
Definition 1.7. Let A and B be two sets. The set of all elements
which are elements of B, but not members of A is said to be the relative
complement of A in B, B \ A = {x : x ∈/ A and x ∈ B}, see Figure 1.7.
Note that it is valid to ”subtract“ members of the set A from the
elements of B.
Some examples on complements:
 1.5. CARTESIAN PRODUCTS 5

Figure 1.7. The relative complement of A in B, B \ A

Example 1.5. The next equalities are fulfilled:

{1, 2} \ {red, white} = {1, 2},
{1, 2, green} \ {red, white, green} = {1, 2},

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{1, 2} \ {1, 2} = ∅.
Obviously, if A ⊂ B, then B \ (B \ A) = A, see Figure 1.2.

1.5. Cartesian products

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Definition 1.8. The Cartesian∗ product of two sets A and B (prod-
uct set, or cross product) is the set of all ordered pairs whose first com-
ponent is an element of A and whose second component is a member of
B, i.e.
A × B = {(a, b) : a ∈ A , b ∈ B}.
A
Example 1.6. Let A = {, , } and B = {a, b} be given. Their
Cartesian product A × B consists of all ordered pairs, as it is shown
below:
A × B = {(, a), (, b), (, a), (, b), (, a), (, b)}.
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Note 1.2. We use the same symbol (a, b) for an open interval and
ordered pair, but from the context it would be clear whether it is an
interval or ordered pair.
Similarly as reals correspond to points on a line, the ordered pairs
of reals correspond to points on a plane and ordered triples of reals
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correspond to points on a space. By Definition 1.8 follows, that the real

plane and 3-dimensional space are, respectively:
R2 = R × R = {(x, y) : x, y ∈ R} , and
R3 = R × R × R = {(x, y, z) : x, y, z ∈ R} .
In plane: the x-axes is the set of all points of the form (x, 0), the y-axes
is the set of all points of the form (0, y), and the origin is the point (0, 0).
∗ The Cartesian product is named after René Descartes (1596 - 1650) latinized form
of Renatus Cartesius. He was a French philosopher (“Father of Modern Philosophy”)
and writer who contributed greatly to analytic geometry. The Cartesian coordinate
system was named after him.
 EXERCISES 6

1.6. Basic properties of set operations

Let A, B, C and D be arbitrary sets. Then the following relations
are valid:
• A ∪ B = B ∪ A and A ∩ B = B ∩ A - commutative law;
• (A ∪ B) ∪ C = A ∪ (B ∪ C) and (A ∩ B) ∩ C = A ∩ (B ∩ C) -
associative law;
• (A ∪ B) ∩ C = (A ∩ C) ∪ (B ∩ C) and (A ∩ B) ∪ C = (A ∪ C) ∩
(B ∪ C)- distributive law;
• A ∪ A = A and A ∪ ∅ = A;
• A ∩ A = A and A ∩ ∅ = ∅;

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• A \ B = B \ A and A \ A = ∅;
• A × ∅ = ∅ and A × B = B × A;
• A×(B ∪C) = (A×B)∪(A×C), (A∪B)×C = (A×C)∪(B ×C)
and A × (B ∩ C) = (A × B) ∩ (A × C), (A ∩ B) × C = (A ×
C) ∩ (B × C);

(A ∪ C) × (B ∪ D); F
• (A × B) ∩ (C × D) = (A ∩ C) × (B ∩ D) and (A × B) ∪ (C × D) =

• (A\B)×C = (A×C)\(B×C) and A\(B×C) = (A×B)\(A×C);

• C \(A∩B) = (C \A)∪(C \B) and C \(A∪B) = (C \A)∩(C \B)
- De Morgan’s∗ laws, see Figure 1.8.
A

A B A B
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C C

Figure 1.8. De Morgan’s laws

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On this lesson the following books and sites were used: [9] - [11],
[14, 15], [27], [35], [44, 45], [67], [79], [107] and [115].

Exercises
1.1. Let consider the sets: A = {1, 3, 5, a, m, p, q}, B = {5, m, q},
C = {a, p, q, 1, 2, 4}, D = {1, 3, 4, 5, p, q}. Find the following sets: M =
A ∪ B; N = C ∩ D; R = B ∪ C ∪ D; S = (A ∩ B) ∪ (C ∩ D).

∗ Augustus De Morgan (1806 - 1871) was a British mathematician and logician. He

formulated De Morgan’s laws and introduced the term mathematical induction. The
crater De Morgan on the Moon is named after him.
 EXERCISES 7

Answer: M = {1, 3, 5, a, m, p, q}; N = {1, 4, p, q};

R = {a, p, q, m, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5};
S = {5, m, q} ∪ {1, 4, p, q} = {1, 4, 5, p, q, m}.
1.2. Given a segment AB. A pair of points M and N lies on the
segment between the origin A and the end point B so that M stays before
N . Find the following sets: P = {AM } ∩ {AN }, Q = {AN } ∪ {M B}
and R = {M N } ∪ {M B}.
Answer: P = {M N }; Q = {AB}; R = {M B}.
1.3. In a box there are 5 red balls enumerated as {ri }5i=1 = R, 8

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white balls enumerated as {wi }8i=1 = W and 10 blue balls enumerated
as {bi }10
i=1 = B. Find the following sets: A = R ∪ W , B = R ∩ W , and
C = {r1 , r3 , r5 , w2 , w4 , w8 , b3 , b7 , b8 } ∩ {r2 , r4 , r5 , w4 , w5 , w6 , b1 , b2 , b3 }.
Answer: A = {r1 , . . . , r5 , w1 , . . . , w8 }; B = {∅}; C = {r5 , w4 , b3 }.
1.4. Let roll once two distinct dice. Consider the sets: A = {the
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sum of points on the upper faces is ≤ 5}; B = {the sum of points on
the upper faces is even}; C = {the sum of points on the upper faces is
≥ 10}. Find the following sets: A ∩ B; B ∩ C; (A ∪ B) ∩ C.
Answer: A ∩ B = {(1, 1) , (1, 3) , (3, 1)};
B ∩ C = {(4, 6) , (6, 4) , (5, 5) , (6, 6)}; (A ∪ B) ∩ C = B ∩ C.
A

1.5. Consider following intervals: A = (−1, 2), B = [0, 3), C =

[−6, 2], D = [−2π, π/2], E = [−1, ∞). Find: C ∩ D; (A ∪ B) ∩ C;
C \ B; E \ A.
Answer: C ∩ D = [−6, π/2]; (A ∪ B) ∩ C = (−1, 2];
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C \ B = (−6, 0) E \ A = {−1} ∪ [2, ∞) .

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 2

Numbers

2.1. Real numbers

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The set of reals, R, includes rational numbers Q, irrational numbers
I, either algebraic (real roots) and transcendental numbers (such as π
and e).

Axiomatic definition of reals. The set of reals R is a set of num-

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bers, which satisfies the following axioms.
Extend axiom states that R has at least two distinct members.
Field axioms concern operations addition + and multiplication ·.
Axioms 2.1. Let a, b, c ∈ R then:
(1) a + b ∈ R (closure law of addition) and a + b = b + a (commu-
A
tative law of addition).
(2) a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c = a + b + c (associative law of addition).
(3) There exists a real number 0 ∈ R (zero), such that a + 0 =
0 + a = a (existence of additive identity).
(4) For each real number a there exists a unique opposite number
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−a ∈ R, that possesses the property a + (−a) = a − a = 0

(existence of additive inverse).

(5) a · b ∈ R (closure law of multiplication) and a · b = b · a (com-

mutative law of multiplication).
(6) a · (b · c) = (a · b) · c = a · b · c (associative law of multiplication).
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(7) There exists a real number 1 ∈ R (unit), such that a · 1 = a

(existence of multiplicative identity).
(8) For each real number a = 0 there exists a unique inverse number
a−1 ≡ 1/a ∈ R, such that aa−1 = 1 (existence of multiplicative
inverse).

(9) a(b + c) = ab + ac (distributive law - combined axioms).

Relations (1)-(4) are the axioms for operation addition (+), and (5)-
(8) are axioms for multiplication. The next statements are implications
from the field axioms.
8
 2.1. REAL NUMBERS 9

(1) From a + c = b + c it follows that a = b.

(2) a · 0 = 0.
(3) From c · a = c · b and c = 0 it follows that a = b.
Order axioms concern order relation “less than” (<).
Axioms 2.2. Let a, b, c ∈ R then:
(1) Exactly one of the following statements is true (trichotomy)
a < b, b < a or a = b.
(2) If a < b and b < c, then a < c (order < is transitive).
(3) If a < b, then a + c < b + c (substitution principle of addition).

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(4) If a < b and 0 < c, then a · c < b · c (substitution principle of
multiplication).
The next relations are implications from the order axioms, under
assumption, that 0 < 1.
(1) If a < b, then −b < −a.
(2) (−1) · (−1) = 1.
(3) If 0 < a < b, then 0 < 1b < a1 .F
(4) If a < b and c < 0, then b · c < a · c.
(5) a · a = a2 ≥ 0.
A set which satisfies extend, field and order axioms is called an order
A
field.
A final axiom, so called the completeness axiom states:
Axioms 2.3. Any non-empty set of real numbers that is bounded
above has a least upper bound.
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Decimal representation. The decimal numeral system refers to a

base-10 positional notation, such as the Hindu-Arabic numeral system.
Roman or Chinese numerals, which are also based on powers of ten, are
non-positional systems.
Positional decimal systems include a zero and use nine symbols (dig-
its) to represent any number a ∈ R,
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a = an an−1 . . . a0 . a−1 a2 · · · =
an 10n + an−1 10n−1 + · · · + a0 100 + a−1 10−1 + a−2 10−2 + . . . ,
where aj ∈ {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}, j = n, n − 1, . . . . The digits are
used with a decimal separator (coma, point) which indicates the start
of a fractional part, and with a symbol (signs + or −), that indicate
whether the number is greater or less than zero. Positional representa-
tion uses positions for each power of ten: units, tens, hundreds and etc
By example, 123.45 = 1 102 + 2 10 + 3 + 4 10−1 + 5 10−2 .
Every real number can be represented by a point on the real axis,
see Figure 1.1.
 2.2. INTEGERS 10

2.2. Integers
The set Z, of all integers positive, negative and 0, includes the set
of all natural numbers N, N ⊂ Z.
Similarly the set of natural numbers, Z is closed under the operations
of addition and multiplication, i.e. the sum and product of any two
integers are integers. Including negative natural numbers and zero, Z
(unlike N) is also closed under subtraction. The set of integers is not
closed under the operation of division, since the quotient of two integers
(e.g., 1/2), need not be an integer.
Let a, b, c ∈ Z. Then, the basic properties of addition a + b, a + b + c

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and multiplication ab, abc are analogous to relations (1)-(7) and (9) from
Axioms 2.1. It is clear, that if ab = 0, then a = 0 or/and b = 0.
In number theory, the fundamental theorem of arithmetic (or the
unique prime factorization theorem) states the following.
Theorem 2.1. Any integer n ∈ N, greater than 1 can be represented
as a unique product of prime numbers, as
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n = pα1 1 pα2 2 . . . pαk k ,
where p1 , p2 , . . . , pk are primes and α1 , α2 , . . . , αk ∈ N are their frequen-
cies.
A
Remark 2.1. The fundamental theorem of arithmetic is a corollary
of the first principle of Euclid∗ that states if a prime p divides a product
mn, m, n ∈ N, then p divides m or p divides n.
For example, next two numbers can be written as the product of
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prime numbers
6936 = 23 · 3 · 172 and 3600 = 24 · 32 · 52 .
Finding the prime factorization of an integer allows derivation of all its
divisors, both prime and non-prime. By the prime factorizations of two
integers their greatest common divisor (gcd) and least common multiple
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(lcm) can be found quickly.

Example 2.1. Find lcm and gcd of 48 and 180.
Solution. Factorizing these numbers we have:
48 = 24 · 3 and 180 = 22 · 32 · 5 .
Hence, lcm(48, 180) = 24 · 32 · 5 = 720 and gcd(48, 180) = 22 · 3 = 12.

∗ Euclid of Alexandria (about 325 - about 265 BC) was an ancient Greek, known
as the ”Father of Geometry”. His ”Elements”, is divided into 13 books, that cover
Euclidean geometry and the ancient Greek version of elementary number theory.
 2.3. RATIONAL NUMBERS 11

2.3. Rational numbers

Definition 2.1. A real number r is said to be rational if and only
if it can be represented by a fraction (ratio) r = pq , where p and q are
integers and q = 0. The number p is called numerator, and q denomi-
nator.
A fraction pq is said to be proper (improper) fraction if p < q (p ≥ q).
The set of all rational numbers, Q, is an ordered field. Obviously,
N ⊂ Z ⊂ Q ⊂ R.
Decimal representations of rationals. A decimal representation

T
written with a repeating final 0 is said to terminate before these zeros,
e.g. 123/40 = 3.07500 = 3.075. The following theorem is valid.
Theorem 2.2. Any rational number pq ∈ Q with a denominator
whose only prime factors are 2 and/or 5, q = 2m 5n ; m, n ∈ N; has
a finite decimal expansion (that is called terminating decimal) and vise
versa.
F
Definition 2.2. Two numbers are called relatively prime, or co-
prime if their greatest common divisor equals 1.
Definition 2.3. A decimal representation of a real number is called
A
a repeating decimal (or recurring decimal) if there is some finite sequence
of digits that is repeated indefinitely.
1
By example, 9 = 0.111 · · · = 0.(1).
Note 2.1. A number has a terminating or repeating expansion if and
only if it is rational and this does not depend on the base. A number
R

that terminates in one numeral base may repeat in another, by example

0.310 = 0.0100110011001...2 = 0.0(1001)2 .
Theorem 2.3. Any rational number pq ∈ Q, where p and q are co-
primes, and q has at least one multiplier different from 2 and 5 can be
uniquely rewritten as infinite periodic decimal fraction.
D

Example 2.2. The numbers 1, −2, 0.5, 53 , −3

8 = −0.375 ∈ Q, as well
1 2
as = 0.(09) ∈ Q, 17 = 0.(1176470588235294) ∈ Q. But the numbers
√ 11
3, π ∈
/ Q.
Converting decimals to fractions. Terminating decimals are eas-
ily converted to fraction by multiplying and dividing by 10 to the power
of number of digits after decimal point and simplifying the fraction to
lowest common term.
Example 2.3. Convert 1.375 to a fraction. We have:
1375 53 11 11
1.375 = = 3 = .
1000 5 8 8
 2.4. IRRATIONAL NUMBERS 12

Repeating decimals are converted to fractions by the following rule.

The decimal is equal to a fraction, which nominator is a difference be-
tween number with cutting digits after the first period and number with
cutting digits before the first period; and denominator is equal to a
number, which begins with digits 9 as many times, as numbers are in
the period, and finishing with 0s as many times as digits are between
decimal point and the first period.
Example 2.4. Convert 0.096(21) to a fraction. We have:
9621 − 96 9525 3 52 127 127
0.096(21) = = = = .

T
99000 99000 3 52 1320 1320

2.4. Irrational numbers

In Mathematics, it is not quite true that what is not rational is
irrational. Irrationality is a term reserved for a very special kind of

F
numbers. There are numbers which are neither rational or irrational
(for example, infinitesimal numbers are neither rational nor irrational).
Definition 2.4. An irrational number is a real number, that can
not be expressed as a fraction p/q of two integers p and q, q = 0.
√
A
For instance, the numbers 2 (Pythagoras’s∗ constant - length of
the
√ hypotenuse of an isosceles right triangle with legs of length one),
5
−3, π are irrational numbers. The irrational numbers consists of reals:
algebraic numbers, e.g. n-th root of non-perfect powers, and transcen-
dental numbers, that are not the root of any integer polynomial, see
chapter 6, section 6.3.
R

By using the mathematical analysis, it can be proved that every

irrational number s can be approximated by two rational numbers a
and b (a < b), such that a < s < b.
The following statements are valid:
• Between any two different rational numbers a and b there is at
D

least one other rational number.

• Between any two different irrational numbers a and b there is
at least one other rational number.
• Between any two different rational numbers a and b there is at
least one other irrational number.
• Between any two different irrational numbers a and b there is
at least one other irrational number.

∗ Pythagoras of Samos (570 - 495 BC) was an ancient Greek, philosopher, mathe-
matician, and founder of the religious movement called Pythagoreanism. He is best
known for the Pythagorean theorem and Pythagorean triples, integers m, n, p satis-
fying m2 + n2 = p2 , e.g. 3, 4, 5.
 EXERCISES 13

Remark 2.2. In all four statements the existence of a single num-

ber can be replaced with the assertion of existence of infinitely many
numbers.
√ √
Example 2.5. The irrational number 2 satisfies 1.4140 < 2 <
1.4142, where a = 1.4140, b = 1.4142. Also for the irrational number
π = 3.14... it follows 3.140 < π < 3.142.
An irrational number is non-periodic (the number is represented
by infinitely many non-repeating digits) in all bases. Thus, for exam-
ple in base 2, π = 3.1415926...10 can be written as the non-periodic
11.001001000011111...2 .

T
On this lecture the following textbooks and sites were used: [1], [11],
[14], [43], [47], [54], [64], [69], [75], [77], [88] - [90], [94, 95] and [119].

Exercises
2.1. Find lcm and gcd of integers: a) 1428 and 420; b) 216 and 200;
c) 36, 54 and 162.
F
Answer: a) lcm(1428, 420) = 7140, gcd(1428, 420) = 84; b)
lcm(216, 200) = 5400, gcd(216, 200) = 8; c) lcm(36, 54, 162) = 324,
gcd(36, 54, 162) = 18.
A
2.2. Convert following decimals to fractionss: a) 0.(054), b) 0.1172
and 3.5121951219512195122....
6 293 144
Answer: a) 111 ; b) 2500 ; c) 3.5(12195) = 41 .
√
2.3. Which of the following numbers p = 23 ; q = π5 ; r = 52 ; s = 83 ;
√
R

t = 1.3628; u = 1.33 5 belong to either the set Q or I? Explain the

results.
Answer: p , s , t ∈ Q; q , r , u ∈ I.
2.4. Given a triangle ABC with a right angle at the point B, the
cathetus |AB| = 3/2 cm, and second cathetus |BC| = 2 cm. Answer
D

whether or no the measure of the hypotenuse |AC| is a number in Q?

Explain the result.
 3

Functions, graph representations, classification

3.1. Functions and mappings

T
Definition 3.1. Let X and Y be non-empty sets. Suppose there
exists a rule of correspondence, denoted by f which associates to each
element x ∈ X, a unique element y ∈ Y . Then f is called a function or
a mapping (map) from set X to set Y . It is denoted by f : X −→ Y or
f
X −→ Y .

Y is called range of f . F
The set X is called domain of f (denoted often as Xf ) and the set

The element y ∈ Y which the function f associates to the element

x ∈ X is denoted by f (x), i.e. y = f (x).
Remark 3.1. Every element of X has a unique image but each
A
element of Y need not have an image in X. There can be more than one
element of X which has the same image in Y , e.g. y = f (x) = x2 .
Example 3.1. Let X = {p, q, r} and Y = {a, b, c, d}. Suppose by
some rule, we assign to each element of X a unique element of Y . Let p
be associated to a, q - to b and r - to c. The function (map) f from set
X to set Y , f : X −→ Y , is the set {(p, a), (q, b), (r, c)} ⊂ X × Y .
R

Therefore, a function is a many-to-one (or sometimes one-to-one that

called bijection) relation.
Definition 3.2. Let f : X −→ Y . The set of all images in Y is
called the image of f , and is denoted by f (X), thus f (X) = {f (x) : x ∈
D

X} ⊆ Y .
The domain variable x is often referred as the independent variable
and the range variable y = f (x) is referred as the dependent variable.
The function can be defined by its graph.
Definition 3.3. Let X and Y be non-empty sets, then a function
f : X −→ Y is a subset of X × Y satisfying the following conditions:
• ∀x ∈ X, ∃y ∈ Y , such that (x, y) ∈ f ,
• ∀(x, y1 ) ∈ f and ∀(x, y2 ) ∈ f follows y1 = y2 .
The first condition ensures that there is a rule which assigns to each
element x ∈ X some element y ∈ Y , i.e. each element x ∈ X possesses
14
 3.1. FUNCTIONS AND MAPPINGS 15

an image y ∈ Y . The second condition guarantees that the image y is

unique. So, a function is a set of ordered pairs (x, y), such that for each
first element x, there corresponds a unique element y.

T
0 x
Figure 3.1. The function f : X −→ Y

Hence, the graph of a function f : X −→ Y is the set of all ordered

pairs (x, f (x)), x ∈ X. In particular, a graphical representation of this
F
collection is a curve in Cartesian plane - orthogonal coordinate system
with corresponding axis (see Figure 3.1):
Γf = {(x, y) ∈ R2 : y = f (x) ; x ∈ X, y ∈ Y }.
Definition 3.4. Every real number ξ ∈ X which annul the function
A
is called the null (zero) of f , or the root of the equation f (x) = 0.
Classification of maps. There exists a classification of maps of
topological point of view, which depends on rules of correspondence.
Definition 3.5. Let X and Y be non-empty sets. Suppose that
R

f is a map (function) with domain X and range Y , f : X −→ Y , see

Definition 3.1 and Figure 3.2.
• The map (function) f is said to be injective (injection or one-to-
one) if every element y ∈ Y has at most one pre-image x ∈ X
and different elements in X have different images in Y , i.e.
∀y ∈ Y ∃x ∈ X : y = f (x), and ∀x1 ∈ X, ∀x2 ∈ X, x1 = x2
D

=⇒ y1 = f (x1 ) = f (x2 ) = y2 .
• The mapping (function) f is called surjective (surjection or
onto) if each y ∈ Y has at least one preimage x ∈ X, i.e.
∀y ∈ Y ∃x ∈ X : y1 = f (x1 ) = f (x2 ) = y2 .
• The map (function) f is a bijective (bijection), if and only if it
is both injective and surjective.
Some examples illustrate this definition.
Example 3.2. Let A ⊆ X and f maps any element a ∈ A to itself
(inclusion map), then f is injective. In particular the identity function
I : X −→ X is always injective (and in fact bijective).
 3.2. REPRESENTATION OF FUNCTIONS 16

Figure 3.2. Injection, bijection and surjection

Example 3.3. Consider functions f, g : R −→ R defined by f (x) =

3x + 2 and g(x) = x4 . The function f is injective, g is not, because (for

T
example) g(1) = 1 = g(−1). However, if g is redefined on the domain
[0, ∞), then g would be injective.
The terms surjective, injective and bijective were introduced by Nico-
las Bourbaki∗, a group of mainly French 20th-century mathematicians,
which starting in 1935, who wrote a series of books on modern advanced

F
mathematics. The French prefix ”sur” means over or above and relates
to the fact that the image of the domain of a surjective function com-
pletely covers the function’s range.
Example 3.4. Given the domain X = {1, 2, 3, 4} and range Y =
{y1 , y2 , y3 , y4 }. Define the function f by the correspondence, i ∈ X
A
one has that yi = f (i), i = 1, 4, y2 = f (3) and y3 = f (2). Then the
function f defined by this way is a bijection, see Figure 3.2. So there is
a correspondence one-to-one between the members of the sets X and Y .
Note 3.1. The term ”one-to-one” used to mean injective map.

3.2. Representation of functions

R

To define a function we can use the following representations:

Analytical. By mathematical formula y = f (x). For instance

x, x ≥ 0,
y = f (x) = |x| = (3.1)
− x, x < 0.
D

The absolute value function is an example of piecewise defined function,

whose definition depends on the input values.
Descriptive. The function f (x) is represented by description, e.g. [x]
is the smallest integer less or equal to x, so-called floor function, which
rounds a real number down to the next integer, e.g. [ −7 3 ] = −3, [e] = 2
∗ Nicolas Bourbaki is a pseudonym chosen by eight or nine young mathematicians in
France in the mid 1930s to represent the essence of a “contemporary mathematician,
who collectively wrote under this pseudonym. The surname Bourbaki was of a French
general who fought in the Franco-German War (1870-71). This group of mathemati-
cians at one time studied at the École Normale Supérieure in Paris and were admirers
of the German mathematician David Hilbert. André Weil, Claude Chevalley, Jean
Dieudonné, Henri Cartan and Jean Delsarte were founders of the group
 3.3. FUNCTIONS CLASSIFICATION 17

since −2.(3) > −3, e = 2.71 . . . > 2, respectively.

x ... xk . . .
Tabular. By table .
y = f (x) . . . yk . . .

3.3. Functions classification

Classification of functions are performed according to their prop-
erties. There are different strategies of classification besides the ones
proposed here, e.g. according their: analytical representation - elemen-
tary and non-elementary, differentiability and others.
Bounded functions

T
Definition 3.6. A function f : X −→ Y is called bounded in X, if
the set of its values Y is bounded, i.e
• the function f is bounded above, if there exists constant M ∈ R,
such that f (x) ≤ M , ∀x ∈ X,
• the function f is bounded below if there exists constant m ∈ R,
such that m ≤ f (x), ∀x ∈ X, F
• the function f is bounded if it has upper and lower bounds.
By example sine and cosine functions are bounded in R, as | sin x| ≤ 1
and | cos x| ≤ 1, x ∈ R.
A
Even and odd functions
Definition 3.7. Let f : X −→ Y ; X, Y ⊂ R. A function f is said
to be:

• even in X, if and only if ∀x ∈ X follows that the opposite

R

−x ∈ X and f (−x) = f (x). Geometrically, an even function

is symmetric with respect to the y-axis, i.e. its graph remains
unchanged after reflection about the y-axis.
• odd in X, if and only if ∀x ∈ X follows that the opposite
−x ∈ X and f (−x) = −f (x). Geometrically, an odd function
is symmetric with respect to the origin of the coordinate system,
D

i.e. its graph remains unchanged after rotation of π(180◦ ) about

the origin.
Monotone functions
Definition 3.8. Let f : X −→ Y ; ∅ = X, Y ⊂ R. Then
• f is monotone increasing (decreasing) over X, if for all x1 , x2 ∈
X and x1 < x2 , we have f (x1 ) ≤ f (x2 ) (f (x1 ) ≥ f (x2 )).
• f is strictly monotone increasing (strictly monotone decreasing)
over X, if for all x1 < x2 , x1 , x2 ∈ X, we have f (x1 ) < f (x2 )
(f (x1 ) > f (x2 )), i.e. if the graph of the function is going up
from left to right (if the graph is going down from left to right).
 3.5. INVERSE FUNCTIONS 18

• f is monotone over X, if f is either increasing or decreasing

over X.
• f is strictly monotone over X, if f is either strictly increasing
or decreasing over X.

Periodic functions

Definition 3.9. Let f : X −→ Y , ∅ = X, Y ⊆ R. A function f (x)

is said to be periodic in X with least period T > 0 if ∀x ∈ X follows
that x + T ∈ X and f (x) = f (x + T ).

Remark 3.2. It is clear that kT , k = 2, 3 . . . , are periods too. For

T
example, the sine and cosine functions are periodic with period 2π, and
also sin(x + 2kπ) = sin x and cos(x + 2kπ) = cos x, x ∈ R and k ∈ N.
The constant function is periodic with any period for all nonzero
real numbers, so there is no concept analogous to the least period for
constant functions.

F
3.4. Composition of functions
Consider two functions ϕ : T −→ X and f : X −→ Y and (∅ =
T, X, Y ⊂ R), where the function ϕ is defined on the interval T and
A
f is defined on the interval X. This define a function F : T −→ Y
(composite function - F = f ◦ ϕ) as a composition of functions ϕ and
f by equality y = F (t) = f [ϕ(t)], where t ∈ T , x = ϕ(t) ∈ X therefore
y = f (x) ∈ Y and y = f [ϕ(t)] ∈ Y .
R

3.5. Inverse functions

Definition 3.10. Let f : X −→ Y be a one-to one map (bijection)
from set X to set Y , ∅ = X, Y ⊆ R, where x ∈ X, y = f (x) ∈ Y . We
call that mapping f −1 : Y −→ X, x = f −1 (y) is the inverse function of
f if and only if the following equalities are valid:
D

x = f −1 (f (x)) and y = f (f −1 (y)) .

We note that the existence of the inverse function is not always

possible, but injective functions can be reversed.

Example 3.5. Let consider the linear function

b
y = ax + b ≡ f (x), then x=y− = f −1 (y) for a = 0.
a
On this topics the following textbooks and sites were used: [1]-[9],
[14], [24], [31], [34], [46], [58], [76], [82], [102], [104], [118] and [120].
 EXERCISES 19

Exercises
3.1. Determined the domains Dfi of the following functions: f1 (x) =
√ x 1
x − 1; f2 (x) = ; f3 (x) = √ .
x+2 x
Answer: Df1 = [1, ∞); Df2 = R \ {−2}; Df3 = (0, ∞).
3.2. Consider the next functions: f1 (x) = x3 − 5x, f2 (x) = x12 −
5x6 + x2 , f3 (x) = 7x5 − x3 + 1. Prove, that f1 is odd, f2 is even, f3 is
neither even nor odd.
1
3.3. Prove that the function f (x) = with a domain Df = [0.1, ∞)

T
x √
is a monotone decreasing in Df , and the function g(x) = x + 1 is
monotone increasing in the domain Dg = [0, ∞).
3.4. Let consider the functions: f1 (x) = x2 + 1; f2 (x) = tan x
a
and f3 (x) = cot x; f4 (x) = e−x ; f5 (x) = , a ∈ R; f6 (x) = loga x,
a ∈ (0, ∞) \ {1}. F x

Which of them are: bounded, odd or even, monotone, periodic and

in what sets? Find answers in the next chapters.
A
R
D
 4

Linear and quadratic functions. Inequalities

4.1. Linear functions

T
In mathematics the linear function is of the form f (x) = ax + b,
where a, b ∈ R. Linear functions always have as domain and codomain
the set of all reals. The function is strongly increasing for a > 0 and
strongly decreasing for a < 0. The graph of the linear function is a
straight line in the coordinate plane, see Figure 4.1, 4.2 and 4.3.

F y

0
y=b, b>0

x
y=b, b<0
A

Figure 4.1. Graphs of linear functions

Note 4.1. On a function’s graph monotonicity is marked by up-

word arrows for monotone increasement and by down-word arrows for
R

monotone decreasement.
Let y = f (x) = a x + b be a linear function, then: the constant
a is known as the slope and the constant b is the vertical intercept -
intersection point with y-axes, i.e. the intersection points with x-axes
and y-axis are (− ab , 0) and the vertical intercept is (0, b), respectively.
D

- If a > 0, ( a < 0, ) the straight line is upwards (downwards) sloping.

- If a = 0, the function is stationary, f (x) = b =const.
Signs of linear functions. The signs of linear functions are shown
for a > 0 and a < 0 on Figures 4.2 and 4.3, respectively.
Therefore, by example, a linear inequality ax + b > 0 has solution:
x > − ab for a > 0, x < − ab for a < 0, x ∈ ∅ for a = 0 and b ≤ 0, — any
x for a = 0 and b > 0.
Similarly any linear inequality can be solved.
Example 4.1. Given the functions f (x) = x − 1 and g(x) = −x − 2.
What are the signs of the function’s values for both functions.
20
 4.2. QUADRATIC FUNCTIONS 21

Figure 4.2. Graphs of linear functions for a > 0

T
Answer. We have: f (1) = 0, f (x) < 0 for x ∈ (−∞, 1), and f (x) > 0,
x ∈ (1, ∞), see Figure 4.2. For g it follows that g(−2) = 0; g(x) > 0,
∀x ∈ (−∞, −2); and g(x) < 0, ∀x ∈ (−2, ∞), see Figure 4.3.

F
A

Figure 4.3. Graphs of linear functions for a < 0

R

4.2. Quadratic functions

A quadratic function, is a function of the form f (x) = ax2 + bx + c,
where a, b, c ∈ R, a = 0.
Parabola
The graph of a quadratic function f (x) = ax2 + bx + c is called
D

a parabola. The form of parabola depends mainly on the sign of the

coefficient a, see Figures 4.4 and 4.5: if a > 0, the parabola opens upward
(convex function), if a < 0, the parabola opens downward (concave
function).
Quadratic formula
If the quadratic function is set to be equal to zero, then we have a
quadratic equation. The roots of a quadratic equation can be computed
using the quadratic formula. The quadratic formula is derived by the
method of completing the square.
 
2 2 b b2 b2 c
0 = f (x) = ax + bx + c ⇐⇒ a x + x + 2 − 2 + = 0,
a 4a 4a a
 4.2. QUADRATIC FUNCTIONS 22

which is equivalent to
 
b 2 b2 − 4ac
f (x) = a x + − = a(x − x1 )(x − x2 ) = 0 , (4.1)
2a 4a2
where √
−b ± b2 − 4ac
x1,2 = . (4.2)
2a
The expression D = b2 − 4ac is called the discriminant of a quadratic
equation.
Viete’s formulas
Viete’s∗ formulas give a simple relation between the roots of a poly-

T
nomial and its coefficients. In the case of quadratic function, they can
derive from (4.1) and take the following form:

b

x 1 + x2 = − ,

c a (4.3)

x1 · x 2 = .
a
F
This yields a convenient expression when graphing a quadratic function,
as the function is symmetric vertically about the vertex.
Example 4.2. Given the quadratic equation
ax2 − 4x + c = 0,
A
that possesses two different roots x1 = 1 and x2 = −3. Find the un-
known coefficients a and c.
Solution. By Viete’s formulas (4.3) follows x1 + x2 = − ab = −2, and
hence a = −2; by x1 x2 = ac = −2
c
= −3 we derive c = 6.
Having in mind the above stated example we conclude, that the
R

quantities a, b, c, x1 , x2 are connected each other by two equations, that

is, the pair of Viete’s formulae. Hence if we know three of the above
stated five variables, then by (4.3) one can find the rest two unknowns.
Vertex
The place where the parabola turns is called the turning point or the
D

vertex of the parabola (the extreme point). From (4.1) we have that the
b
x-coordinate of the vertex is xv = − . If there are two real roots the
2a
vertexs x-coordinate is located at the arithmetic mean of the roots, i.e.
x1 + x2
xv = . The y-coordinate can be obtained by substituting the
2
∗ François Viéte (1540 - 1603), a Frenchman known by his Latinized name Franciscus
Vieta. He practiced as a lawyer and was a member of the king’s council, serving king
Henry III and Henry IV. Vieta made significant contributions to mathematics in
the areas of arithmetic, algebra, trigonometry, and geometry. In arithmetic Vieta
recommended to use decimal fractions, instead of sexagesimal. His main contribution
was in algebra and relationships between coefficients and roots of a polynomial were
named after him.
 4.2. QUADRATIC FUNCTIONS 23

D
above result into the function. Hence, yv = − and the vertex point
  4a
b D
is V = (xv , yv ) = − , − .
2a 4a
The vertex is the maximum if a < 0, or the minimum if a > 0.

Signs of quadratic functions. Signs of quadratic functions are

established by (4.1):
- If D < 0, then af (x) > 0 for x ∈ R,
- If D = 0, then af (x) = a2 (x − x1 )2 > 0 for x ∈ R \ {x1 },

T
- If D > 0, then af (x) = a2 (x − x1 )(x − x2 ) > 0, x1 < x2 , for a > 0
follows x ∈ (−∞, x1 ) ∪ (x2 , ∞) and for a < 0 we have x ∈ (x1 , x2 ).
The graphics of quadratic function and their corresponding signs are
presented on Figures 4.4 and 4.5, respectively for D > 0, D = 0 and
D < 0.

F
A

Figure 4.4. Signs of quadratic functions for a > 0

R

By using signs of quadratic functions we can solve any quadratic

inequality.
Example 4.3. Given the inequality
x2 − 100 > 0 .
D

Find out the solutions of this inequality.

Solution. As x2 − 100 = (x + 10)(x − 10) > 0, then x ∈ (−∞, −10) ∪
(10, +∞), see Figure 4.4.
Example 4.4. Find the solutions of the following inequality:
−x2 + x − 2 > 0 .
Solution. By using (4.1) it follows −x2 + x − 2 = −[(x − 12 )2 + 74 ] < 0
for any reals, therefore x ∈ ∅, see Figure 4.5.
Example 4.5. Find the solutions of the following inequality:
−2x2 + 5x + 3 ≥ 0 .
 EXERCISES 24

Solution. We have −2x2 + 5x + 3 = −2(x + 12 )(x − 3) ≥ 0, hence

x ∈ [− 12 , 3], see Figure 4.5.

T
Figure 4.5. Signs of quadratic functions for a < 0

Biquadratic equations. These equations are used for a quartic

equation (fourth-order algebraic equation) having no odd powers, i.e.
F
ax4 + bx2 + c = 0 .
Such equations are easy to solve, since they reduce by substitution x2 =
t ≥ 0 to a quadratic equation in the variable t,
at2 + bt + c = 0 ,
A
and then can be solved using the quadratic formula (4.2) and, finally, in
terms of the original variable x by taking the square roots.
Example 4.6. Find solutions of the equation
x4 − 5x + 4 = 0.
R

Solution. By substituting x2 = t ≥ 0 we obtain the equation t2 −5t+4 =

(t − 1)(t − 4) = 0 with two real roots, and therefore t2 = 1 =⇒ x1,2 = ±1
and t2 = 4 =⇒ x3,4 = ±2.
On this topic the following textbooks and sites were used: [1]-[9],
D

[14], [34], [46], [58], [76], [88], [102], [104] and [114].

Exercises
4.1. Prove that the solutions of the inequality x − 3 ≥ 0 belong to
the interval [3, ∞).
4.2. Solve the inequality 3x − 2 < x + 5.
Answer. x ∈ (−∞, 3.5).
4.3. Solve the inequality |x| > 0.
Answer. x ∈ R \ {0}.
 EXERCISES 25

4.4. What has to be the parameter k in the quadratic equation

2x2 − (k − 1)x + 2 = 0,
so that one of the roots to be x1 = 3. Find also the second root of this
equation.
Answer. k = 23/3, x2 = 1/3.
4.5. Prove that the solutions of the inequality x2 − 4 ≥ 0 belong to
the set (−∞; −2] ∪ [2; ∞).
4.6. Solve the inequality x2 − x − 2 < 0.

T
Answer. x ∈ (−1; 2).
4.7. Solve the inequality x2 + x + 1 > 0.
Answer. x ∈ R.
4.8. Solve the inequality x2 + x + 1 < 0.

F
Answer. It has no real solutions, x ∈ ∅.
4.9. Solve the inequality x2 − 4x + 4 ≥ 0.
Answer. x ∈ R.
A
4.10. Solve the inequality 2x2 − x − 1 ≤ 0.
Answer. x ∈ [−1/2, 1].
4.11. Find the solutions of the following inequality:
x2 + 2x − 3 ≤ 0.
R

Answer. x ∈ [−3, 1].

4.12. Find the solutions of the following inequality:
−x2 + x − 5 ≥ 0.
Answer. It has no real solution, x ∈ ∅.
D
 5

Exponentiation and power functions

5.1. Powers

T
In mathematics, exponentiation - operation of raising a number a to
a power n, is a process of iterated multiplication, i.e.
an = a
 · a · · · · · a .
n
Exponentiation involves two numbers, the base a and the exponent n.

F
The expression an is therefore known as a to the n-th power. The inverse
of exponentiation is the logarithm; exponentiation is sometimes called
the antilogarithm - the inverse function of logarithm.
The power may be an integer, rational, real or complex number.
However, the power of a real number to a non-integer exponent is not
1
to be a real number. For example x 2 , is real only for x ≥ 0.
A

5.2. Exponentiation
Exponentiation with integer exponents. The exponentiation
operation with integer exponents defined as a repeated multiplication
 4
R

5 1 1
Example 5.1. We have 3 = 3 · 3 · 3 · 3 · 3 = 243 and = .
2 16
1
Here, 3 and are bases, 5 and 4 are the exponents, respectively.
2
Traditionally a2 = a · a is called the square and a3 = a · a · a is called
the cube.
D

Positive integer exponents. The powers with positive integer expo-

nents are defined by the initial condition
a1 = a and the recurrence relation an+1 = a an , n ∈ N.
Remark 5.1. Any number to the power 1 is itself, a1 = a. A number
other than 0 taken to the power 0 is defined to be 1, a0 = 1.

Negative integer exponents. Raising a nonzero number to the −1

power produces its reciprocal, i.e.
1 1
a−1 = , thus: a−n = (an )−1 = n .
a a
26
 5.3. IDENTITIES AND PROPERTIES 27

A negative integer exponent can also be seen as repeated division by the

base, but raising 0 to a negative power would imply division by 0, and
so is undefined.
Fractional (rational) exponents.
Definition 5.1. Let introduce the even and odd root.
• Even root. Let a ≥ 0 and n be a positive even integer. The
unique non-negative solution of the equation
xn = a (5.1)
√
is called n-th root of the number a and is denoted by x = n a.

T
• Odd root. Let a be a real number and n be a positive odd
integer. The unique solution of the equation (5.1) is called n-th
root of the number a.
The number n is said to be the index of the root.
1

1
F
Exponentiation with a simple fractional exponent
n > 2, can be defined as taking n-th roots
√
an = n a
Exponentiation with a rational exponent m
n, with integer

m ∈ Z, n ∈ N, can now
n,
be defined as  √ m
A
m
an = n a .
1 2
Example 5.2. There are valid: 8 3 = 2 and 27 3 = 9.
R

5.3. Identities and properties

The rules for combining quantities containing powers are called the
exponent laws. Let a, b > 0, and x and y be rational numbers or real
numbers. The most important identities satisfied by exponentiation are:
D

Example 5.3. Simplify the expression

0.000000025
.
500000 · 0.00000005
Solution. By decimal representation of reals and properties of exponen-
tiation it follows
0.00000000025 25 · 10−9
= = 10−3 = 0.001 .
500 · 0.00000005 5 · 102 · 5 · 10−8
3 2
Example 5.4. Compare numbers 2 4 and 3 3 .
3 2
Solution. As 2 < 3 but 34 > 23 , we suppose that 2 4 < 3 3 . By Table
3 2 3
5.1 we estimate 2 4 from above and 3 3 from below, as follows: 2 4 =
 5.4. POWER FUNCTIONS 28

ax > 0 ax+y = ax ay
 a x a x
a0 = 1 = x
b b
1 a x
a−x = ax−y = y
ax a
(ab) = ax bx
x (ax )y = (ay )x = axy
ax < ay for a > 1, x < y ax > ay for 0 < a < 1, x < y.

T
Table 5.1. Identities and properties for exponentiation

2 3 1
20.75 < 20.8 and 3 3 = 30.(6) > 30.6 . Finally we have 2 4 < 20.8 = (28 ) 10 =
1 1 1 2 3 2 3
256 10 < 729 10 = (36 ) 10 = 30.6 < 3 3 . Hence, 2 4 < 3 3 . Really, 2 4 ≈
2
1.6818 < 2.0801 ≈ 3 3 . F
5.4. Power functions
In this section some examples of the function y = xn , n ∈ Q, are
A
presented. Let sketch the function y = x3 , thus we shall use the Ta-
ble 5.2. On Figure 5.1 graphics of power functions y = xn with power

x −2 −1.5 −1 −0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2

3
y = x −8 −3.375 −1 −0.125 0 0.125 1 3.375 8
R

Table 5.2. Values of the function y = x3

n = 1, 2, 3 are shown. The functions y = x and y = x3 are increasing

D

and odd for x ∈ R.

The function y = x2 is even for x ∈ R, and decreasing for x ∈ (−∞, 0]
and increasing for x ∈ [0, ∞).
√
On
√ Figure 5.2 are presented
√ the graphs of the functions y = x and
√
3
y = x. The function y = x is increasing
√ for x ∈ [0, ∞) and y = 3 x
is odd, increasing for x ∈ R and 3 x ≷ 0 for x ≷ 0. Figure 5.3 illus-
±1 1
trates behavior of functions y = . The function y = is decreasing
x x
−1
and odd for x ∈ R\{0} and y = is increasing and odd for x ∈ R\{0}.
x
 5.5. BASIC IRRATIONAL EQUATIONS AND INEQUALITIES 29

T
Figure 5.1. Graphics of function xn , n = 1, 2, 3

F
5.5. Basic irrational equations and inequalities
Let consider functions f, g : R −→ R, if the functions are not de-
fined everywhere we have final solution intersects with domains of f and
g. According the definition of n-th root, and monotone increasment of
A
the corresponding function we consider the next algorithms.

Algorithms for solving basic irrational equations.


• 2n+1 f (x) = g(x) , n ∈ N , ⇐⇒ f (x) = g 2n+1 (x),
R
D

Figure
√ 5.2.
√ Graphics of functions Figure 5.3. Graphics of functions
1 −1
x and 3 x x and x
 5.5. BASIC IRRATIONAL EQUATIONS AND INEQUALITIES 30

f (x) ≥ 0


• f (x) = g(x) , n ∈ N ,
2n
⇐⇒
g(x) ≥ 0 .

f (x) = g2n (x)

Algorithms for solving basic irrational inequalities.


• 2n+1 f (x) ≶ g(x) , n ∈ N , ⇐⇒ f (x) ≶ g 2n+1 (x),

f (x) ≥ 0


• 2n
f (x) < g(x) , n ∈ N , ⇐⇒

g(x) > 0 ;

f (x) < g 2n (x)

g(x) <

T

0
• 2n
f (x) > g(x) , n ∈ N , ⇐⇒

f (x) ≥ 0 ; or, i.e.

f (x) < g 2n (x)

g(x) < 0
union (∪) with the solution of

.
f (x) ≥ 0
√
Example 5.5. Solve x2 − 4 + 2x F
√ = 5.
Solution. Rewriting this equation as x2 − 4 = 5 − 2x and applying the
corresponding algorithm we obtain:

2

x −4 ≥ 0

A

5 − 2x ≥ 0 ⇐⇒

2

x − 4 = (5 − 2x)2

x ∈ (−∞, −2) ∪ (2, ∞)

x ∈ (−∞, −2) ∪ (2, 5 ] = D

x ∈ (−∞, 5 ] ⇐⇒
2 .

2 2
3x2 − 20x + 29 = 0

x − 4 = (5 − 2x)2
R

√
10± 13
The quadratic equation 3x2 −20x+29 = 0 has two roots 3 . Finally
√
we obtain the solution x = 10−3 13 ≈ 2.1315 ∈ D, because the other root
√
10+ 13
of quadratic equation 3 ≈ 4.5352 ∈/ D.
Remark 5.2. It is possible to solve equations and inequalities with-
D

out finding its domains, but raising expressions to powers can lead to
additional solutions. Therefore the obtained result has to be checked
whether it satisfies the equality or inequality and leave values that are
true solutions.
√
Example 5.6. Solve the inequality 3 x ≥ x.
Solution. To remove the radical we raise both sides on cube, and receive
x3 − x ≤ 0. The signs of the function f (x) = (x + 1)x(x − 1) in inter-
vals (−∞, −1), (−1, 0), (0, 1) and (1, ∞) are respectively −, +, −, +.
Therefore x ∈ (−∞, −1] ∪ [0, 1]. For more particularities see Chapter 6,
Example 6.8.
 EXERCISES 31

√
Example 5.7. Solve the inequality x < x + 1.
Solution. First we determine the domain of the inequality, that is, x ≥ 0,
therefore x ∈ [0, ∞). The second step is to square both sides of the above
inequality
√ 2  2
x < x+1 .
Thus obtain a quadratic inequality
x < x2 + 2x + 1 =⇒ x2 + x + 1 > 0.
Solving the latter obtain that x ∈ R and conclude that the solution of
the first inequality is x ∈ [0, ∞) ∩ (−∞, +∞).

T
Examples 5.5, 5.6 and 5.7 can be solved by graphing or using sign
charts and test interval technique, see next chapter.
On this topic the following textbooks and sites were used: [2], [7],
[9], [14], [49] and [118].

Exercises
5.1. Simplify an expression

√
√
F√6 √ .
2+ 3+ 5

Answer.
√ √ √
3 + (3/2) 2 − (1/2) 30.
5.2. Solve the inequality x − 1 ≤ 0.
A
Answer. x = 1.
√
5.3. Solve the inequality x − 1 ≤ x.
Answer. x ∈ [1, ∞).
5.4. Find solutions
 of√equations: a) (2x2 + 1)1/5 = 2, b) x +
R

√ √
5x + 19 = −1, c) 2 x + 1 = 3x − 5.

Answer. a) x1,2 = ± 31 2 ; b) x1 = −3, x2 = 6; c) x = 3.
D
 6

Systems of equations and inequalities

A system of linear equations is a collection of two and more than

two linear equations in the same variables.

T
6.1. Systems of two equations in two variables
Systems of two linear equations in two unknowns. These
systems are systems of type

a1 x + b1 y = c1

F 2 2

a2 x + b2 y = c2 , ai , bi , ci ∈ R ; ai + bi > 0 ; i = 1 , 2 . (6.1)

This is inhomogeneous system when c21 + c22 > 0, i.e. c1 and c2 are not
vanishing simultaneously, otherwise - homogeneous.
A
Definition 6.1. A solution to a linear system is an assignment of
numbers to the variables, such that each of the equations is satisfied.
The set of all possible solutions is called the solution set.

Definition 6.2. Two linear systems in the same variables are equiv-
R

alent if they have the one and the same solution set, i.e. if each of the
equations in the second system can be derived (by addition of some equa-
tions multiplying with non-zero constant) from the equations in the first
system, and vice-versa.

The systems in two variables of type (6.1) can be solved using graph-
D

ing, substitution method or addition method.

Graphing
Sketch the graphs of linear functions a1 x + b1 y = c1 and a2 x + b2 y = c2
in the same coordinate plane. The lines may be: parallel - no solution,
intersecting - unique solution is the crossing point, and one and the same
line - infinitely many solutions

Substitution method
c1 − b1 y
Let a1 = 0, from the first equation of (6.1) we obtain x, so x =
a1
and substituting it in the second equation we derive, if a1 b2 − a2 b1 = 0,
32
 6.1. SYSTEMS OF TWO EQUATIONS IN TWO VARIABLES 33

the solution of system (x0 , y0 ):

b2 c1 − b1 c2 a1 c 2 − a2 c 1
x0 = , y0 = . (6.2)
a1 b2 − a2 b1 a1 b2 − a2 b1
Addition method
We are going to eliminate y and x from the first and second equation,
respectively, in system (6.1). Multiplying first equation by b2 and second
by −b1 and after that summarizing equations we eliminate y by analogy
we eliminate x, i.e.

a1 x + b1 y = c1 ×b2
a x + b1 y = c1 ×(−a2 )

T
+

+

1
a2 x + b2 y = c2 ×(−b1 ) a2 x + b2 y = c2 ×a1
(a1 b2 − a2 b1 )x = b2 c1 − b1 c2 (a1 b2 − a2 b1 )y = a1 c2 − a2 c1
If a1 b2 − a2 b1 = 0 the solution (x0 , y0 ) is derived via formulas (6.2).

If a1 b2 − a2 b1 = 0, we have:

b1 c2 = 0 or a1 c2 − a2 c1 = 0,
F
- inconsistent system (the system does not have a solution) for b2 c1 −

- undefined system (the system posses infinitely many solutions) for

b2 c1 − b1 c2 = 0 or a1 c2 − a2 c1 = 0.
A
Example 6.1. Solve the linear system

x−y =1

2x + y = 2 .

Solution. First combine both equations so that after summing obtain

R

3x = 3 =⇒ x = 1, y = 0 , or the solution is (1, 0) .

Example 6.2. Solve the linear system

x − 3y = 2

2x − 6y = 4 .
D

Solution. We note that the second equation is obtained from the first
one by multiplying both sides by the number 2. Hence there is only one
independent linear equation x − 3y = 2 depending on two unknowns
x and y. Then we substitute either x or y as a parameter p ∈ R,
for instance y = p, and get x = 2 + 3p. Therefore, the system under
consideration has infinitely many solutions depending on one parameter
p ∈ R.
Example 6.3. Solve the linear system

x+y =1

3x + 3y = −5 .
 6.1. SYSTEMS OF TWO EQUATIONS IN TWO VARIABLES 34

Solution. Multiply the first equation by −3. Combine both equations

so that after summing obtain
0 = −5,
that is impossible. Therefore the system is inconsistent, i.e. has no
solution.
Remark 6.1. Systems of three linear equations in three variables of
the type

a1 x + b1 y + c1 z = p1

a2 x + b2 y + c2 z = p2 , ai , bi , ci , pi ∈ R ; a2i +b2i +c2i > 0 ; i = 1, 2, 3 ,

a3 x + b3 y + c3 z = p3

T
are not a subject for consideration here. Such systems can be solved
using graphing, substitution or addition method, as mentioned above,
or apply Gaussian∗ elimination algorithm. This is an object of future
studding at an university and strongly recommended for using.

F
Special systems of two equations in two unknowns. These
systems are systems with one linear equation and other equation of a
special type, or with two bivariate quadratic equations. One variable is
expressed from the linear equation and substituted in the other equation
of the system. If there are two bivariate quadratic equations of special
A
type we can apply Viete’s formulas.
Systems of two equations with one linear equation, that are
systems with one linear equation and other equation of special type, as
bivariate of second order, or exponential, or trigonometric or etc. Let
consider following examples.
R

Example 6.4. Solve the system:

xy = −6

.

x+y = 1
Solution. This system can be solved in two ways.
Substituting y = 1 − x in the first equation of the system, we get
D

x2 − x − 6 = 0 with roots x1 = −2 and x2 = 3. Therefore we obtain two

pairs of solutions (x1 , y1 ) = (−2, 3) and (x2 , y2 ) = (3, −2).
The same result follows supposing that x and y are roots of a qua-
dratic equation. Applying Viete’s formulas we find this equation, namely
∗ Johann Carl Friedrich Gauss (1777 - 1855) was a German mathematician and sci-
entist who contributed significantly to many fields, such as number theory, statistics,
analysis, differential geometry, geodesy, geophysics, electrostatics, astronomy and op-
tics. Sometimes referred to him as ”the Prince of Mathematicians” or ”greatest
mathematician since antiquity”. Gauss referred to mathematics as ”the queen of sci-
ences”. Many things are named in his honor, such as theorems, functions, notions and
others, e.g. the unit of magnetic flux density, 1 gauss in the centimeter-gram-second
system, is equal to 1 maxwell per square centimeter, or 10−4 tesla.
 6.1. SYSTEMS OF TWO EQUATIONS IN TWO VARIABLES 35

z 2 − z − 6 = 0, with roots z1 = −2 and z2 = 3, and hence solutions are

(z1 , z2 ) and (z2 , z1 ).
Example 6.5. Solve the system:

3 · 2x + 2y = 2

.

2x − y = −1
Solution. Expressing y from the second equation and substituting in the
first one, we obtain:

y = 2x + 1

2(2x )2 + 3 · 2x − 2 = 0 .

T
Introducing a new variable z = 2x > 0 the second equation is reduced to
2z 2 +3z −2 = 0 with solutions z1 = 2−1 = 2x > 0 and z2 = −2 = 2x < 0,
that is impossible in real analysis. Therefore the solution is x = y = −1.
Example 6.6. Solve the system:

F

sin x + sin y = 1
x + y = π2
.

Solution. By second equation we have y = π2 − x and substituting in

first yields the trigonometric equation
A
π
sin x + sin( − x) = 1 ⇐⇒ sin x + cos x = 1 .
2
For the solutions of this trigonometric equation see Chapter 8, Example
8.7: x1 = 2kπ, x2 = π2 +2kπ; k ∈ Z. Therefore y1 = π2 −2kπ, y2 = −2kπ.
R

Systems with two bivariate quadratic equations are systems with

equations in two variable x and y of second order, see next example.
Example 6.7. Solve the system:

9x2 + y 2 = 45

.

xy = 6
Solution. Multiplying second equation of the system by −6 and sum-
marizing with first gives:

(3x − y)2 = 9
3x − y = ±3

⇐⇒
⇐⇒

xy = 6
xy = 6

y = 3x + 3
y = 3x − 3

2 and
2

x +x−2=0
x −x−2=0 .
The solutions of first system are x1 = −2, y1 = −3; x2 = 1, y2 = 6, and
of the second - x3 = −1, y3 = −6; x4 = 2, y4 = 3.
 6.2. POLYNOMIAL FUNCTIONS AND THEIR SIGNS 36

6.2. Polynomial functions and their signs

Any system of linear, quadratic, rational, irrational equations and
inequalities by some mathematical operation as multiplying, raising and
etc, can be reduced to equality or inequality of a type
p(x) ≶ 0 , p(x) ≤ 0 , p(x) ≥ 0 ,
where p(x) is a polynomial. In case of equality, the real roots of the
equation p(x) = 0 has to be derived, if there is an inequality - a test
signs of a polynomial function p is realized.
Definition 6.3. A function of one variable p : R −→ R of the form

T
n

p(x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + · · · + a1 x + a0 = an−i xn−i , (6.3)
i=0
where: ai ∈ R , an = 0; i = 0, 1, 2, ..., n; n = 0, 1, 2 . . . , is said to be a
polynomial function of degree n (degp = n) with coefficients an , an−1 , . . . ,
a1 , a0 .
F
Any non-zero constant is a polynomial of degree 0, a linear function
ax + b, a = 0, is a polynomial of degree 1, and etc.
Signs of a polynomial function are determined by test interval tech-
nique (TIT), after finding function’s zeros and factorizing it. Its zeros
A
- branch points separate reals in test intervals. In each test interval a
test point is chosen, after that the sign of each binomial is determined.
Finally we assign a sign to test interval on the line chart, that is the sign
of p(x) on this interval.
On graphical representations of inequalities, we use the following
R

notations: if the inequality is strict the end points of testing interval are
marked by circle (◦), otherwise - by solid-circle (•). The graph of p is
sketched by dash-line, if the inequality is strict, otherwise by solid line.
Remark 6.2. The roots of integer polynomial (coefficients are inte-
gers) equation are found by using the Gauss (see footnote ∗ on the page
34) theorem and the table of Horner∗ scheme.
D

The next example is an illustration of TIT.

Example 6.8. Solve the inequality f (x) = (x + 1)x(x − 1) ≤ 0.
Solution. Test points and signs of binomials are shown in the Table 6.1.
Using the sign of binomials we derive the sign chart, which is equivalent
to the graph of f with corresponding function’s signs. Therefore f (x) ≤
0 for x ∈ (−∞, −1] ∪ [0, 1].
∗ William George Horner (1786 - 1837) was a British mathematician and schoolmas-
ter. The invention of the zoetrope, in 1834 and under a different name (Daedaleum),
has been attributed to him. Horner published a method of solving numerical equa-
tions of any degree, now known as Horner’s scheme.
 6.3. SYSTEMS OF ALGEBRAIC INEQUALITIES 37

Test points Sign of binomials

x+1 x x−1
−2 ∈ (−∞, −1) - - -
−1/2 ∈ (−1, 0) + - -
1/2 ∈ (0, 1) + + -
2 ∈ (1, ∞) + + +

Test intervals and points Graph and signs of the function

T
Table 6.1. Application of TIT for f (x) = (x + 1)x(x − 1)

6.3. Systems of algebraic inequalities

The well studied objects at school mathematics are so called alge-

algebraic function.
Algebraic functions in one variable.
F
braic equations and inequalities, we introduce the next definition of an

Definition 6.4. A real valued function of one variable y = f (x) is

A
said to be algebraic if it satisfies a polynomial equation, whose coeffi-
cients p0 (x), p1 (x), . . . , pn (x) are polynomials in x with rational coeffi-
cients, i.e. y is a solution of an equation of the form
pn (x)y n + pn−1 (x)y n−1 + · · · + p0 (x) = 0 , n ∈ N.
A function that satisfies no such equation is said to be transcendental.
R

By Definition 6.4 follows that:

- Any polynomial p(x) is an algebraic function, since polynomials
are simply the solutions for y of the equation y − p(x) = 0.
- Any rational function p(x)
q(x) , where p, q are polynomials, is algebraic,
being the solution ofthe equation q(x)y − p(x) = 0.
D

- The n-th root n p(x) of any polynomial is an algebraic function, as

n
 equation y − p(x) = 0. If n = 2, we have modular
it is a solution of the
equation |y(x)| = p(x).
Algebraic inequalities in one variable. Let f (x) be an algebraic
function with domain D. The algebraic inequalities can take any of the
forms:
f (x) < a , f (x) > a , f (x) ≤ a, f (x) ≥ a , a ∈ R.
Definition 6.5. A solution of an inequality is any number which
substituting as the variable makes the inequality a true statement.
 6.3. SYSTEMS OF ALGEBRAIC INEQUALITIES 38

Two inequalities are said to be equivalent, if they have the same solu-
tions.
By applying some algebraic operations, the algebraic inequality is
reduced to equivalent polynomial ones (see (6.3)) in D. To solve such
inequalities you have to determine the sign of obtained polynomial in
D.
Remark 6.3. The elementary operations, that yield the equivalent
inequalities are:
- addition any real number to both sides of an inequality,
- multiplication or division both sides of an inequality by any positive

T
number,
- multiplication or division both sides of an inequality by a negative
number, reverse the direction of the inequality sign.
Remark 6.4. The irrational equation of the form
 

F
a n f (x) + b m g(x) = 0,
where f (x) and g(x) are polynomials; a, b ∈ R; m, n ∈ Q, can be re-
duced to another polynomial equation with accompanying domain of the
equality, more general any irrational inequality by appropriate transfor-
mations is reduced to polynomials ones.
A
Systems of linear inequalities in one variable
The systems linear inequalities are simplest systems of algebraic ones
and often appear as solutions of polynomial inequalities.
To solve a system of two inequalities in one variable one have only to
intersect the domains of first and second inequality. The next examples
R

demonstrate this fact.

Example 6.9. Solve the system

x−1>0

x+3>0 . (6.4)

Solution. From the first equation obtain x > 1, and from the second one
D

x > −3, whence x ∈ (1, ∞) ∩ (−3, ∞) = (1, ∞).

Example 6.10. Solve the system

x−2≥0

x−7≤0 . (6.5)

Solution. From the first equation obtain x ≥ 2, and from the second one
x ≤ 7, whence x ∈ [2, ∞) ∩ (−∞, 7] = [2, 7].
Example 6.11. Solve the system

x−5>0

x+1<0 . (6.6)
 6.3. SYSTEMS OF ALGEBRAIC INEQUALITIES 39

Solution. From the first equation obtain x > 5, and from the second one
x < −1, whence x ∈ (5, ∞) ∩ (−∞, −1) = ∅. Thus conclude that the
system is inconsistent.
Systems of quadratic inequalities in one variable
To solve a system of two quadratic inequalities in one variable by us-
ing the signs of quadratic functions determine the domains of first and
second inequality and after that intersect them. The next examples
illustrate an algorithm.
Example 6.12. Solve the system of inequalities:

2

x − 6x + 5 < 0

−x2 + 3x ≥ 0 .
Solution. The graphs and signs of quadratic functions p1 (x) = x2 −6x+5
and p2 (x) = −x2 + 3x are sketched on Figure 6.1.

F
A
R

Figure 6.1. Graphs of functions Figure 6.2. Graph of function

x2 − 6x + 5 and −x2 + 3x f (x) = (x2 − 6x + 5) (−x2 + 3x)

We have p1 (x) < 0 for x ∈ (1, 5) and p2 (x) ≥ 0 for x ∈ [0, 3],
thus the solution is x ∈ (1, 3]. The same result yields by TIT and
signs of the function f (x) = p1 (x)p2 (x), see Figure 6.2, where we have
D

to choose some of the following intervals: (−∞, 0], (1, 3], (5, ∞), that
is accomplished by checking signs of p1 or p2 in mentioned intervals.
By example p1 (−1) > 0, p1 (2) < 0, p1 (6) > 0, hence the solution is
x ∈ (1, 3].
Systems of rational inequalities in one variable
Consider a rational inequality r(x) = pp12 (x)
(x) ≤ 0, where p1 and p2 are
polynomials. The domain D of r is all reals except zeros of the de-
nominator. All rational inequalities, are reduced to equivalent ones
in D by multiplying and dividing r by p2 . As r(x) = p1 (x)p 2 (x)
p22 (x)
we
have to solve the inequality about numerator in the same direction,
 6.3. SYSTEMS OF ALGEBRAIC INEQUALITIES 40

f (x) = p1 (x)p2 (x) ≥ 0, because p22 (x) > 0, ∀x ∈ D, see the next exam-
ple for illustration.
x+1
Example 6.13. Find solutions of the inequality ≤ 1.
x2
− 4x − 5
As the denominator is vanishing for x = −1, 5, it follows that the domain
of inequality is R \ {−1, 5}. The inequality is equivalent to
x+1 x2 − 5x + 4
2
−1≤0 ⇐⇒ ≥ 0.
x − 4x − 5 x2 − 4x − 5
Let p1 (x) = x2 − 5x + 4 and p2 (x) = x2 − 4x − 5. Consider the function

T
f (x) = p1 (x)p2 (x) = (x − 1)(x − 4)(x + 1)(x − 5). The graphs with
functions signs of p1 and p2 are presented on Figure 6.3. The signs of

F
A

Figure 6.3. Graphs of functions Figure 6.4. Graph of function

R

x2 − 5x + 4 and x2 − 4x − 5 f (x) = (x2 − 5x + 4) (x2 − 4x − 5)

function f is shown on Figure 6.4. Hence the inequality is fulfilled for

x ∈ (−∞, −1) ∪ [1, 4] ∪ (5, ∞).
D

Modular inequalities of a type

|f (x)| ≶ g(x) , |f (x)| ≤ g(x) , |f (x)| ≥ g(x) .
are solved according the following schemes:
• |f (x)| > g(x) ⇐⇒ f (x) > g(x) or f (x) < −g(x);

g(x) ≥ 0
g(x) ≥ 0
• f (x) = g(x) ⇐⇒

or

;
f (x) = g(x) f (x) = −g(x)

g(x) > 0
g(x) > 0
• f (x) < g(x) ⇐⇒

and

.
f (x) < g(x) f (x) > −g(x)
 6.3. SYSTEMS OF ALGEBRAIC INEQUALITIES 41

T
Figure 6.5. Graphics of functions |x2 − 2x| and x

Example 6.14. Solve the inequality |x2 − 2x| ≤ x.

x ≥ 0
F
Solution. A graphical solution is presented on Figure
6.5. Applying the

algorithm for solving modular inequalities we have:

2
x −
x ≥ 0
2x ≤ x
and

2 . These systems of inequalities are equivalent,

x − 2x ≥ −x
A
respectively, to:

x ≥ 0
x ≥ 0

2 and

2 .

x − 3x ≤ 0 x −x ≥ 0
For x ≥ 0, we have: x(x − 3) ≤ 0 =⇒ x ≤ 3, and x(x − 1) ≥ 0 =⇒ x ≥ 1.
Therefore, x ∈ [1, 3].
R

Systems of linear inequalities in two variables. Let consider

systems of two and three linear inequalities. These systems have the
form:

a1 x + b1 y ≥ p1

a1 x + b1 y ≥ p1

a2 x + b2 y ≥ p2 ,

a2 x + b2 y ≥ p2 ,
(6.7)

a3 x + b3 y ≥ p3
D

where ai , bi , pi ∈ R and a2i + b2i > 0 (i = 1, 2, 3). Some of the symbols ≥

or each one of them in the systems (6.7) could be replaced by strict >.
The solutions can be obtained by sketching the graphs of the systems in
the plane.
Example 6.15. Solve x − y ≤ 1.
Solution. First graph the line x − y = 1. This line separate plane
into two half-planes: “above” the line which contains positive y-axes
and “below” - the opposite one. Next test a point (0, 1), whether it
coordinates satisfy the inequality x − y ≤ 1. As the inequality 1 ≤ 1 is
true we choose the upper half-plane, see Figure 6.6.
 EXERCISES 42

T
Figure 6.6. Domain defined by x− Figure 6.7. Domain defined by x+
y≤1 y > 0, x − y ≤ 1, y ≤ 2

F
0<x+y

Example 6.16. Sketch the system

x − y ≤ 1 .

Solution.

y≤2

- Sketch all the three inequalities in the same coordinate plane.

A
- The graph of x+y > 0 is the half-plane above the dashed line x+y = 0.
- The graph of x − y ≤ 1 is the half-plane on and above the solid line
x − y = 1.
- The inequality y ≤ 2 defines the half-plane on and below the solid line
y = 2.
- The solution set of the system is the intersection of the three half planes
R

as shown in the Figure 6.7.

On this topic the following textbooks and sites were used: [1], [7],
[9], [21], [25], [31], [55], [61], [83], [91] and [103].

Exercises

1
D

+ 1 = 1
6.1. Solve the systems: a)

x−2 y+3 ;

2
2 3x2 − 2y = 2

x − xy = 10
x + y + 2x − 6y + 5 = 0
b)

2 ; c)

.
y − xy = −6 x2 + y 2 − 2y − 9 = 0
√ √
Answer. a) ( 7± 6 145 , 3± 4 145 );
b) (±5, ±3); c) (−3, 2), (1, 4).

2x2 + 9x − 5 > 0
6.2. Solve the systems of inequalities: a)

;


x2 + 5x − 6 < 0

x+1 ≤ 0
x2 − 4 ≤ 0

b)
x + 3 ≥ 0 ; c)

x2 + 3x < 0 .

x −x−6 < 0
2
2 − x − x2 ≥ 0
 EXERCISES 43

Answer. a) x ∈ (−6, −5) ∪ (1/2, 1); b) x ∈ (−2, −1]; c) x ∈ [−2, 0).

x2 − 2x − 15
6.3. Solve the rational inequalities: a) < 0;
2x − 5
x2 − x − 6 x−4 5x2 + x − 3
b) > 0; c) ≤ 3x; d) ≥ 1.
−x2 − 4x + 5 x−2 x2 − 3x − 4
Answer. a) x ∈ (−∞, −3) ∪ (5/2, 5); b) x ∈ (−5, −2) ∪ (1, 3);
c) x ∈ [1, 4/3] ∪ (2, ∞); d) x ∈ (−∞, −1) ∪ {−1/2} ∪ (4, ∞).
6.4. Find domains Df , Dg , Df ±g , Df g , Df /g , where:

(x − 3)(x − 2) x2 − 16  2

T
f (x) = , g(x) = x − 9.
x−1 x−7
Answer: Df = (1, 2] ∪ [3, ∞); Dg = (−∞, −3] ∪ [3, 7) ∪ (7, ∞);
Df ±g = Df g = Df ∩ Dg ; Df /g = (3, 4) ∪ (4, ∞).

6.5. Solve the systems of inequalities:

x+4
x+8

2x − 3
a)

x+4 ≤ 1

2x − 3
>0

; b)

x + 2
>2
F

lg(x − 1) ≤ 1
.

Answer. a) x ∈ (−∞, −4); b) x ∈ (1, 4).

A

6.6. Solve

the next
modular

inequalities:

x − 2

3x + 1

a)

≥ 2; b)

2
x + 1

x − 3
< 3; c) |x − 5x| < 6;

2

|x − 3|
x − 5x + 4

d) 2 ≥ 2;

e)

≤ 1.
x2 − 4

x − 5x + 6
Answer. a) x ∈ [−4, −1) ∪ (−1, 0]; b) x ∈ (−∞, 4/3);
c) x ∈ (−1, 2) ∪ (3, 6); d) x ∈ [3/2, 2); e) x ∈ [0, 8/5] ∪ [5/2, ∞).
6.7. Sketch the solutions to systems of inequalities

in two variables:


2x + y ≥ 2


x − 2y ≤ −2

x − 2y ≥ −4

4x + 3y ≤ 12
D

a)
; b)

4x − 3y > −6 ; c)

.
3x − y < 3

0≤ x ≤2
x+y < 5
y > 0

Answer.

a) b) c)
 7

Exponential and logarithmic functions

In Chapter 5 exponentiation with rational exponent has been con-

sidered. The next section extended this notion.

T
7.1. Exponentiation, identities and properties
Exponentiation with real exponents. Since any real number
can be approximated by rational numbers, exponentiation to an arbi-
trary real exponent can be defined by continuity.

s
F
Let x be an irrational number, using mathematical analysis it can
be proved:
For a > 0 there exists a unique real number A, such that ar < A <
a , where r and s are rational numbers and r < x < s.
For 0 < a < 1 there exists a unique real number A, such that
ar > A > as , where r and s are rational numbers and r < x < s.
A
√ √
Example 7.1. Since 3 ≈ 1.732, we can assume 5 3 ≈ 51.732 .
Identities and properties. The rules for combining quantities
containing powers are called the exponent laws. Let a, b > 0, and x
and y be rational numbers or real numbers. The most important iden-
R

tities satisfied by exponentiation are given in Table 5.1 chapter 5.

Remark 7.1. The number e, mathematical constant of John Napier∗,
is defined as the limit of a series of integer powers
 
1 n
e = lim 1 + ,
n→∞ n
D

where e ≈ 2.718281828459.... An integer power x of e is

   x 
x 1 m x mx  x n
e = lim 1 + = lim 1 + = lim 1 + .
m→∞ m m→∞ mx n→∞ n
The right hand side generalizes the meaning of ex so that x does not
have to be an integer but can be a fraction, a real number, a complex
number, or a square matrix.
∗ John Napier (1550 - 1617) also signed as Neper, Nepair named Marvellous Mer-
chiston, was a Scottish mathematician, physicist, astronomer and astrologer, and also
the 8th Laird of Merchistoun. He was the inventor of logarithms, introduced constant
e, denoted sometimes by exp, and natural logarithm.
44
 7.3. EXPONENTIAL EQUATIONS AND INEQUALITIES IN ONE VARIABLE 45
√
1 e
Example 7.2. Compare reals ( 10 ) and 10−2 2 .
√
Solution. As e ≈ 2.7183 ans 2 ≈ 1.4142, we have
 e √
1
≈ 10−2.7183 > 10−2.8284 ≈ 10−2 2 .
10
This inequality follows by the fact, that the function 10x is monotone
increasing and −2.7183 > −2.8284.

7.2. Exponential functions

The graphs of some exponential functions y = ax are given on Figure
7.1. As a > 0, then ranges of exponential functions is (0, ∞).

T
For 0 < a < 1 the exponential functions ax are monotone decreasing
for all reals. So, ax1 > ax2 if and only if x1 < x2 .
For a > 1 the exponential functions ax are monotone increasing in
R. So, ax1 < ax2 if and only if x1 < x2 .

F
A
R

Figure 7.1. Exponential functions

7.3. Exponential equations and inequalities in one variable

Exponential equations in one unknown. Let: a, b > 0; a, b = 1
and c, p, q be real constants and f and g are real valued functions with
D

common domain ∅ = D ⊆ R. Then the following schemes for solving

equalities in one variable are valid.
• af (x) = ag(x) ⇐⇒ f (x) = g(x), x ∈ D.
• af (x) = bg(x) ⇐⇒ (after logarithmic transformation with a
base of a or b) f (x) = g(x) loga b, x ∈ D, or f (x) logb a = g(x),
x ∈ D.  a f (x)
• af (x) = cbf (x) ⇐⇒ = c, x ∈ D.
b
• a2f (x) +
paf (x) + g = 0 for x ∈ D, substituting y = af (x) > 0 we

af (x) = y > 0
obtain

2 .
y + py + q = 0
 7.3. EXPONENTIAL EQUATIONS AND INEQUALITIES IN ONE VARIABLE 46

• paf (x) + qbf (x) = c

for x ∈ D, if ab = 1, the substitution

af (x) = y > 0
af (x) = y > 0 yields

2 .
py − cy + q = 0
Example 7.3. Solve the equation 8x − 4x+0.5 − 2x + 2 = 0.
Solution. Rewriting equation as
(2x )3 − 2(2x )2 − 2x + 2 = 2x [(2x )2 − 1] − 2[(2x )2 − 1] =
[(2x )2 − 1](2x − 2) = 0 ,
leads to 2x = −1, 2x = 1 and 2x = 2. The first equality is impossible in
real analysis, the last ones yield solutions x1 = 0 and x2 = 1.

T
Exponential inequalities in one variable. Let: f be a real val-
ued function with non-empty domain D ⊆ R, a > 0 and b ∈ R. Consider
the next inequalities:
af (x) > b , (7.1)

Solutions depend on a and b.

a f (x)

F
< b.

Solutions of (7.1) are derived according the following schemes:

- For b ≤ 0 the inequality is valid ∀x ∈ R.
(7.2)

- For b > 0 and a ∈ (0, 1) we have

A
loga af (x) < loga b ⇐⇒ f (x) < loga b , x ∈ D .
- For b > 0 and a > 1 we have
loga af (x) > loga b ⇐⇒ f (x) > loga b , x ∈ D .
The inequality (7.2) is solved in the following way:
R

- For b ≤ 0 the inequality is not valid, x ∈ ∅.

- For b > 0 and a ∈ (0, 1) we have
loga af (x) > loga b ⇐⇒ f (x) > loga b , x ∈ D .
- For b > 0 and a > 1 we have
loga af (x) < loga b ⇐⇒ f (x) < loga b , x ∈ D .
D

Remark 7.2. If we have a2f (x) + paf (x) + q < 0; p, q ∈ R; a substi-

tution y = af (x) > 0 yields y 2 + py + q > 0.
Example 7.4. Find solutions of the inequality 0.53x−1 ≥ 0.5x+1 .
We represent the inequality as
(0.5x )3 ≥ 0.25 · 0.5x ⇐⇒ 0.5x [(0.5x )2 − 0.25] ≥ 0 ⇐⇒
0.5x [0.5x + 0.5](0.5x − 0.5) ≥ 0 .
As the ax > 0 for any x, then the sign of inequality is determined by
0.5x − 0.5 ≥ 0. Therefore we have x ≤ 1, because the function 0.5x is
monotone decreasing ∀x ∈ R.
 7.4. LOGARITHMS, IDENTITIES AND PROPERTIES 47

7.4. Logarithms, identities and properties

Logarithms. The logarithm is the mathematical operation that is
the inverse of exponentiation, or raising a number (the base) to a power.
Definition 7.1. The logarithm of a number b, b > 0, in base a,
a > 0, a = 1, is the unique solution of the equations ax = b, see Figure
7.2.

T
F
Figure 7.2. Definition of a logarithm
A
The logarithm is the number x ∈ R such that ax = b. It is usually
written as x = loga b.
Example 7.5. We have: log2 64 = 6 since 26 = 64; log3 81 = 4 since
34 = 81 and log0.1 0.01 = 2 since 0.12 = 0.01.
R

If x is a positive integer n, an means multiplying a by itself n times.

The most widely used bases for logarithms are 10, the mathematical
constant e ≈ 2.71828... and 2, respectively their notations are:
— common logarithm (lg = log10 ) in engineering and when loga-
rithm tables are used to simplify hand calculations;
D

— natural logarithm (ln = loge ) in mathematical analysis;

— binary logarithm (ld = log2 ) in information theory and musical
intervals.

Identities and properties of logarithms. Logarithms were in-

troduced to make numerical calculations easier. For instance, loga xy =
loga x + loga y because ax · ay = ax+y . The following trivial identities
are valid loga 1 = 0 because a0 = 1, also loga a = 1 because a1 = a. The
logarithm is defined only for positive reals because loga 0 is undefined,
there is no number x such that ax = 0.
Let: a, b ∈ R \ {1} , m ∈ R and x, y > 0, the most important
identities satisfied by logarithms are (see Table 7.1):
 7.5. LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS 48

aloga x = x loga ax = x
loga xy = loga x + loga y loga xy = loga x − loga y
1
loga xm = m loga x logam x = m loga x, m = 0
logb x 1
loga x = logb a loga b = logb a

loga x < loga y, a > 1 loga x > loga y, 0 < a < 1

Table 7.1. Properties of logarithms

T
7.5. Logarithmic functions
Change of base is used to find a logarithm with base b > 0, b = 1,
using any other base a > 0, a = 1 (common or natural), according to the
equality logb x = log ax
loga b . This result implies that all logarithm functions

F
are similar to each other, they are scaled by loga b, see Figure 7.3.
Example 7.6. To draw a graph of the function y = ln x let calcu-
late some of its values, see next table:

x 1 e e2 e3 e−1
y = ln x 0 1 2 3 −1
A
R
D

Figure 7.3. Graphs of logarithmic functions

Let 0 < a < 1, then the logarithmic function loga x is monotone

decreasing for x > 0. So, loga x1 > loga x2 ⇐⇒ 0 < x1 < x2 .
Let a > 1, then the logarithmic function loga x is monotone increas-
ing for x > 0. So, loga x1 < loga x2 ⇐⇒ 0 < x1 < x2 .
The antilogarithm function is another name for the inverse of the
logarithmic function. It is written antiloga (x) and means the same as
ax .
 7.6. LOGARITHMIC EQUATIONS AND INEQUALITIES IN ONE VARIABLE 49

7.6. Logarithmic equations and inequalities in one variable

Logarithmic equations in one unknown. Let the following con-
ditions hold: a, b, x > 0; a, b = 1; c, p, q be real constants; f (x), g(x),
f1 (x), f2 (x), f3 (x) be positive valued functions with common domain
D ⊆ R.
• loga f (x) = loga g(x) ⇐⇒ f (x) = g(x), x ∈ D.

aloga f (x) = ax
• loga f (x) = c ⇐⇒
⇐⇒

f (x) > 0

f (x) = ax

f (x) > 0 , x ∈ D.

• loga f1 (x) + loga f2 (x) = loga f3 (x) ⇐⇒

loga f1 (x) · f2 (x) = loga f3 (x) ⇐⇒ f1 (x) · f2 (x) = f3 (x) , x ∈ D ,
or
loga f1 (x) − loga f2 (x) = loga f3 (x)

loga
f1 (x)
F
= loga f3 (x)
⇐⇒

⇐⇒
f1 (x)
= f3 (x) , x ∈ D .
f2 (x) f2 (x)
A
•
loga f (x) = logb g(x) ⇐⇒
loga g(x)
loga f (x) = ⇐⇒ loga b loga f (x) = loga g(x) ⇐⇒
loga b
loga f (x)loga b = loga g(x) ⇐⇒ f (x)loga b = g(x) , x ∈ D, .
R

• log2a f (x) + p loga f (x) + q = 0 ⇐⇒

2 loga f (x) = y , x ∈ D.

y + py + q = 0
D

Example 7.7. Solve the equation log1−x 3 + log3 (1 − x) = 2.5.

Solution. The domain of this equality is 1 − x > 0 and 1 − x = 1, hence
x ∈ D = (−∞, 0) ∪ (0, 1). Using properties of the logarithmic function
we have:
1
log1−x 3 + log3 (1 − x) = 2.5 ⇐⇒ + log3 (1 − x) = 2.5 .
log3 (1 − x)
The last one is a quadratic equation
log23 (1 − x) − 2.5 log3 (1 − x) + 1 = 0
with roots log3 (1 − x1 ) = 12 and log3 (1 − x1 ) = 2, and applying antilog-
√
arithm function we derive: x1 = 1 − 3 ∈ D and x2 = −8 ∈ D.
 7.6. LOGARITHMIC EQUATIONS AND INEQUALITIES IN ONE VARIABLE 50

Logarithmic inequalities in one variable. Let: f be a positive

valued function with domain ∅ = D ⊆ R; a > 0, a = 1, and b ∈ R.
Consider the next inequalities:

loga f (x) > b (7.3)

loga f (x) < b . (7.4)

. Solutions depend on a and b.

Solutions of (7.3) are derived according the following schemes:
- For 0 < a < 1 taking the antilogarithm of both sides we obtain
a log a af (x) < ab ⇐⇒

f (x) < ab

f (x) > 0 , x ∈ D .

- For a > 1 taking the antilogarithm of both sides we obtain

f (x) > ab
a loga af (x)
>a b
⇐⇒

F
f (x) > 0
, x ∈ D.

The inequality (7.4) is solved in the following way:

A
- For 0 < a < 1 taking the antilogarithm of both sides we obtain

f (x) > ab
a loga af (x)
>a b
⇐⇒

, x ∈ D.
f (x) > 0

- For a > 1 taking the antilogarithm of both sides we obtain

f (x) < ab
aloga af (x)
<a b
⇐⇒

, x ∈ D.
f (x) > 0

Remark 7.3. If we have log2a f (x) + p loga f (x) + q < 0; p, q ∈ R; a

substitution y = loga f (x) yields a quadratic equation y 2 + py + q < 0.
D

Example 7.8. Solve the inequality log 1 (x + 5)2 ≥ log 1 (3x − 1)2 .
2 2
Solution. As (x+5)2 and (3x−1)2 are positive for all reals except points
−5 and 13 , the domain of this inequality is D = (−∞, −5) ∪ (−5, 13 ) ∪
( 13 , ∞). By using that logarithmic function with base < 1 is decreasing,
we obtain (x + 5)2 ≤ (3x − 1)2 ⇐⇒ (x + 1)(x − 3) ≥ 0. The signs of
this quadratic function is nonnegative in (−∞, −1] ∪ [3, ∞). The final
solution is the intersection (−∞, −1]∪[3, ∞)∩D = (−∞, −5)∪(−5, −1]∪
[3, ∞).

On this theme the following textbooks and sites were used: [2], [9],
[14], [49], [66, 68] and [118].
 EXERCISES 51

Exercises
7.1. Solve the following inequalities: √ √
2
a) 33x+1 > 1; b) 2x −1 > 1; c) 91/x ≤ 3x ; d) 2x < 321/x ;
e) (1/3)|x|−4 < 9.

Answer. a) x ∈ (−1/3, ∞); b) x ∈ (−∞, √ −1) ∪ (1,

√∞);
c) x ∈ [−2; 0) ∪ [2, ∞); d) x ∈ (−∞, − 10) ∪ (0, 10);
e) x ∈ (−∞, −2) ∪ (2, ∞).
7.2. Solve the following equations:

T
2 2
a) xx = x (x > 0); b) 3x +1 + 3x −1 = 270; c) 4x − 2x+2 − 32 = 0;
d) 4x+1,5 − 2x = 1, 5; e) 32x+5 − 3x+2 = 2.

Answer. a) x = 1; b) x = ±2; c) x = 3; d) x = −1; e) x = −2.

7.3. Solve
a) logx
√
3 2+ 3
√
7
the
1 F
√ following inequalities:
< logx 5; b) log2 (2x − 1) > log2 (x + 3);
2
c) log2 x > 1; d) log1/3 x > 2.
Answer. a) x ∈ (0; 1); b) x ∈ (4, ∞); c) x ∈ (2, ∞); d) x ∈ (0, 1/9).
A
7.4. Solve the following equations: 
a) log1/5 x2 = 3; b) lg(3x − 8) + lg(2 − x) = 5; c) log3 (x − 6)2 = 4;
d) logx (2x2 − 5x + 6) = 2; e) log(x−1) (x2 − 5x + 10) = 2.

√
b) it has no solution; c) x1 = 87, x2 = −75;
R

Answer. a) x = 5/25;
d) x1 = 2, x2 = 3; e) x = 3.
D
 8

Trigonometry

The trigonometric functions, that are known in mathematics as cir-

cular functions, may introduced by different ways. We starting acquain-

T
tance with them as functions of an angle, and later they extended as
functions of reals.

8.1. Definition of trigonometric functions

F
Right-angled triangle definition. Consider the right-angled tri-
angle ABC with sides of length: BC = a > 0, AC = b > 0, AC⊥BC
and hypotenuse AB = c > 0 as shown in Figure 8.1. For the angle
A
R

Figure 8.1. A rectangular triangle

θ = BAC, we have:
D

b opposite a adjacent
sin θ = = , cos θ = = ,
c hypotenuse c hypotenuse
b opposite sin θ c hypotenuse 1
tan θ = = = , sec θ = = = ,
a adjacent cos θ a adjacent cos θ
a adjacent cos θ c hypotenuse 1
cot θ = = = , csc θ = = = .
b opposite sin θ b opposite sin θ

There are few angles for which all trigonometric functions may be found
using the triangles shown in the Figure 8.1. Their values are given in
the Table 8.1 and on the Figure 8.9.

52
 8.1. DEFINITION OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS 53

Angle θ Trigonometric functions

(radians) sin θ cos θ tan θ cot θ csc θ sec θ

0 0 √1 √0 not defined not defined √1

π 1 3 3 √ 2 3
3 2
6 2 2 3 3
√ √
π 2 2 √ √
1 1 2 2
4 2 2
√ √ √
π 3 1 √ 3 2 3
3 2
3 2 2 3 3
π
1 0 not defined 0 1 not defined

T
2

Table 8.1. Special values in trigonometric functions

Measure of an angle. Any real number θ can be interpreted as

F
the radian measure of the angle constructed as follows: wrap a piece of
string of length s units around the unit circle (counterclockwise if θ ≥ 0,
clockwise if θ < 0) with initial point P (1, 0) and terminal point Q(x, y),
see Figure 8.2. This gives rise to the central angle with vertex O(0, 0)
and sides through the points P and Q. If instead of wrapping a length
A
R

Figure 8.2. Measure of an angle

D

s of string around the unit circle, we decide to wrap it around a circle

of radius r, the angle θ (in radians) will satisfy the following relation
s = rθ.
Note 8.1. Note that the length s of string gives the measure of the
angle θ only when r = 1.
Usually we measure angles in degrees, which are defined by parti-
tioning one whole revolution into 360 equal parts, each of which is then
called one degree. So, one whole revolution around the unit circle mea-
sures 2π radians and also 360 degrees (or 360◦ ), i.e.:
360◦ = 2π radians, or 180◦ = π radians .
 8.1. DEFINITION OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS 54

Each degree may be further subdivided into 60 parts, called minutes,

and in turn each minute may be subdivided into another 60 parts, called
seconds: 1◦ = 60 minutes = 60 and 1 = 60 seconds = 60 .
As it wellknown the number π is irrational, 3.14 < π < 22 7 , and a
remarkably accurate approximation of π was given by Archimedes∗.

T
Figure 8.3. Sine and tangent axes
F Figure 8.4. Cosine and cotangent
axes
A
Unit circle definition. All six trigonometric functions are defined
in terms of the coordinates of the point Q(x, y), as follows:
y 1
cos θ = x ; tan θ = , x = 0 ; sec θ = , x = 0 ;
x x
R

x 1
sin θ = y ; cot θ = , y = 0 ; csc θ = , y= 0.
y y
Since Q(x, y) is a point on the unit circle, we know that x2 + y 2 =
1. This fact and the definitions of the trigonometric functions yield
Pythagorean, see Footnote ∗ on the page 12, and reciprocal identities,
D

see third section.

This modern notation for trigonometric functions is due to Leonard

∗ Archimedes of Syracuse (287 - 212 BC) was an ancient Greek, mathematician,
physicist, engineer, inventor, and astronomer. Among his advances in physics are
the foundations of hydrostatics, statics and an explanation of the principle of the
lever. He used the method of exhaustion to calculate the area under the arc of a
parabola with the summation of an infinite series. He also defined the spiral bearing
his name, formulae for the volumes of surfaces of revolution and an ingenious system
for expressing very large numbers. Archimedes had proven that the sphere has two
thirds of the volume and surface area of the cylinder, and regarded this as the greatest
of his mathematical achievements.
 8.2. CLASSIFICATION OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS 55

Euler∗ (1748).
Periodic functions. Let an angle corresponds to a point Q(x, y) on
the unit circle. It is not hard to see that the angle θ + 2π corresponds
to the same point Q(x, y), and hence
cos(θ + 2π) = cos θ , sin(θ + 2π) = sin θ . (8.1)
Moreover, 2π is the smallest positive angle for which equations (8.1) are
true for any angle θ. In general, we have for all angles θ:
cos(θ + 2nπ) = cos θ , n = 0, ±1, ±2, . . . .
sin(θ + 2nπ) = sin θ ,
(8.2)

T
We call the number 2π the period of the trigonometric functions sine
and cosine, and refer to these functions as being periodic, see Figures
8.5 and 8.6. Both secant and cosecant are periodic functions with period
2π, while tangent and cotangent are periodic with period π, see Figures
8.7 and 8.8.

F
8.2. Classification of trigonometric functions
The main properties of trigonometric functions - sine, cosine, tangent
and cotangent are accomplished according classification given in Chapter
3, Section 3.3.
A
Sine function. The sine function is a surjective map of reals onto
[−1, 1], sin : R −→ [−1, 1], with following properties:
• Bounded function, | sin x| ≤ 1, on R.
• Odd function, sin(−x) = − sin x, on R (odd identity).
• Periodic function with period 2π, sin(x + 2π) = sin x, ∀x ∈ R.
• Strictly increasing on [− π2 , π2 ], strictly decreasing on [ π2 , 3π
2 ], and
R

on rotated intervals over 2kπ, k ∈ Z.

D

Figure 8.5. Graph of sine function

∗ Leonhard Euler (1707 - 1783) was a Swiss mathematician and physicist. He made
important discoveries in infinitesimal calculus and graph theory. He also introduced
much of the modern mathematical terminology and notation, such as the notion of a
mathematical function. He is also renowned for his work in mechanics, fluid dynamics,
optics, and astronomy. Euler spent most of his adult life in St. Petersburg, Russia,
and in Berlin, Prussia. He is considered to be one of the greatest mathematician of
all time. He is also one of the most prolific mathematicians ever - his collected works
fill 6080 quarto volumes.
 8.2. CLASSIFICATION OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS 56

The graph of sin x is shown on Figure 8.5.

Cosine function. The cosine function is a surjective map of reals
onto [−1, 1], cos : R −→ [−1, 1], with following properties:
• Bounded function, | cos x| ≤ 1, on R.
• Even function, cos(−x) = cos x, on R (even identity).
• Periodic function with period 2π, cos(x + 2π) = cos x, ∀x ∈ R.
• Strictly increasing on [−π, 0], strictly decreasing on [0, π], and
on wrapped intervals over 2kπ, k ∈ Z.
The graph of cos x is shown on Figure 8.6.

T
F
Figure 8.6. Graph of sine function

Tangent function. . The tangent function is a surjective map of

D = R \ { π2 + kπ , k ∈ Z} onto R, tan : D −→ R, with following
properties:
A
• Unbounded function, ∀x ∈ D.
• Odd function, tan(−x) = − tan x, on D (odd identity).
• Periodic function with period π, tan(x + π) = tan x, ∀x ∈ D.
• Strictly increasing on (− π2 , π2 ), and on wrapped intervals over
kπ, k ∈ Z.
R
D

Figure 8.7. Graph of tangent Figure 8.8. Graph of cotangent

 8.3. IDENTITIES 57

The graph of tangent function is shown on Figure 8.7.

Cotangent function. The cotangent function is a surjective map
of D = R\{kπ , k ∈ Z} onto R, cot : D −→ R, with following properties:
• Unbounded function, ∀x ∈ D.
• Odd function, cot(−x) = − cot x, on D (odd identity).
• Periodic function with period π, cot(x + π) = cot x, ∀x ∈ D.
• Strictly decreasing on (0, π), and on wrapped intervals over kπ,
k ∈ Z.
The graph of cotangent function is presented on Figure 8.8.

T
8.3. Identities
Fundamental identities
1 1 1
Reciprocal identities: sin x = , cos x = , tan x = .
csc x sec x cot x
Pythagorean identities: sin2 x + cos2 x = 1, 1 + tan2 x = sec2 x, 1 +
cot2 x = csc2 x.
Addition formulas
Sum-difference formulas:
F
tan x ± tan y
sin(x ± y) = sin x cos y ± cos x sin y , tan(x ± y) =
A
,
1 ∓ tan x tan y
cot x cot y ∓ 1
cos(x ± y) = cos x cos y ∓ sin x sin y , cot(x ± y) = .
cot x ± cot y
Using the addition formulas, we obtain the co-function identities:
 π π 
R

 
sin x + = cos x , cos x + π2 = − sin x , cos − x = sin x ,
2 2
π     π 
sin − x = cos x , cot π2 − x = tan x , tan + x = − cot x ,
2 2
sin(π − x) = sin x , cos(π − x) = − cos x , cot(π − x) = − cot x .
D

Applying co-function and even-odd identities, we can extent the spe-

cial values in sine and cosine functions, see Figure 8.9.
Double-angle and half-angle formulas
Double-angle formulas
2 tan x
sin 2x = 2 sin x cos x , sin 2x = ,
1 + tan2 x
cos 2x = cos2 x − sin2 x , cos 2x = 2 cos2 x − 1 , cos 2x = 1 − 2 sin2 x ,

1 − tan2 x 2 tan x cot2 x − 1

cos 2x = , tan 2x = , cot 2x = .
1 + tan2 x 1 − tan2 x 2 cot x
 8.3. IDENTITIES 58

T
F
Figure 8.9. Special values in sine and cosine functions
A
Example 8.1. Simplify the expression 2 sin α sin 2α + cos 3α.
Solution. Consequently applying sum and difference formulas for cosine
we have:
2 sin α sin 2α + cos 3α = 2 sin α sin 2α + cos(2α + α) =
2 sin α sin 2α + cos 2α cos α − sin 2α sin α =
R

cos 2α cos α + sin α sin 2α = cos α .

Half-angle formulas
x 1 − cos x x 1 + cos x
sin2 = , cos2 = ,
2 2 2 2
D

x 1 − cos x 1 − cos x sin x

tan2 = = = ,
2 1 + cos x sin x 1 + cos x
x 1 + cos x 1 + cos x sin x
cot2 = = = .
2 1 − cos x sin x 1 − cos x
Product and sum formulas
1
cos x cos y = (cos(x + y) + cos(x − y)) ,
2
1
sin x sin y = (cos(x − y) − cos(x + y)) ,
2
1
sin x cos y = (sin(x + y) + sin(x − y)) .
2
 8.4. INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS 59

8.4. Inverse trigonometric functions

The all six trigonometric functions are periodic, and hence not in-
jective, therefore to define an inverse function we must restrict their
domains so that the trigonometric functions have to be bijection.
For example, the function y = arcsin x is defined so that sin y = x.
There are multiple numbers y such that siny = x; for example, sin 0 = 0,
but also sin π = 0, sin 2π = 0, etc. It follows that the arcsine function
is multivalued: arcsin 0 = 0, but also arcsin 0 = π, arcsin 0 = 2π, etc.
When only one value is desired, the function may be restricted to its
principal branch, i.e. the expression arcsin x, for each x in the domain,

T
will evaluate only to a single value, called its principal value With this
restriction.
The principal inverses of sine, cosine, tangent and cotangent func-
tions, that are also known in mathematics as cyclometric functions, have
following properties.

F
Arcsine function. The principal branch of arcsine is a bijective
map of [−1, 1] onto [−π/2, π/2], arcsin : [−1, 1] −→ [−π/2, π/2], with
following properties (see Figure 8.10):
A
• Bounded function, −π/2 ≤ arcsin x ≤ π/2, ∀x ∈ [−1, 1].
• Odd function, arcsin(−x) = − arcsin x, ∀x ∈ [−1, 1].
• Strictly increasing on [−1, 1].
R
D

Figure 8.10. Graph of arcsin x Figure 8.11. Graph of arccos x

 8.4. INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS 60
 √ 
Example 8.2. Evaluate arcsin − 22 .
Solution. Angles whose sines are negative fall in the 3rd and 4th quad-
rants, see Figure 8.3. We choose the angle −π/4, as the principal value
has to be grater than
√
−π/2, or by√ the fact, that arcsine is odd function,
we have arcsin(− 2 ) = − arcsin 22 = −π/4, see Figure 8.9.
2

Arccosine function. The principal branch of arccosine is a bijec-

tive map of [−1, 1] onto [0, π], arccos : [−1, 1] −→ [0, π], with following
properties (see Figure 8.11):
• Bounded function, 0 ≤ arccos x ≤ π, ∀x ∈ [−1, 1].

T
• Strictly decreasing on [−1, 1].
 √ 
Example 8.3. Evaluate arccos − 23 .
Solution. Angles whose cosines are negative fall in the 2nd and 3rd
quadrants, see Figure 8.4. We choose the angle 5π/6 as the principal

F
value of arccosine has to be less then π, see Figure 8.9.
A

Figure 8.12. Graph of arctan x Figure 8.13. Graph of arccotx

R

Arctangent function. The principal branch of arctangent is a bi-

jective map of R onto (−π/2, π/2), arctan : R −→ (−π/2, π/2), with
following properties (see Figure 8.12):
• Bounded function, −π/2 < arctan x < π/2, ∀x ∈ R.
• Odd function, arctan(−x) = − arctan x, ∀x ∈ R.
• Strictly increasing on R.
D

√
Example 8.4. Evaluate arctan 3.
Solution. Angles whose tangent are positive fall in the 1st and 3rd
quadrants, see Figure 8.3. We choose the angle π/3 as the principal
value of arctangent has to be less then π/2, see Figure 8.9.
Arccotangent function. The principal branch of arccotangent is
a bijective map of R onto (0, π), arctan : R −→ (0, , π), with following
properties (see Figure 8.13):
• Bounded function, 0 < arccotx < π, ∀x ∈ R.
• Strictly decreasing on R.
 8.5. TRIGONOMETRIC EQUATIONS AND INEQUALITIES 61

Example 8.5. Evaluate arccot(−1).

Solution. Angles whose cotangent are negative fall in the 2nd and 4th
quadrants, see Figure 8.4. We choose the angle 3π/4 as the principal
value of arccotangent has to be less then π, see Figure 8.9.
Note 8.2. For inverse trigonometric functions, the notations sin−1
and cos−1 are often used for arcsin and arccos, etc. When this notation
is used, the inverse functions could be confused with the multiplicative
inverses of the functions.
Example 8.6. Calculate: a) arccos[sin(− π8 )], b) sin(arccos 23 ),

T
c) tan(arctan 2 + arctan 3), d) 2arccot 4 + arccot 3.
Solution. a) By denoting an angle α = arccos[sin(− π8 )] and co-function
identity, we have cos α = − sin( π8 ) = cos( π2 + π8 ). Therefore α = 5π8 ∈
[0, π].
b) Let α = arccos 23 ∈ [0, π], then sine in 2-nd and 3-rd quadrant is
√
positive, thus sin α = 1 −
cos α = 2
3 and hence sin α = 1−
F
cos2 α. The definition of arccosine yields
4
9 = 59 .

c) Suppose, that α = arctan 2 and β = arctan 3. By definition of arc-

tangent we have tan α = 2 and tan β = 3. Applying sum formula for
A
tan α+tan β
tangent we obtain tan(α + β) = 1−tan α tan β = −1.

d) We set: α = arccot 4 and β = arccot 3, and therefore, by arccotan-

gent definition follows cot(α) = 4 and cot(β) = 3. Sum and double
angle formulas for cotangent yield cot(2α + β) = cot(2α) cot β−1
cot(2α)+cot β and
2
cot 2α = cot α−1
R

2 cot α = 15/8, and finally substituting this result in sum for-

mula we receive cot(2α + β) = 45/8−1
15/8+3 = 37/39 and 2arccot 4+ arccot 3 =
arccot 37/39.

8.5. Trigonometric equations and inequalities

D

Let consider an equation or inequalities of the type

f (x) = a , f (x) < a , f (x) > a , a ∈ R,
where f (x) is one of trigonometric functions: sin x , cos x, tan x, cot x.
The solutions of above equations and inequalities are given in Tables
8.2-8.5, where the angle θ is the solution of corresponding trigonometric
equation and θ = f −1 (a), if a belongs to the domain of the inverse
function f −1 .

Sine equations and inequalities. Solutions of sine equations and

inequalities are derived by the unit circle sine definition, inverse sine
 8.5. TRIGONOMETRIC EQUATIONS AND INEQUALITIES 62
 
−π π
function and gathered in the Table 8.2. Let θ = arcsin a, θ ∈ ,
2 2
and k ∈ Z, see Figure 8.3.

Value Equation or inequality

of a sin x = a sin x > a sin x < a
Solution
a < −1 x∈∅ x∈R x∈∅
π π π
a = −1 θ = − , x = − + 2kπ x ∈ R \ {− + 2kπ} x∈∅
2 2 2
|a| < 1 x = θ + 2kπ θ + 2kπ < x < −π − θ + 2kπ < x <
x = π − θ + 2kπ π − θ + 2kπ θ + 2kπ
y

T
x

a=1
a>1
θ=
π
2
x∈∅
π
, x = + 2kπ
2
F x∈∅
x∈∅
x∈R\{
π
2
x∈R
+ 2kπ}

Table 8.2
A

Example 8.7. Solve the equation sin x + cos x = 1.

 
Solution. As cos x = 1 − sin2 x, it follows 1 − sin2 x = 1 − sin x,
R

squaring both sides we obtain:

1 − sin2 x = (1 − sin x)2 =⇒ sin x(1 − sin x) = 0.
Solutions of the equation are:
sin x = 0 =⇒ x = arcsin 0 = 0 and
sin x = 1 =⇒ x = arcsin 1 = π/2 .
D

Therefore, as the sine function is periodic with least period 2π, the set
of solutions is x1 = 2kπ, k ∈ Z and x2 = π2 + 2kπ.
Cosine equations and inequalities. Solutions of cosine equations
and inequalities are derived by the unit circle cosine definition, arccosine
function and gathered in the Table 8.3. Let θ = arccos a, θ ∈ [0, π] and
k ∈ Z, see Figure 8.4.
Example 8.8. Solve the inequality 2 cos2 x + cos x − 3 ≥ 0.
Solution. The roots of quadratic equation in cos x are −3/2 and 1 and we have
to determine the signs of the next quadratic function
f (cos x) = 2(cos x + 3/2)(cos x − 1).
 8.5. TRIGONOMETRIC EQUATIONS AND INEQUALITIES 63

Value Equation or inequality

of a cos x = a cos x > a cos x < a
Solution
a < −1 x∈∅ x∈R x∈∅
a = −1 θ = π , x = π + 2kπ x ∈ R \ {π + 2kπ} x∈∅
|a| < 1 x = −θ + 2kπ −θ + 2kπ < x < −π − θ + 2kπ < x <
x = θ + 2kπ θ + 2kπ 2π − θ + 2kπ
y

T
π π π
a=1 θ= , x = + 2kπ x∈∅ x∈R\{ + 2kπ}
2 2 2
a>1 x∈∅ x∈∅ x∈R

F
Table 8.3

The function f ≥ 0 for: cos x ≤ −3/2, that is impossible, and for cos x ≥ 1,
A
from where the admissible solution is cos x = 1 =⇒ x = arccos 1 = 0,
and finally as cosine is periodic with smallest period 2π we obtain the set of
solutions x = 2kπ, k ∈ Z.
Remark 8.1. Trigonometric equations of the type csc x = a and sec x = a,
a ∈ R, are respectively equivalent to the following equations:
R

1
csc x = a =⇒ a sin x = 1 or sin x = , a = 0 ,
a
1
sec x = a =⇒ a cos x = 1 or cos x = , a = 0 ,
a
and hence would not considered.
D

Tangent equations and inequalities. Solutions of tangent equations

and inequalities are derived by the unit circle tangent definition, inverse
 π π tangent

function and gathered in the Table 8.4. Let θ = arctan a, θ ∈ − , and
2 2
k ∈ Z, see Figure 8.3.
√
Example 8.9. Find solutions of the inequality given by tan( π6 −x) > − 3.
Solution. The domain of given inequality is cos( π6 − x) = 0 =⇒ x = − π3 + kπ,
k ∈ Z.
As the tangent is odd function we have tan( π6 − x) = − tan(x − π6 ), and
√
hence the given inequality is reduced to tan(x − π6 ) < 3.
By the fact, that tangent and arctangent are strictly monotone increasing,
definition of principal value of arctangent, periodicity of tangent and some
 8.5. TRIGONOMETRIC EQUATIONS AND INEQUALITIES 64

Value Equation or inequality

of a tan x = a tan x > a tan x < a
Solution

a∈R x = θ + kπ θ + kπ < x < −π/2 + kπ < x <

π/2 + kπ θ + kπ

T
a=0 θ = 0 , x = kπ kπ < x < π2 + kπ − π2 + kπ < x < kπ

Table 8.4

transformations follows:

π
π
−∞ < tan(x − ) < tan
6
− + kπ < x < + kπ
π
π
3
=⇒

=⇒
F −
π
2
π
π
6
π
π
+ kπ < x − < + kπ
3
− + kπ < x < + kπ .
=⇒

3 2 3 2
A
Cotangent equations and inequalities. Solutions of cotangent equa-
tions and inequalities are derived by the unit circle cotangent definition, arc-
cotangent function and gathered in the Table 8.5. Let θ = arccota, θ ∈ (0, π)
and k ∈ Z, see Figure 8.4.

Value Equation or inequality

R

of a cot x = a cot x > a cot x < a

Solution
y

p+q
x
D

a∈R x = θ + kπ kπ < x < θ + kπ θ + kπ < x < π + kπ

π
a=0 θ= 2
, x = π2 + kπ kπ < x < π2 + kπ π
2
+ kπ < x < π + kπ

Table 8.5

√
Example 8.10. Solve the inequality cot 2x = − 3/3.
Solution. The domain of inequality is sin 2x = 0 =⇒ x = kπ/2, k ∈ Z. By
 EXERCISES 65

using Table 8.5 and we have

2π 2π π π
cot 2x = cot =⇒ 2x = + kπ =⇒ x = + k , k ∈ Z .
3 3 3 2
Solution of systems trigonometric inequalities are demonstrated on the next
example.
Example 8.11. Solve the system of inequalities:

sin x > 0.5 ,

tan x < 1 .

Solution. The domain of system is sin x = 0 =⇒ x = kπ, k ∈ Z.

T
By Table 8.2 and Figure 8.9 the solution of first inequality sin x > 0.5 is
π
6 + 2kπ < x < 5π6 + 2kπ, k ∈ Z.
The second inequality tan x < 1, as the tangent function is monotone
increasing −∞ < tan x < tan π4 has the solution − π2 + πm < x < π4 + πm,
m ∈ Z (see Table 8.4). Superposition of these two solution gives the general
solution of the system:

π

π
π

5π F
6 + 2πn < x < 4 + 2πn ,

2 + 2πn < x < 6 + 2πn .

On this theme the following textbooks and sites were used [2], [9], [11],
[14], [32], [47], [65], [85], [110] - [112].
A
Exercises
8.1. Find following values: cos 2π 5π 5π 5π
3 , sin 4 , cot 6 , tan 3 . Check the
answers by Figure 8.9.
√
8.2. Prove, that: a) cos α + sin α = 2 cos( π4 − α),
sin(α−β) cos(α−β)
b) tan α − tan β =
R

cos α cos β ,
c) cot α + cot β = cos α sin β .
√
Evaluate the following: a) arccos(− 2/2), b) arctan(−1),
8.3. √ c)
arccot(− 3).
3π 5π
Answer. a) 4 , b) − π4 , c) 6 .

8.4. Prove, that: a) arccos(sin 7π π

10 ) = 5 ,
√ √
D

b) sin(2 arccos 12 ) = 23 , c) sin(arcsin 12 ) + cos[π − arctan(−1)] = 1− 2

2 , d)
arccot(−2) + arccot(−3) = − 3π 4 .
8.5. Solve the following equations: a) tan( π4 + x) = −1,
b) 1 − cos x = 2 sin x2 , c) sin 3x = 2 sin x.
Answer. a) x = − π2 + kπ, b) x = kπ, c) x = kπ and x = ± π6 + kπ.
8.6. Solve trigonometric inequalities: a) sin x > cos x, b) sin 2x−2 cos x ≤
0, c) tan 2x + cot 2x > 2.

Answer. a) π4 + 2kπ < x < 5π 4 + 2kπ, k ∈ N;

b) − π2 + 2kπ ≤ x ≤ π
2 + 2kπ, k ∈ N; c) x ∈ (k π2 , π4 + k π2 ) \ { π8 + k π2 }, k ∈ N.
 9

Sequences and progressions

9.1. Number sequences

T
Definition, representation and classification.
Definition 9.1. A surjective mapping f : N → R is called a real number
sequence, and denoted by a1 , a2 , . . . , an , . . . or {an }∞
n=1 or {an }.
The element an = f (n) is called the general (common) member or element of
the sequence.
If N∗ ⊂ N, then {an∗ }, n∗ ∈ N∗ is called a subsequence of {an }

integer.
F
A finite sequence is denoted by: a1 , a2 , . . . , an or {aj }nj=1 , where n is fixed

The following examples contain infinite sequences.

−1 1 −1 (−1)n+1
Example 9.1. The sequence 1, , , , ... , , . . . has a general
A
2 3 4 n
(−1)n+1
member an = = f (n), n ∈ N, see Figure 9.1. The common element
n
of the sequence can be express by a piecewise function as follows

−1
, n = 2k − 1
an = f (n) = 1n , k ∈ N.
n , n = 2k
R
D

Figure 9.1. Graph of functions Figure 9.2. Graphs of functions

f (n) g(n) and h(n)

Example 9.2. The both sequences with common elements bn and cn , re-
spectively
0, −1, 0, −1, . . . , 0, −1, . . . and 1, 2, 3, 1, 2, 3, . . . , 1, 2, 3, . . .
are stationary. The first one have two subsequences with general members
b2n−1 = 0, b2n = −1, n ∈ N. The second sequence has three subsequences:
66
 9.1. NUMBER SEQUENCES 67

with common elements: c3n−2 = 1, c3n−1 = 2, c3n = 3, n ∈ N, see Figure 9.2.

As functions, they are represented by piece-wise functions in the following way:

0, n = 2k − 1
bn = g(n) = , k ∈ N and
−1 , n = 2k
⎧
⎪
⎨1 , n = 3k − 2
cn = h(n) = 2 , n = 3k − 1 , k ∈ N .
⎪
⎩
3 , n = 3k
The functions g and h are periodic ones with least periods 2 and 3, respectively.
Representation of sequences

T
An infinite sequence may be defined by an equality that connects two or
more members, including the common member of the sequence. In this case
we say that the sequence is defined by the recurrent formula.
The next examples illustrate the recurrent dependence representation.
1
Example 9.3. Given the infinite sequence with first member d1 = and

F
common member satisfying the recurrent dependence dn+1 = dn . Find the
first five members of the sequence
Solution. Let be n = 2, 3, 4, 5 in the general member thus get
1
2
3

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
d2 = d1 = , d3 = d2 = , d 4 = d3 = , d 5 = d4 = .
A
2 6 2 12 2 24 2 48
Example 9.4. The Fibonacci numbers Fn are the numbers in the following
integer sequence:
0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, . . . .
By definition, the first two Fibonacci∗ numbers are F0 = 0 and F1 = 1, and each
subsequent number is the sum of the previous two. Hence, the sequence {Fn }
R

of Fibonacci numbers is defined by the recurrence relation Fn = Fn−2 + Fn−1 ,

n = 2, 3, . . . .
Classification of sequences
We note, as the sequences are defined as discrete functions, the classification
of functions can be applied, see chapter 3, section 3.3, but we recall it for
completeness.
D

Definition 9.2. A number sequence {an } is said to be:

• bounded above (below) if there exists M ∈ R such that an ≤ M
(an ≥ M ), ∀n ∈ N;
• bounded if it is both bounded above and bounded below, or equiva-
lently if there exists positive number M , so that |an | ≤ M , ∀n ∈ N;
∗ Leonardo Pisano Bigollo (about 1170 - about 1250) also known as Leonardo of

Pisa, Leonardo Pisano, Leonardo Bonacci, Leonardo Fibonacci was an Italian mathe-
matician, considered by some “the most talented western mathematician of the Mid-
dle Ages”. Fibonacci is best known to the modern world for the spreading of the
Hindu-Arabic numeral system, that is simpler and more efficient than with Roman
numerals in Europe.
 9.1. NUMBER SEQUENCES 68

• strictly increasing (strictly decreasing) if an < an+1 (an > an+1 ),

∀n ∈ N;
• strictly monotone if it is either strictly increasing or strictly decreas-
ing;
• non-decreasing (non-increasing), if an ≤ an+1 (an ≥ an+1 ), ∀n ∈ N;
• monotone it is either non-decreasing or non-increasing;
• Cauchy if is satisfied Cauchy∗ condition, i.e. ∀ε > 0 there exists a
natural number N = N (ε), such that |am − an | < ε, ∀n, ∀m > N ;
m, n ∈ N.
For instance the sequences {an }, {bn } and {cn }, see Examples 9.1 and 9.2,
are bounded: −0.5 ≤ an ≤ 1, −1 ≤ bn ≤ 0 and 1 ≤ cn ≤ 3, n ∈ N. The

T
1
sequence {dn } (Example 9.3) is bounded - 0 < dn ≤ , strictly decreasing -
3
dn = 0.5dn + 0.5dn > 0.5dn = dn+1 , n ∈ N. The Fibonacci numbers, {Fn },
are bounded below from 0, strictly increasing - Fn < Fn−1 + Fn = Fn+1 , and
unbouded above, i.e. they tend to +∞.
Convergence.
Definition 9.3. Let {an }∞ F
n=1 be a sequence of reals. The sequence is said
to converge to a real number a if and only if for all ε > 0, there exists a natural
number N = N (ε), such that |an − a| < ε for all n ≥ N , n ∈ N.
If the sequence {an } converges (tends, approaches) to a then we say that
a is the limit of the sequence and write
A
lim an = a or an → a as n → ∞.
n→∞
This is read an approaches a as n tends to ∞, and a sequence is said to be
convergent.
It is also useful to extend this concept and allow sequences whose limits
are either ∞ or −∞.
R

Definition 9.4. A number sequence an is said to approach to ∞ (−∞),

an → ∞ (an → −∞) as n → ∞ if for every M ∈ R there is a natural number
N = N (M ) so that an ≥ M (an ≤ M ) for all n ≥ N , n ∈ N.
We remind the following statements without being proved.
The limit of a convergent sequence is a unique.
D

Theorem 9.1. A sequence can have at most one limit, that is, if an → a
and an → b then a = b.
Convergent sequences are bounded.
∗ Augustin-Louis Cauchy (1789 - 1857) was a French baron and a mathematician who
was an early pioneer of analysis. He started the project of formulating and proving
the theorems of infinitesimal calculus in a rigorous manner. He defined continuity
in terms of infinitesimals, gave several important theorems in complex analysis and
initiated the study of permutation groups in abstract algebra. A profound mathe-
matician, Cauchy exercised a great influence over his contemporaries and successors.
His writings cover the entire range of mathematics and mathematical physics. Cauchy
wrote approximately 800 research articles and 5 complete textbooks.
 9.2. ARITHMETIC PROGRESSION 69

Theorem 9.2. If {an }∞

n=1 is a convergent sequence, then it is bounded.

Each Cauchy sequence is bounded.

Theorem 9.3. If {an }∞
n=1 is a Cauchy sequence, then it is bounded.

Arithmetic properties of convergent sequences.

Theorem 9.4. Let {an }∞ ∞
n=1 and {bn }n=1 be convergent sequences and c ∈
R, then the following properties hold:
(1) lim (an + bn ) = lim an + lim bn ;
n→∞  n→∞   n→∞ 
(2) lim (an bn ) = lim an lim bn ;

T
n→∞ n→∞ n→∞
(3) lim (can ) = c lim an ;
n→∞ n→∞
  lim an
an
(4) lim = n→∞ , assuming bn = 0 for all n ∈ N and lim bn =
n→∞ bn lim bn
n→∞
0;
(5) if an ≤ bn for every n ∈ N, then lim an ≤ lim bn .

quences {an }∞ ∞
F
∞
n→∞ n→∞

Theorem 9.5. (Squeeze, Sandwich, Policemen limit theorem) Given se-

n=1 , {bn }n=1 , and {xn }n=1 , so that an → a and bn → a and
an ≤ xn ≤ bn , n ∈ N, then xn converges to a.
Essential limits - often encountered limits.
A
1 √
lim = 0; lim n n = 1 ;
n→±∞ n n→∞
√
lim an = 0 , |a| < 1 ; lim n a = 1 , a > 0.
n→∞ n→∞

9.2. Arithmetic progression

R

Definition 9.5. An arithmetic progression (AP) or arithmetic sequence is

a sequence of real numbers {an }, such that the difference of any two successive
members an and an+1 , n ∈ N, of the sequence is a constant d, 0 = d ∈ R, called
common difference, i.e.
an+1 − an = d , or an+1 = an + d .
D

Example 9.5. The sequence 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, . . . is an AP with common

difference 2.
If the initial term of an AP is a1 and the common difference members is d,
then the n-th term of the sequence is given by:

an = an−1 + d = an−2 + 2d = · · · = a1 + (n − 1)d, n ∈ N,

and in general we have
an = am + (n − m)d, m , n ∈ N.
A finite portion of an AP is called a finite AP and sometimes just called an
AP.
 9.2. ARITHMETIC PROGRESSION 70

Properties of AP. The behavior of an AP depends on the common dif-

ference d. If the common difference is:
• positive, then the members will grow towards positive infinity (∞);
• negative, then the members will grow towards negative infinity (−∞).
We recall the following theorem without proof.
Theorem 9.6. A number sequence {an } is an AP if and only if for any
three subsequent members an−1 , an and an+1 , n = 2, 3, . . . , are valid identity
an−1 + an+1
an = ,
2
i.e. an is the arithmetic mean of two neighbours.

T
Arithmetic series.
Definition 9.6. Let {an } be an AP with first member a1 and common
difference d. The sum of first n members of the AP is called n-th partial sum
of AP and denoted by

F
S n = a 1 + a 2 + · · · + an .
The sum of the members of an AP is called an arithmetic series.
We can express the sum Sn , n ∈ N, in two different ways:
either
A
Sn = a1 + (a1 + d) + (a1 + 2d) + · · · + (a1 + (n − 2)d) + (a1 + (n − 1)d)
or
Sn = (an − (n − 1)d) + (an − (n − 2)d) + · · · + (an − 2d) + (an − d) + an .
After adding both sides of the two equations, we cancel all terms involving
R

d and get:

2Sn = n(a1 + an ).
Dividing both sides by 2 produces a common form of the equation:
a1 + an
Sn = n , (9.1)
D

2
or n times the arithmetic mean of the first and last terms.
Remark 9.1. This is the trick Gauss, see footnote ∗ on the page 34, used as
a schoolboy to solve the problem of summing the integers from 1 to 100 given as
busy-work by his teacher. While his classmates toiled away doing the addition
longhand, Gauss wrote a single number, the correct answer 12 100(1 + 100) =
5050.
An alternate form results from reinserting the substitution an = a1 + (n −
1)d. Thus obtain
n
Sn = [2a1 + (n − 1)d]. (9.2)
2
 9.3. GEOMETRIC PROGRESSIONS 71

Example 9.6. Let consider natural numbers N. They are an AP with first
term a1 = 1 and common difference d = 1. Find n-th partial sum Sn for any
n ∈ N.
Solution. By (9.1) follows the well-known identity
n(n + 1)
Sn = 1 + 2 + · · · + n = .
2
9.3. Geometric progressions
Definition 9.7. A geometric progression (GP), or geometric sequence, is
a sequence of numbers {an } where each element an , after the first, is found by
multiplying the previous one by a fixed non-zero number q, called the common

T
ratio i.e.
an+1
an+1 = qan or = q , an = 0 .
an
Thus, the n-th term of a GP with initial value (scale factor) a1 = a = 0
and common ratio q is given by
an = a q n−1 , n ∈ N, (9.3)
or by the recursive relation
an = q an−1 ,
F n = 2, 3, . . . .
Generally, to check whether a given sequence is geometric, one simply verifies
whether successive entries in the sequence all have the same ratio.
A
Example 9.7. Consider a sequence 1, −2, 4, −8, 16, −32, . . . . Show
that it is a GP, and find common ratio q and 10-th term a10 .
Solution. Obviously, a = 1, and hence −2/1 = 4/(−2) = · · · = −32/16 yield
q = −2. By (9.3) follows a10 = 1(−2)9 = −512.
Properties of GP. The behavior of a GP {an } depends on scaling factor
a and common ratio q. If:
R

• q < 0, the results is alternating sequence, with members switching

from positive to negative;
• q > 1, for a > 0 (a < 0), the GP exponentially growth towards
positive (negative) infinity, lim an = ∞ ( lim an = −∞);
n→∞ n→∞
• q < −1, there will be exponential growth towards infinity;
• |q| < 1, the result is sequence with exponential decay towards zero,
D

lim an = 0.
n→∞
Other properties are formulated as theorems.
Theorem 9.7. A real number sequence {an } is a GP if and only if for any
three subsequent elements an−1 , an , an+1 , n ∈ N \ {1} the following identity is
fulfilled
a2n = an−1 an+1 .
For any finite GP with complete number of members {ai }ni=1 it follows:
ak a∗k = a1 an , ∀k ∈ {1, 2, . . . , n},
where ak and a∗k lay on the same distances from the first and n-th elements,
correspondingly.
 EXERCISES 72

Geometric series.
Definition 9.8. Let {an } be a GP with first member a1 = a and common
ratio q. The sum of first n members of the GP is called n-th partial sum of GP
and denoted by
Sn = a1 + a2 + · · · + an = a(1 + q + · · · + q n−1 ) .
The sum of the members of an GP is called a geometric series, and denoted by
∞
aq i . (9.4)
i=0

Theorem 9.8. Let {an } be a geometric sequence with common ratio q = 1.

T
Then the n-th partial sum of the GP is given by formula
1 − qn
Sn = a1 . (9.5)
1−q
Example 9.8. Find partial sum S4 of a GP with a1 = −3 and q = 1/3.
Solution. By (9.5) we have

S4 = −3
1 − 1/81
1 − 1/3
=−
F
9 80
4 81
20
=− .
9
An infinite geometric series converges to S, if and only if the absolute value
of the common ratio is less than one (|q| < 1). Its value can then be computed
from (9.5):
 ∞
A
a(1 − q n ) a
S= aq i = lim = .
i=0
n→∞ 1−q 1−q
On this lesson the following books and sites were used: [3], [10], [33], [36],
[50, 51], [56], [78], [96] and [113].

Exercises
R

9.1. Prove that the following sequences, defined by their general members
are strictly monotone increasing:
√ log2 n + 1
an = n + 1 and bn = .
2
9.2. Find the limits to the following sequences:
n2 − 3n + 5 3n4 − 2n3 + 1 −n4 − 2n3 + 2
D

a) lim , b) lim , c) lim ,

n→∞ 2n2 + n + 2 n→∞ −2n4 + 5 n→∞ 2n6 + n2 + 1
4 2
−2n + n + 5 √ √
d) lim , e) lim ( n + 1 − n).
n→∞ n3 + 2 n→∞

Answer: ) 1/2, b) −3/2, c) 0, d) +∞; e) 0.

9.3. Given the partial sum S17 = 136 of an AP. Find a6 + a12 .

Answer. a6 + a12 = 16.

9.4. Given a11 = 20 of a finite AP, that is also the mean member of this
progression. Find the sum of the members of this progression.
 EXERCISES 73

Answer. Suggestion: this progression has 21 members. S21 = 210.

√
9.5. Find partial sum S6 of a GP with a1 = 2 and a6 = 8.

√
Answer. S6 = 7( 2 + 1).
9.6. Prove that if the numbers a, b and c are consecutive members of a GP
then the following equality hold:
 
a b c 1/a + 1/b + 1/c = a3 + b3 + c3 .
2 2 2 3 3 3

9.7. Given: 30 − x2 , x2 and 1 are sequential members of a geometric pro-

T
gression. Find the value(s) of the number x.

√ √
Answer. x = 5, x = − 5.
9.8. Given a, b and c which are sequential members of a geometric pro-
gression with negative members. Find the common ratio q of the progression,
provided that c > 4b − 3a.
F Answer. q ∈ (1; 3).
9.9. Find out the scale factor a = a1 and the command ratio q of a GP if
a5 − a1 = 15 and a4 − a2 = 6.
A

Answer. a1 = 1, q1 = 2 and a2 = −16, q2 = 1/2.

R
D
 10

Limits and continuity of functions.

There are several definitions of limits of functions and they are equivalent
to each other.

T
10.1. Limits of functions
Definition 10.1. (Heine∗) A real valued function f with domain ∅ = D ⊆
R is said to have a limit L ∈ R (f approaches L) as x tends to x0 , if for any
sequences of points {xn } ⊂ D; xn = x0 , n ∈ N; converging to x0 , is fulfilled
lim f (xn ) = L ,
n→∞ F
or

The value f (x0 ) need not be defined, i.e. x0 ∈

lim f (x) = L .
x→x0

/ D.
The other definition, so-called ε − δ definition or Cauchy, see footnote ∗
on
the page 68, can be represented symbolically as (see Figure 10.1)
A
Definition 10.2. We say that a function f : D −→ R, approaches the
limit L, L ∈ R, as x approaches x0 ∈ R, and write
lim f (x) = L ,
x→x0

if ∀ε > 0 there exists δ = δ(ε) > 0, such that ∀x ∈ β(x0 , δ) ∩ D \ {x0 } :

R

|x − x0 | < δ follows |f (x) − L| < ε, f (x) ∈ β(L, ε).

One-sided limits. According to Definitions 10.1 and 10.2 the right and
left limits are defined respectively.
Definition 10.3. We say that a function f : D −→ R, approaches the
D

right-hand limit L+ , L+ ∈ R, as x approaches x0 ∈ R from above (right), and

write
lim f (x) = f (x0 + 0) = L+ (right-hand limit) ,
x→x0 +0

if for any sequences of points {xn } ⊂ D; xn > x0 , n ∈ N; converging to x0 , is

fulfilled
lim f (xn ) = lim f (x) = L+
n→∞ x→x0 +0

∗ Heinrich Eduard Heine (1821 1881) was a German mathematician. He became

known for results on special functions and real analysis. In particular, Heine authored
an important treatise on spherical harmonics, basic hypergeometric series and others.
He introduced the Mehler-Heine formula.
74
 10.1. LIMITS OF FUNCTIONS 75

T
Figure 10.1. ε − δ definition of Figure 10.2. One-sided limits at 0
limit

Definition 10.4. We say that a function f , f : D −→ R, approaches the

lim
x→x0 −0
F
left-hand limit L− as x approaches x0 from the left (below), and write
f (x) = f (x0 − 0) = L− (left hand limit) ,

if for each ε > 0 there is a δ = δ(ε) > 0 ,

A
such that if x ∈ (x0 − δ, x0 ) ∩ D then |f (x0 ) − L− | < ε .

If the both - right and left limits are equal, f (x0 − 0) = L = f (x0 + 0),
hence this number L can be referred to as the limit of f (x) at x0 , which states
the next theorem.

Theorem 10.1. A function f , f : D −→ R, has a limit L at x0 , if and

R

only if it has left- f (x0 − 0) and right- f (x0 + 0) limits at x0 ; and they are
equal, i.e.
lim f (x) = L ,
x→x0

if and only if there exist f (x0 − 0) and f (x0 + 0) and

D

f (x0 − 0) = f (x0 + 0) = L .

Conversely, if the right and left limits are not equal, then the limit, as such,
does not exist.
|x|
Example 10.1. Find lim g(x) = x + .
x→0 x 
x − 1, x < 0,
Solution. The function g can be rewritten as g(x) =
x + 1, x > 0.

Hence, g(−0) = lim (x − 1) = −1, g(+0) = lim (x + 1) = 1, and they are

x→−0 x→+0
not equal. Therefore, lim g(x) does not exist, see Figure 10.2.
x→0
 10.2. CONTINUITY OF FUNCTIONS 76

Arithmetic properties of functions limits. These properties are given

by the following theorem.
Theorem 10.2. Let f , g : D −→ R, and there exist their limits at x0 ∈ R,
then the following properties hold:
(1) lim (f + g)(x) = lim f (x) + lim g(x);
x→x0  x→x0   x→x0 
(2) lim (f g)(x) = lim f (x) lim g(x) ;
x→x0 x→x0 x→x0
(3) lim (cf )(x) = c lim f (x);
x→x0 x→x0
  lim f (x)
f x→x0
(4) lim (x) = .

T
x→x0 g lim g(x)
x→x0

Essential limits
1 1 sin x
lim = ±∞ , lim = 0, lim = 1,
x→±0 x x→±∞ x x→0 x
lim x2 = ∞ , lim x3 = ±∞ .
x→±∞ x→±∞

F
10.2. Continuity of functions
There are several definitions of functions continuity at a point, and they
are equivalent to each other.
Definition 10.5. A function f : D −→ R is said to be continuous at
A
a point x0 ∈ D if for any sequence of points {xn } in the domain D which
converges to x0 , xn = x0 , the corresponding sequence {f (xn )}∞
n=1 converges to
f (x0 ).
Definition 10.6. (Weierstrass∗ definition, ε − δ) A function f : D −→ R
is said to be continuous at a point x0 ∈ D if for any number ε > 0, however
small, there exists some number δ = δ(ε) > 0, such that for all x ∈ β(x0 , δ)∩D,
R

β(x0 , δ) = (x0 − δ, x0 + δ), x = x0 , the value of (x) satisfies f (x) ∈ β(f (x0 ), ε).
Definition 10.7. A function f : D −→ R is said to be:
• continuous at a point x0 ∈ D if the limit of f at x0 exists and is equal
to f (x0 ), i.e.
lim f (x) = f (x0 ) ;
D

x→x0
• continuous from the left at x0 ∈ D if the left-hand limit of f at x0
exists and is equal to f (x0 ), i.e.
lim f (x) = f (x0 − 0) = f (x0 ) ;
x→x0 −0

∗ Karl Theodor Wilhelm Weierstrass (1815 1897) was a German mathematician who
is often cited as the “father of modern analysis”. Weierstrass was interested in the
soundness of calculus, there were some ambiguous definitions and hence important
theorems could not be proven with sufficient rigour. Using ε−δ definition of continuity
and the concept of uniform convergence, Weierstrass proved several then-unproven
theorems. He also made significant advancements in the field of calculus of variations,
as a necessary condition for the existence of strong extrema of variational problems.
In analysis there are about 8 theorems baring his name.
 10.2. CONTINUITY OF FUNCTIONS 77

• continuous from the right at x0 ∈ D if the right-hand limit of f at

x0 exists and is equal to f (x0 ), i.e.
lim f (x) = f (x0 + 0) = f (x0 ) .
x→x0 +0

Remark 10.1. We say, that a real valued function is continuous if a graph

of the function in the Cartesian coordinate system is continuous, if roughly
speaking, the graph is a single unbroken curve with no ”holes” or ”jumps”.
In detail this means validity of three conditions, that are stated by the next
theorem
Theorem 10.3. A real valued function f , f : D −→ R, is continuous at

T
point x0 ∈ D if and only if:
• the left and right hand side limits of f at x0 exist, i.e. ∃f (x0 − 0)
and ∃f (x0 + 0);
• these limits are equal, f (x0 − 0) = f (x0 − 0), and
• need to be equal to the functional value at x0 , f (x0 − 0) = f (x0 ) =
f (x0 − 0).
F√
Example 10.2. The function f (x) = x is defined for x ∈ [0, ∞) . So we
can not talk about left-continuity of f (x) at 0. But since
√
lim f (x) = lim x = 0 ,
x→+0 x→+0
A
we conclude that f (x) is right-continuous at 0.
This concept is also important for step-functions.

Arithmetic properties of continuous functions.

R

Theorem 10.4. Let functions f , g : D −→ R, be continuous at x0 ∈ D.

Then the following statements are valid:
(1) f (x) + g(x) is continuous at x0 ;
(2) cf (x) is continuous at x0 for an arbitrary number c ∈ R;
(3) f (x)g(x) is continuous at x0 ;
f (x)
D

(4) is continuous at x0 , provided g(x0 ) = 0.

g(x)
Definition 10.8. A function f : D −→ R, is continuous in D if it is
continuous at every point of its domain.
Thus, for example, every function whose domain is the set of all integers
is continuous.
Theorem 10.5. Suppose that f and g are functions with domains Df and
Dg . If Dg has a nonempty subset T , such that g(x) ∈ Df whenever x ∈ T ,
then the composite function f ◦ g is defined on T by (f ◦ g)(x) = f [g(x)].
Suppose that g is continuous at x0 ∈ T ; g(x0 ) is an interior point of Df ;
and f is continuous at g(x0 ). Then f ◦ g is continuous at x0 .
 10.2. CONTINUITY OF FUNCTIONS 78

T
Figure 10.3. A jump discontinuity Figure 10.4. A jump discontinuity

Points of discontinuity.
F
Definition 10.9. If a function is not continuous at a point in its domain,
one says that it has a discontinuity there.


x2 , 0≤x<1
A
Example 10.3. Let f be defined by f (x) = . Find
x + 1, 1≤x<2
points of discontinuity of f .
Solution. The quadratic and linear functions are continuous for each real num-
ber. The function is continuous for x ∈ [0, 2] \ {1}, because f (1 − 0) = 1 =
f (1) = f (1 + 0) = 2, and hence it is right-continuous at 1, see Figure 10.3.
R

Classification of points of discontinuities

Consider a real valued function f of a real variable x, defined in a neighborhood
β(x0 , ε) of the point x0 in which f is discontinuous. Then three situations may
be distinguished:
• There exist left f (x0 − 0) and right limit f (x0 + 0), and f (x0 −
0) = f (x0 + 0) = L, but not equal to f (x0 ). Such point is called
D

removable discontinuity, see Figure 10.5. This discontinuity can be

’removedto make f continuous at x0 , or more precisely, the function
f (x) , x = x0 , ,
f ∗ (x) = is continuous at x=x0.
L, x = x0 .
• The limits f (x0 − 0) and f (x0 + 0) exist and are finite, but not equal.
Then, x0 is called a jump discontinuity or step discontinuity. For this
type of discontinuity, the function may have any value in x0 , see
Figures 10.3 and 10.4.
• One or both of the limits f (x0 − 0) and f (x0 + 0) does not exist or
is infinite. Then, x0 is called an essential discontinuity, or infinite
discontinuity, see Figure 10.6.
 EXERCISES 79

T
Figure 10.5. A removable discon- Figure 10.6. An infinite disconti-
tinuity nuity

⎧
⎪ 2
⎨x ,
f (x) = 0 ,
⎪
⎩
x<1
x=1 ;
F
Example 10.4. Find points of discontinuities of functions:
⎧
⎪
⎨x ,
g(x) = 0 ,
⎪
⎩
2
x<1
x=1 ;
2 − x, x > 1 2 − (x − 1)2 x > 1
A
and ⎧
⎪ 5
⎪
⎪ sin , x<1
⎨ x−1
h(x) = 0, x=1 .
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩ 0.1
−1 x>1
x
R

Solutions. The function f has removable discontinuity at 1, because: the left

limit f (1 − 0) = (1 − 0)2 = 1 is equal to the right f (1 + 0) = 2 − 1 − 0 = 1 and
do not equal to f (1) = 0, see Figure 10.5.
The function g has a jump discontinuity at 1, because: the left limit f (1 −
0) = (1 − 0)2 = 1 is not equal either to the right f (1 + 0) = 2 − (1 − 1 − 0)2 = 2
nor to f (1) = 0, see Figure 10.4.
D

The function h has an essential discontinuity at 1, because: the left limit

5 0.1
f (1 − 0) = lim sin does not exist, the right f (1 + 0) = lim =
x→1−0 x−1 x→1+0 x−1
+∞ and not equal to f (1) = 0, see Figure 10.6.
On this topic the following books and sites were used: [3], [15, 16], [21],
[38], [40], [59], [86] and [98].

Exercises
3x2 − x − 10 1/x + 1/2
10.1. Compute limits: a) lim 2−4
; b) lim ;
√ x→2 x x→−2 x3 + 8
3− x+5 100 7x2 − x + 11
c) lim ; d) lim 2 ; e) lim .
x→4 x−4 x→∞ x + 5 x→∞ 5−x
 EXERCISES 80

Aswer: a) 11/4; b) −1/48; c) −1/6; d) 0; e) −∞.

10.2.
 Find a constant A, which makes the function
x2 − 2 , x < 1
f (x) = continuous at x=1.
Ax − 4 , x ≥ 1
Aswer: A = 3.
3
x +1
10.3. Find a point of discontinuity of a function f (x) = and redefine
x+1
the function to obtain continuous one.

x2 − x + 1 , x = −1
Aswer: f ∗ (x) = .

T
3, x = −1

F
A
R
D
 11

Derivatives. Extrema. Inflection points

11.1. Definition of derivatives

T
First order derivative.
Definition 11.1. Consider a function f : D −→ R. The function f is
differentiable at an interior point x0 ∈ D if the difference quotient
f (x) − f (x0 )
, x0 = x ∈ D ,
x − x0
approaches a limit as x approaches x0 .

f  (x0 ) = lim
F
The limit is called the derivative of f at x0 , and is denoted by f  (x0 ). If
we put x = x0 + h, then h → 0 as x → x0 , thus
f (x) − f (x0 )
= lim
f (x0 + h) − f (x0 )
. (11.1)
x→x0 x − x0 h→0 h
A
The derivative f  is known as first derivative of function f or derivative of
first order.
We say that f is differentiable on D, if f is differentiable at every point
of D. If f is differentiable on D, then f  is a function on D and may have a
derivative.
R

Derivatives of higher order. If f is differentiable on open set D and

x0 ∈ D, and f  is differentiable at x0 ∈ D, i.e. there exists a finite limit of
difference quotients of f  as x tends to x0
f  (x) − f  (x0 )
lim , x0 = x ∈ D ,
x→x0 x − x0
D

then we denote the derivative of f  at x0 by f  (x0 ). This is the second derivative

of f at x0 , and it is also denoted by f (2) (x0 ). Continuing inductively, if f (n−1)
is defined on D, then the n-th derivative of f at x0 ∈ D is defined by induction
by the equation f (n) (x0 ) = (f n−1 ) (x0 ).

One-sided derivatives. One-sided limits of difference quotients in (11.1)

are called one-sided or right and left-hand derivatives.
Definition 11.2. Let f be defined on (a, b) and x0 ∈ (a, b) the right-hand
(left-hand) derivative f  (x0 + 0) (f  (x0 − 0)) of f at x0 is defined to be
f (x) − f (x0 ) f (x) − f (x0 )
f  (x0 + 0) = lim (f  (x0 − 0) = lim ).
x→x0 +0 x − x0 x→x0 −0 x − x0
81
 11.2. INTERPRETATIONS OF DERIVATIVES 82

Theorem 10.1 implies that f is differentiable at x0 if and only if f  (x0 + 0)

and f  (x0 − 0) exist and they are equal, in this case f  (x0 ) = f  (x0 + 0) =
f  (x0 − 0).
Example 11.1. Prove that the function f (x) = |x| is not differentiable at
0.
Solution. By (3.1) f can be written as
f (x) = x , x > 0 and f (x) = −x , x < 0.
Hence,
x −x
f  (+0) = lim = 1 and f  (−0) = lim = −1 .
x→+0 x x→−0 x

T
So f  (+0) = f  (−0), and therefore |x| does not posses derivative at 0.
Theorem 11.1. Let a function f be differentiable at interior point x0 of
its domain. Then the function f is a continuous at x0 .
Theorem 11.2. (Mean value theorem, Lagrange∗) If f is continuous on the
closed interval [a, b], and differentiable on the open interval (a, b), then there
exists a point ξ ∈ (a, b), such that
F
f (b) − f (a) = f  (ξ)(b − a) .

11.2. Interpretations of derivatives

A
Interpretation in mathematics - geometric meaning. Consider a
graph of a function y = f (x), see Figure 11.1. The equation of the secant line
R
D

Figure 11.1. Secant and tangent

∗ Joseph Louis Lagrange (1736 - 1813) is alternatively considered a French and an

Italian scientist. He was one of the creators of the calculus of variations, deriving the
EulerLagrange equations for extrema of functionals. He proved that every natural
number is a sum of four squares. In calculus, Lagrange developed a novel approach
to interpolation and Taylor series. He studied the three-body problem and found
the special-case solutions to this problem known as Lagrangian points. Lagrange
transformed Newtonian mechanics into a branch of analysis. Lagrangian mechanics,
as it is now called, exhibited the mechanical “principles” as simple results of the
variational calculus.
 11.3. DIFFERENTIATION RULES AND TABLE OF DERIVATIVES 83

through two points (x0 , f (x0 )) and (z, f (z)) on the curve (x, f (x)), x ∈ (a, b),
is
f (z) − f (x0 )
y = f (x0 ) + (x − x0 ) ,
z − x0
where different quotient f (z)−fz−x0
(x0 )
is equal to a secant slope. Varying z gener-
ates secant lines through (x0 , f (x0 )). As z approaches x0 , the point (z, f (z))
approaches (x0 , f (x0 )) and the secant will approach the tangent line. Hence,
the limit of the difference quotient is equal to a slope of a tangent at point
(x0 , f (x0 )) and the equation of the tangent through this point is
y = f (x0 ) + f  (x0 )(x − x0 ) , if ∃f  (x0 ) . (11.2)


T
The derivative of a function f (x0 ) is a slope of a tangent of function graph at
the point (x0 , f (x0 )).
Mechanical interpretation of derivatives. Let a point M move in a
straight line in accordance with the law s = f (t). During time t = t − t0 the
point becomes displaced by
s = f (t0 + t) − f (t0 ) .

The ratio
s
t
F
represents the average velocity va during the time t . If the
motion is non-uniform, va is not constant. The instantaneous velocity v(t0 ) at
the moment t0 is the limit of the average velocity, i.e.
s f (t0 + t) − f (t0 )
= f  (t0 ) ,
A
lim va (t) = lim = lim
t→0 t→0 t t→0 t
if f  (t0 ) exists. Analogously to this, an acceleration is a derivative of a velocity
with respect to time a = v  (t), i.e. it is a second derivative of va (t).
Thus, the concept of derivative constitutes the general solution of the prob-
lem of constructing tangents to plane curves, and of the problem of calculating
R

the velocity of a rectilinear motion. These two problems served as the main
motivation for introducing the notion derivative.

11.3. Differentiation rules and table of derivatives

By definition of first derivative and some transformations follow rules of
differentiation.
D

Differentiation rules. These rules are known as

interchanging differentiation and arithmetic operations.
Theorem 11.3. Let f and g be differentiable functions at a interior point
x0 of their domain, then so are cf , c ∈ R; f ± g, f g and the quotient f /g, if
g(x0 ) = 0, with derivatives:
(1) (cf ) (x0 ) = cf  (x0 ),
(2) (f ± g) (x0 ) = f  (x0 ) ± g  (x0 ),
(3) (f g) (x0 ) = f  (x0 )g(x0 ) + f (x0 )g  (x0 ),
 
f f  (x0 )g(x0 ) − f (x0 )g  (x0 )
(4) (x0 ) = .
g g 2 (x0 )
The chain rule is known as law of differentiation of a composite function.
 11.3. DIFFERENTIATION RULES AND TABLE OF DERIVATIVES 84

Theorem 11.4. (The Chain Rule) Suppose that g is differentiable at x0

and F is differentiable at g(x0 ). Then the composite function F ◦ g defined by
f (x) = F [g(x)]
is differentiable at x0 ; with
f  (x0 ) = F  [g(x0 )]g  (x0 ) .
Derivative of the inverse function.
Theorem 11.5. Assume that a function f : X −→ Y ; where X, Y
are real intervals, is a bijection, and both functions f and its inverse f −1 are
differentiable at interior points x0 ∈ X and y0 = f (x0 ) ∈ Y , respectively. Then

T
we have
1
(f −1 ) (y0 ) =  , if f  (x0 ) = 0 .
f (x0 )
Using Leibniz’s∗ notation, the above formula becomes
df −1 (y0 ) 1
= df (x0 )
.
dy

f ◦ f −1 (y) = y and
F dx

Let f (x) be an invertible function, with f −1 (y) as its inverse, that is

f −1 ◦ f (x) = x ,
then the statement of the theorem follows by differentiation one of the above
equalities and chain rule.
A
Table of derivatives. The derivatives of elementary functions are derived
by using (11.1) and rules of differentiation. The formulas given in the Table
11.1 are valid for the derivatives of the fundamental elementary functions at
any point of their domain of definition (exceptions are stated).
A continuous function may not have a finite nor an infinite derivative.
There exist continuous functions having no derivative at any point of their
R

domain of definition. The next example demonstrate this fact.

Example 11.2. Consider a function

4 − (x − 1)2 , x≤2
f (x) = .
4(x − 3)2 − 1 , x>2
Prove, that the function is not differentiable for x = 2 and find tangent equa-
D

tions at point (2, f (2)).

Solution. The left hand derivative is f  (2 − 0) = lim 2(1 − x) = −2, the
x→2−0
righthand derivative is f  (2 + 0) = lim 8(x − 3) = −8, hence f  (2 − 0) =
x→2+0

∗ Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646 1716) was a German philosopher and mathemati-
cian. He wrote in different languages, primarily in Latin, French and German. Leib-
niz developed the infinitesimal calculus independently of Isaac Newton, and Leibniz’s
mathematical notation has been widely used ever since it was published. He became
one of the most prolific inventors in the field of mechanical calculators, he was the
first to describe a pinwheel calculator and invented the Leibniz wheel, used in the
arithmometer, the first mass-produced mechanical calculator. He also refined the
binary number system, which is at the foundation of all digital computers.
 11.4. EXTREME VALUES 85

1. C  = 0, where C =const∈ R 8. (sin x) = cos x


2. x√ =1 √ 9. (cos x) = − sin x
3. ( x) = 1/(2 x), x > 0 10. (tan x) = 1/ cos2 x, cos x = 0
2
4. (xα ) = αxα−1 , x = 0, if α ≤ 1 11. (cot x) = −1/ sin
√ x, sin x = 0
5. (ex ) = ex 12. 
(arcsin x) = 1/ 1√− x2 , |x| < 1
6. (ax ) = ax ln a, a > 0 13. (arccos x) = −1/ 1 − x2 , |x| < 1
7. (ln x) = 1/x, x > 0 14. (arctan x) = 1/(1 + x2 )
15. (arccotx) = −1/(1 + x2 )

Table 11.1. Derivatives of elementary functions

T
f  (2 − 0), i.e. f is not differentiable for x = 2, but the function is continuous
at this point, because f (2 − 0) = f (2) = 4 − (2 − 1)2 = 3 and is equal to
f (2 + 0) = 4(2 − 3)2 − 1 = 3, see Figure 11.2. By (11.2) the left hand tl and

F
A

Figure 11.2. Left and right tangents

R

right hand tr tangents have, respectively, equations:

tl : y = 3 − 2(x − 2) = −2x − 1 , tr : y = 3 − 8(x − 2) = −8x + 19 .

11.4. Extreme values

Definition 11.3. Suppose f : D −→ R and x0 ∈ D. We say that f (x0 )
D

is a local extreme value of f if there is δ > 0, such that f (x) − f (x0 ) does not
change sign on β(x0 , δ) ∩ D, where β(x0 , δ) = (x0 − δ, x0 + δ). More precisely
(see Figure 11.3):
• f (x0 ) is a local maximum value of f if
f (x) ≤ f (x0 ) , ∀x ∈ β(x0 , δ) ∩ D or
• f (x0 ) a local minimum value of f if
f (x) ≥ f (x0 ) , ∀x ∈ β(x0 , δ) ∩ D .
The point x0 is called a local extreme point of f , or, more specifically, a
local maximum or local minimum point of f .
 11.4. EXTREME VALUES 86

Figure 11.3. Local extrema Figure 11.4. Non-strict extrema

T
Example 11.3. Find local extrema of the function
⎧
⎪
⎨1 for x ∈ (−1, −0.5] ,
f (x) = |x| for x ∈ (−0.5, 1] ,
⎪
⎩ 2

F
2x − 7x + 6 for x ∈ (1, 2.5] .
Solution. By definition of local minimum an maximum follows (see Figure
11.4): every point in (−1, −0.5), 0, 1.75, where 1.75 is the abscissa of the
vertex of parabola 2x2 − 7x + 6, local minimum points of f , while every point
in (−1, −0.5], 1, 2.5 are local maximum points.
A
Necessary conditions for extrema.
Theorem 11.6. Let a function f : D −→ R be differentiable at a local
extreme point x0 ∈ D. Then f  (x0 ) = 0.
Theorem 11.7. Let a function f : (a, b) −→ R be differentiable ∀x ∈
(a, b). If f  does not change sign on (a, b), then f is monotonic on (a, b):
R

increasing, nondecreasing, decreasing; or nonincreasing as

f  (x) > 0 , f  (x) ≥ 0 , f  (x) < 0 , or f  (x) ≤ 0 ,
respectively, for ∀x ∈ (a, b).
Sufficient conditions for extrema.
D

Theorem 11.8. Let a function f : (a, b) −→ R be differentiable ∀x ∈

(a, b), x0 ∈ (a, b) and f  (x0 ) = 0. Then,
• if f  (x) > 0 for x ∈ (a, x0 ) and f  (x) < 0 for x ∈ (x0 , b), the point x0
is a point of local maximum,
• if f  (x) < 0 for x ∈ (a, x0 ) and f  (x) > 0 for x ∈ (a, x0 ), the point
x0 is a point of local minimum.
The second derivative test for local extreme points.
Theorem 11.9. Suppose, that f : (a, b) −→ R is differential at each point
x ∈ (a, b), x0 ∈ (a, b), f  (x0 ) = 0 and has second derivative at x0 . Then
• if f  (x0 ) < 0 the point x0 is a point of local maximum,
• if f  (x0 ) > 0 the point x0 is a point of local minimum.
 11.5. INFLECTION POINTS 87

11.5. Inflection points

Definition 11.4. Suppose, that f : (a, b) −→ R is a continuous. We say
that
• The function f is a convex (concave) in (a, b), if ∀x1 , ∀x2 ∈ (a, b),
x1 = x2 , is fulfilled
     
x1 + x2 f (x1 ) + f (x2 ) x 1 + x2 f (x1 ) + f (x2 )
f < f > ,
2 2 2 2
respectively (see Figures 11.5 and 11.6).
• The differentiable function f is a convex (concave) in (a, b), if ∀x0 , x ∈
(a, b) is fulfilled

T
f (x) > f (x0 ) + f  (x0 )(x − x0 ) (f (x2 ) < f (x1 ) + f  (x1 )(x2 − x1 )) ,
respectively, i.e. the graph of function f is above (below) the tangent
through the point (x0 , f (x0 )).
• The point of inflection is a point on the graph of function f , at which
the function changes convexity, see Figures 11.7 and 11.8.

F
A
R
D

Figure 11.5. A convex function Figure 11.6. A concave function

Remark 11.1. If x0 is an inflection point for f then the second derivative,

f  (x0 ), is equal to zero if it exists. But this condition is not a sufficient one.
So the point (x0 , f (x0 )) to be an inflection point the lowest-order non-zero
derivative have be of odd order (third, fifth, etc.). If the lowest-order non-zero
derivative is of even order, the point is not a point of inflection.
Example 11.4. We show, that a function f (x) = x4 does not have an
inflection point at x = 0, although f  (0) = 0.
We have f  (0) = f  (0) = f  (0) = 0, but f (4) = 24 > 0. The equation of
 EXERCISES 88

the tangent trough point (0, 0) is y = 0, i.e. x − axes, obviously f (x) > 0 for
x ∈ R \ {0}, the function is convex and (0, 0) is a point of a local maximum.
It follows from the definition that the sign of f  (x) on either side of the
inflection point (x0 , f (x0 )) must be the same. If this is positive, the point is
a rising point of inflection ; if it is negative, the point is a falling point of
inflection.

T
Figure 11.7. Falling point of in-
flection
F Figure 11.8. Rising point of inflec-
tion
A
Theorem 11.10. Let a function f : (a, b) −→ R be twice-differentiable
on (a, b). Then:
• if f  (x) > 0, ∀x ∈ (a, b), the function f is convex in (a, b),
• if f  (x) < 0, ∀x ∈ (a, b), the function f is concave in (a, b).
Example 11.5. Find an inflection point and interval of convexity and
concavity of the function f (x) = x3 − 2x2 + 8.
R

Solution. Twice differentiation yields f  (x) = 6x − 4. Hence f  (x) = 0 for

x = 2/3, f (2/3) = 200/27 and a point of inflection is (2/3, 200/27), see Figure
11.8. The function f is a concave in (−∞, 2/3), because f  (x) < 0 in this
interval, and convex in (2/3, ∞) as f  (x) > 0.
Theorem 11.11. Suppose, that f : (a, b) −→ R has n-th derivative at
x0 ∈ (a, b), such that f  (x0 ) = f  (x0 ) = · · · = f (n−1) (x0 ) = 0, but f (n) (x0 ) =
D

0. Then
• if n is even, then x0 is a point of local extremum, as f (n) (x0 ) < 0
(f (n) (x0 ) > 0) the point is the point of local maximum (minimum),
• if n is odd, then the point x0 is an inflection point.
On this topic the following textbooks and sites were used: [3], [21], [29],
[39], [57], [63], [87] and [109].

Exercises
11.1. Calculate the first derivatives and write a tangent equation of the
following functions
√ at given points: a) y = e−x at x0 = 1;
b) y = sin x at x0 = π 2 /9; c) y = ln (3x + 4) at x0 = −1.
 EXERCISES 89

Answer. a) y  (1) =√−e−1 , t : y = (2 − x)/e;

b) y (π /9) = 3/4π, t : y = 3/2 + 3/(4π)(x − π 2 /9);
 2

c) y  (−1) = 3, t : y = 3(x + 1).

11.2. Find extreme points and monotonicity intervals of the next functions:
a) y = x + 1/x at x0 = 1; b) y = x ln x; c) y = x − 2 cos x, x ∈ [0, 2π].
Answer. a) ymax = y(−1) = −2, ymin = y(1) = 2,
y is increasing on (−∞, −1) ∪ (1, ∞) and decreasing on (−1, 1);
b) ymin = y(1/e) = −1/e,
y is increasing on (1/e, ∞) and decreasing on (0, 1/e);
c) ymin = y(π/3) = π/3 − 1, ymax = y(5π/3),
y is increasing on (π/3, 5π/3) and decreasing on [0, π/3) ∪ (5π/3, 2π].

T
11.3. Compute inflection points and find intervals on convexity and con-
cavity
√ of functions:
√ a) f (x) = sin(2x); b) f (x) = x2 /(x2 + 1);
c) 3 x − 1 + 3 x + 1.
Answer. a) finf l = f (kπ/2) = 0, f is convex on (π/2 + kπ, π + kπ) and
√
F
concave on (−π/2
b) finf l = f (±1/ 3) = 1/4, f is convex on (−1/ 3, 1/ 3)
√ π/2 + kπ), k ∈ Z;
√ + kπ,
√ and concave
√
(−∞, −1/ 3) ∪ (1/ 3, ∞);
on

c) finf l = f (0) = 0, f is convex on (−∞, 0) and concave on (0, ∞).

A
R
D
 APPENDIX A

Notes on the pronunciation of some basic

formulae

T
In the following text we give pronunciations of some arithmetical opera-
tions, expressions and formulae, that would be useful to the readers, which
read for the first time Mathematics in English.
Intervals
(a, b) - open interval from a to b
[a, b] - closed interval from a to b
Arithmetic operations
Addition a + b = c
Subtraction a − b = c
Multiplication (Product) m . n = r
F -
-
-
a plus b is equal to c
a minus b is equal to c
m by n is equal to r,
- m times n is equal to r
p
A
Quotient (Division, Fraction) = k - p divided by q is equal to k,
q
- p over q is equal to k,
p - numerator, q - denominator
Exponent (Power)
ak = r - a to the power k is equal to r
R

d2 = p - d squared is equal to p
b3 = c - b cubed is equal to c
√
g=f - square root of g is equal to f
√3 g = f - cube root of g is equal to f
Logarithm loga A logarithm of A to the base a
Differentiation
D

df
- the first derivative of f with respect to x
dx
d2 f
- the second derivative of f with respect to x
dx2
The absolute value (modulus, module) |a| - the absolute value (modulus,
module) of the quantity a
Comparison symbols (order relations)
a≤b - a is less than or equal to b
p < q - p is less than q
c≥d - c is greater than or equal to d
r > s - r is greater than s

90
 A. NOTES ON THE PRONUNCIATION OF SOME BASIC FORMULAE 91

Example A.1. Read the formula

  k/p 
m
f (x) = C d − s +
Ri
- f of x is equal to C, square brackets, d minus parenthesis, s plus m divided
by R sub i, close parenthesis, to the power k over p, close square brackets.
Example A.2. Read the relation
|A + B| ≤ |A| + |B|
- the modulus of the sum of A and B is less than or equal to the sum of moduli
of A and B.

T
Indices (upper/lower)
aj - a sub (subscript) j
bi - b sup (superscript) i
Brackets and parantheses
(· · · ) - parenthesis, parentheses (pl), round brackets
[· · · ] - square brackets
{· · · } - curly brackets
Frequently used fractions
1/2
1/3
F
- a half (one over two)
- a third (one over three)
1/4 - a fourth (one over four)
A
1/5 - a fifth (one over five)
1/6 - a sixth (one over six)
1/7 - a seventh (one over seven)
1/8 - a eighth (one over eight)
1/9 - a ninth (one over nine)
1/10 - a tenth (one over ten)
R

1/100 - a hundredth (one over hundred)

1/1000 - a thousandth (one over thousand)
Readings and examples were proposed in [5] and [6].
D
 APPENDIX B

Plane geometry

Vectors
−−→
Definition B.1. A free vector − →

T
a is a class of oriented segments AB, etc.
defined up to parallel translation.
Anyone of the segments of the class of oriented segments obtained by trans-
−−→
lating AB parallel is called a representative segment of − →
a.
−−→ →
−
In other words, AB represents a at the origin A and with endpoint B,
−−→
and we will also write −
→a = AB.

r
A B
-
−−→
−−→
F
Vector AB, A - origin point B - endpoint,
length |AB|, direction is from origin to the end
A
A=B - null vector, a point
−−→ −−→
BA - opposite vector to AB,
Type of vectors
- the vector with opposite direction
−−→ −−→
|AB| = 1 - AB is a unit vector
R

Angles

B
 Angle is a shape formed by two rays with
−
→
b common origin, ∠(− →
a , b ) = ∠AOB = α.
α
D

O - Angles are measured in degrees or radians.

a A

α = 0◦ = 0 (rad) - null angle

α < 90◦ , α < π/2 - acute angle
◦
α = 90 = π/2 - right angle
Type of angles
α > 90◦ , α > π/2 - obtuse angle
◦
α = 180 = π - flat angle
α = 360◦ = 2π - round angle

92
 TRIANGLES 93

Triangles
A triangle is one of the basic shapes of two-dimensional plane geometry.
It is a polygon with three vertices A, B, C and three sides BC, AC, AB

T
Figure B.1. Elements of a triangle Figure B.2. Height, median, bi-
sector
F
with lengths a, b, c, respectively, and is denoted by ABC. In Euclidean (see
footnote ∗ on the page 10) geometry any three non-collinear points determine
a unique triangle. Internal angles are marked by ∠BAC = α, ∠ABC = β,
A
∠BCA = γ, see Figure B.1.
An exterior angle of a triangle is an angle that is a supplementary to an
interior angle. On the same figure is shown the exterior to ∠BAC.

Type of triangles. Type of triangles vary according angles and sides, see
R

Figure B.1:

a = b = c three equal sides and - equilateral triangle

three equal angles, α = β = γ = π/3
a = b two equal sides and - isosceles triangle
two equal angles, α = β
D

a = b = c no equal sides and - scalene triangle

no equal angles, α = β = γ
α , β , γ < π/2 - acute triangle
all angles are less than 90◦
γ = π/2, - right triangle
has a right angle 90◦
γ > π/2, - obtuse triangle
has an angle more than 90◦

For shapes of triangles see pictures below.

 TRIANGLES 94

@
A
@ H
A
@ JHH A
J HH

@
∧ A
. J H
π/2 @ > HH
π/2
< π/2 >A
@ JJ H
A

Right triangle Obtuse triangle Acute triangle

Both obtuse and acute triangles are called oblique triangles.

Basic lines associated with a triangle. Lines associated with a triangle

T
are constructed by proving some properties of considered lines and points.
A perpendicular bisector of a side of a triangle is a straight line passing through
the midpoint of the side. The three perpendicular bisectors meet in a single
point, the triangle’s circumcenter. This point is the center of the circumcircle,
the circle passing through all three vertices. The circumcircle’s radius, R, is
called the circumradius can be found from the law of sines . Thales’∗ theorem

F
implies that if the circumcenter is located: on one side of the triangle, then
the opposite angle is a right one; inside the triangle, then the triangle is acute;
outside the triangle, then the triangle is obtuse.
An altitude of a triangle is a straight line through a vertex and perpendicular
to the opposite side, see Figure B.2, hc ⊥c. This opposite side is called the
base of the altitude, and the point where the altitude intersects the base (or its
A
extension) is called the foot of the altitude. The length of the altitude (height)
is the distance between the base and the vertex. The three altitudes intersect
in a single point, called the orthocenter of the triangle. The orthocenter lies
inside the triangle if and only if the triangle is acute.
An angle bisector of a triangle is a straight line through a vertex which cuts
the corresponding angle in half, see Figure B.2, the angle bisector through the
R

vertex A is ba . The three angle bisectors intersect in a single point, the incenter,
the center of the triangle’s incircle. The incircle is the circle which lies inside
the triangle and touches all three sides. Its radius is called the inradius and
denoted by r.
A median of a triangle is a straight line through a vertex and the midpoint of
the opposite side, and divides the triangle into two equal areas, see Figure B.2
D

for median mb through the vertex B. The three medians intersect in a single
point, the triangle’s centroid or geometric barycenter. The centroid of a rigid
triangular object (cut out of a thin sheet of uniform density) is also its center

∗ Thales of Miletus (about 624 BC - about 546 BC) was the first known Greek
philosopher, scientist and mathematician. Some consider him to be the teacher of
of Pythagoras. He is unanimously ascribed the introduction of mathematical and
astronomical sciences into Greece. He is regarded as having been unusally clever - by
general agreement the first of the Seven Wise Men, a pupil of the Egyptians and the
Chaldeans. None of his writing survives; this makes it is difficult to determine his
philosophy and to be certain about his mathematical discoveries. It is reported that
he predicted an eclipse of the Sun on May 28, 585 BC, startling all of Ionia. He is
credited with five theorems of elementary geometry.
 TRIANGLES 95

of mass: the object can be balanced on its centroid in a uniform gravitational

field. The centroid cuts every median in the ratio 2 : 1.
Triangle properties. The most important theorems are:
• Triangle sum theorem: the sum of the interior angles in any triangle
is
α + β + γ = π = 180◦ .
• Exterior angle theorem: a measure of an exterior angle of a triangle
is equal to the sum of the measures of the opposite interior angles,
(see Figure B.1)
π−α=β+γ.

T
• Sine theorem: for any triangle is valid
a b c
= = = 2R ,
sin α sin β sin γ
where R is the radius of circumcircle.
• From this theorem follows, that if a < b < c, then α < β < γ.
• Cosine theorem: for any triangle is valid
F
c2 = a2 + b2 − 2ab cos γ .
• Triangle inequalities: the length of each side is less than the sum
of the lengths of the other two sides and greater than the difference
between these lengths
A
|a − b| < c < a + b , |a − c| < b < a + c , |b − c| < a < b + c .
∗
• The Pythagorean theorem (see footnote on the page 12) for a right
triangle with legs a and b and hypotenuse c is fulfilled:
a 2 + b2 = c 2 .
Perimeter and area of a triangle. The perimeter of a triangle is P =
R

a + b + c, and half-perimeter - p = P/2.

The most popular formulas for area of a triangle are:
1 1 abc
AABC = c hc = ab sin γ =
2
 2 4R
= p(p − a)(p − b)(p − c) .
The last one is known as Heron’s∗ formula.
D

∗ Hero (or Heron) of Alexandria (about 10 70 AD) was an ancient Greek mathemati-
cian and engineer, who was active in his native city of Alexandria, Roman Egypt.
He is considered the greatest experimenter of antiquity. Hero published a well rec-
ognized description of a steam-powered device called an aeolipile. An aeolipile also
known as a Hero engine, is a rocket style jet engine, which spins when heated. The
first vending machine was also one of his constructions, when a coin was introduced
via a slot on the top of the machine, a set amount of holy water was dispensed. A
windwheel operating an organ, marking the first instance of wind powering a machine
in history. He also gave formulas for the area of regular polygons of n sides, each
of length a:A3 ≈ 13/30a2 , A5 ≈ 5/3a2 , A7 ≈ 43/12a2 . Hero described a method of
iteratively computing the square root, and he gave an example of finding the cube of
a non-cube number. The number is A = 100.
 QUADRILATERALS 96

Quadrilaterals
A quadrilateral (quadrangle)is a four-sided polygon.
Definition B.2. A polygon that has all interior angles measures less than
π (180◦ ) is called convex.
By the Polygon interior angles sum theorem (see section Polygons) follows
that all quadrilaterals have sum of the measures of the interior angles up to
2π = 360◦ . The types of convex quadrilaterals are: squares, rectangles, paral-
lelograms, rhombs, kites, trapezoids.

Squares

T
Opposite sides are parallel.
All sides are equal in length a.
All angles are right, π/2.
a
Perimeter - P = 4a, area - S = a2 .

Rectangles F
Opposite sides are parallel.
Opposite sides are equal in length.
b
All angles are right, π/2.
A
a
Perimeter - P = 2(a + b), area - S = ab.

Parallelograms
Opposite sides are parallel.

α

Opposite sides are equal in length.






R

ha Opposite angles are equal.

b



Perimeter - P = 2(a + b),
a

α
area - S = aha = ab sin α.

Rhombs. A rhombus is a type of parallelogram.

a Opposite sides are parallel.
D

S "
"
All sides are equal in length

d2S "


" Opposite angles are equal.
"S a


" d"
1 S
Diagonals bisect end angles and d1 ⊥ d2 .

" S

Perimeter - P = 4a, area - S = 12 d1 d2 .

Note B.1. Squares, rectangles and rhombs have mutually bisecting diag-
onals.
 REGULAR POLYGONS 97

Trapezoids

b One pair of parallel sides.

C Perimeter - P = a + b + c + d.

C

h C Area - S = (a + b)h/2, where:

c C d

C a, b are lengths of bases and

a C h is a vertical height.

Kites
H a Two distinct pairs of adjacent sides are congruent.
bH
H
H

T
d1 HH One pair of opposite angles are congruent.
@  Diagonals are perpendicular, d1 ⊥ d2 .
d2 
@
b @ a Perimeter - P = 2(a + b), area - S = d1 d2 /2.

Note B.2. Squares, rhombs and kites have perpendicular diagonals.

F
Regular polygons
Definition B.3. A polygon (many angle) is a closed planar path composed
of a finite number of sequential line segments.
A regular polygon is an n-sided polygon in which the sides are equal with
A
length a (equilateral) and all interior angles are equal (equiangular), too, see
Figures B.3 and B.4.
R

R r

Figure B.3. Equilateral triangle, square, regular pentagon

D

Polygon interior angles sum theorem states:

Theorem B.1. The sum of the measures of the interior angles of a convex
polygon with n sides is (n − 2)π.
The sides are symmetrically placed about a common center, which is the
center of the incircle (the circle which lies inside the polygon and touches all
sides) and circumcircle (the circle passing through all vertices of the polygon).
Only certain regular polygons are “constructible” using the classical Greek
tools of the compass and straightedge.
Regular polygons with sides n = 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 are: equilateral triangle,
square, regular pentagon, regular hexagon, regular heptagon, regular octagon,
respectively, see Figures B.3 and B.4. The following equalities are valid:
 CIRCLES 98

R
r

Figure B.4. Regular: hexagon, heptagon and octagon

a = 2r tan(π/n) = 2R sin(π/n) , R = r sec(π/n) , P = na .

T
The area of a regular polygon is:
1 1
A = na2 cot(π/n) = nr2 tan(π/n) = nR2 sin(2π/n) .
4 2
Circles
Definition B.4. A circle is a plane curve that is equidistant from a given
F
fixed point, called the center, and equidistance is called the radius.
The radius is a line segment that joins the center of a circle with any point
on the circle. The line segment through the center that joins any two point
of the circle is called diameter with length d = 2r, see Figure B.5. A chord
is a line segment whose endpoints lie on the circle. A tangent to a circle is a
A
straight line that touches the circle at a single point. An arc of a circle is any

tangent C
B A
d
sect
arc

r θ
R
or
d
or

O
ch

segment

Figure B.5. Circles elements

D

connected part of the circle’s circumference. A sector is a region bounded by

two radii and an arc lying between the radii, and a segment is a region bounded
by a chord and an arc lying between the chord’s endpoints, see Figure B.5.
The perimeter of a circle is called the circumference, and is given by
C = 2πr = πd .
The circumference-to-diameter ratio C/d for a circle is constant as the size of
the circle is changed. This ratio is denoted π, and has been proved transcen-
dental.
Circle area = πr2 .
The enclosed area by a circle is equal to the area of a triangle with base equal
to the length of the circle’s circumference and height equals to the radius of
 CIRCLES 99

the circle. This derivation was first recorded by Archimedes, see footnote ∗ on
the page 54, in Measurement of a Circle about 225 BC. He proved that
10 22
3 <π< .
71 7
The arc length of a central angle measured in θ radians is rθ, see Figure B.5.
The area of a sector is
1
sector AOBC area = AAOBC = θr2 ,
2
and the area of a segment is
1
segment ABC area = AAOBC − AAOB = (θ − sin θ)r2 .
2

T
On this topic the following textbooks and sites were used: [9], [12, 13],
[20], [22, 23], [30], [37], [60], [84], [92, 93], [97], [105, 106], [123], [125] -
[127]

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D
 APPENDIX C

Solid geometry

Basic topics of solid geometry at secondary school are: incidence of planes

and lines, dihedral angle and solid angle; polyhedrons, such as: cube, cuboid,

T
parallelepiped, prisms, tetrahedron and other pyramids; cylinders, cones and
spheres.

Dihedral angles
Definition C.1. A solid angle is an angle formed by three or more planes
intersecting at a common point.
F
A dihedral angle is the angle formed by two intersecting planes, see Figure C.1.
A
. q
.
R

Figure C.1. A dihedral angle Figure C.2. The angle between a

line and a plane

To measure the angle between a line and a plane, see Figure C.2, we have
to measure the angle between the line and its orthogonal projection on the
plane.
D

Polyhedrons
In geometry a polyhedron is defined as follows:
Definition C.2. A polyhedron is a three-dimensional solid, which consists
of a collection of polygons, joined at their edges. The word derives from the
Greek poly (many) plus the Indo-European hedron (seat). A polyhedron is said
to be regular if its faces and vertex figures are regular (not necessarily convex)
polygons.
Remark C.1. A polyhedron is the three-dimensional version of the more
general polytope, which can be defined in arbitrary dimension. The plural of
polyhedron is ”polyhedra” or ”polyhedrons”.
100
 POLYHEDRONS 101

For polyhedra (convex or none) is valid Euler’s polyhedron formula (or

theorem), that states
χ = NV − NE + NF ,
where χ is the Euler (see footnote ∗ on the page 55) characteristic; N V , N E
and N F are numbers of vertices, edges and faces, respectively. By example
χ = 2 for Platonic∗ solids given in Table C.1.

T
Image

Name Tetra- Hexa- Octa- Dodeca- Icosa-

hedron hedron hedron hedron hedron
or cube
Vertices
Edges
Faces
4
6
4
8
12
6
F 6
12
8

Table C.1. Platonic solids

20
30
12
12
30
20
A

Cubes. A cube with side a (or regular hexahedron) is a three-dimensional

Platonic solid (see Table C.1 and Figure C.3) composed of six square faces,
with three meeting at each vertex.
R

a
D

Figure C.3. A cube and its flat

∗ Plato(n) (about 427 - about 347) was a Greek philosopher, mathematician and
writer of philosophical dialogues. Founder of the Academy of Athens, the first higher
learning institution in the Western world. His dialogues were used to teach many sub-
jects, such as philosophy, logic, mathematics, ethics and rhetoric. The Platonic regu-
lar solids are:tetrahedron, hexahedron, octahedron, dodecahedron, icosahedron. Plato
wrote about them in his dialogues, in which he associated each of the four classical
elements: earth (cube), air (octahedron), water (icosahedron), and fire (tetrahedron).
 POLYHEDRONS 102

The cube is a special kind of square prism, of rectangular parallelepiped.

Its volume and its surface area are given respectively by
V = a3 , A = 6a2 .
A cuboid is a solid figure bounded by six rectangular faces: a rectangular
box.
Parallelepipeds. A parallelepiped is a three-dimensional figure like a
cube, but its faces are parallelograms. Three equivalent definitions of par-
allelepiped are the followings.
Definition C.3. A parallelepiped is:
— a prism of which the base is a parallelogram,

T
— a hexahedron of which each face is a parallelogram,
— a hexahedron with three pairs of parallel faces.
Parallelepipeds are a subclass of the prismatoids.

F
A
Figure C.4. A parallelepiped

The volume of a parallelepiped is the product of the area of the base and
the height h. The base is any of the six parallelograms that make up the
parallelepiped. The height is the perpendicular distance between the base and
the top face.
R

Prisms. In geometry, polyhedra are three-dimensional geometrical sur-

faces that consists of multiple edges and faces (sides). The edges are straight
line segments and the faces are always polygons. These surfaces have one inte-
rior, no holes, and are hollow.
Definition C.4. A general prism is a polyhedron possessing two congruent
D

polygonal faces (bases) and with all remaining faces parallelograms.

A right prism is a prism in which the top and bottom polygons lie on top of
each other so that the vertical polygons connecting their sides are rectangles,
i.e the side edges are perpendicular to the base.
If a line from a middle of the top face to the middle of the base meets the
base at an angle other then right then it is an oblique polyhedron, i.e. the
oblique figure is “leaning”.
According to the polygon the regular prisms are triangular (the bases are
triangles), pentagonal (the bases are pentagons) and etc.
A prism is a subclass of the prismatoids. A right rectangular prism is also
called a cuboid, or a rectangular box. A right square prism is simply a square
box.
 CYLINDERS, CONES AND SPHERES 103

Figure C.5. A concave prism

T
The volume of a regular prism is V = Ah, where A is the area of the base
and h is the height (distance between bases) and

Surface Area = Base Area + Lateral Area .

Pyramids. Pyramids are similar to prisms except they come to a point

at the top.
F
Definition C.5. An n-sided pyramid is a polyhedron formed by connect-
ing an n-sided polygonal base and a point, called the apex, by n triangular
faces (n ≥ 3).
A
R

Figure C.6. A pyramid and its flat

D

Pyramids come in regular, right and oblique varieties. A tetrahedron is an

example of a regular pyramid.
1
The volume of a pyramid is V = Ah, where A is the area of the base and
3
h is the height from the base to the apex, see Figure C.6.

Cylinders, cones and spheres

Cylinders, cones and spheres are not polyhedra and their surface area is
curved and not a flat.
 CYLINDERS, CONES AND SPHERES 104

h
h 2pr
r
r

T
Figure C.7. A right circular cylinder and its flat

Cylinders. The term “cylinder” has a number of related meanings. In its

most general usage, the word “cylinder” refers to a solid bounded by a closed
generalized cylinder (cylindrical surface) and two parallel planes. A cylinder of

F
this sort having a polygonal base is therefore a prism.
Unfortunately, the term “cylinder” is commonly used not only to refer to
the solid bounded by a cylindrical surface, but to the cylindrical surface itself.

Definition C.6. A cylinder is a tree-dimensional solid of circular cross

section in which the centers of the circles all lie on a single line (a circular
A
cylinder).
A cylinder is called a right cylinder if its cross sections lie directly on top of
each other; otherwise, the cylinder is said to be oblique.

In common usage, a cylinder is a finite section of a right circular cylinder

with its ends closed to form two circular surfaces see Figure C.7. If the cylinder
R

has a radius r and height h, then its volume and its surface area are given
respectively by
V = πr2 h , A = 2πr(r + h) ,
where: 2πr2 is the area of the base and 2πrh is the lateral area. Oblique
D

h
h
r r

Figure C.8. Oblique cylinder and oblique cone

cylinder with height h and area of the base B (see Figure C.8) has a volume
V = Bh.
 CYLINDERS, CONES AND SPHERES 105

Cones. In geometry, a right circular cone is a conic solid whose base is a

circle and whose apex is on a line perpendicular to the plane containing the
base. The apex is equidistant with magnitude l from all points on the circle.
The volume, V , surface area A of a cone are:
1
V = πr2 h , A = πr(r + l) ,
3
where: h is a height (the distance
√ from the apex to the center of the base), r
is the radius of the base, l = r2 + h2 is the slant height of the cone, πr2 in
area formula is the area of the base, while πrl, is the area of the curved side
surface (lateral area), so

T
Surface Area = Base Area + Lateral Area.

l
h
F 2pr
l

r
r
A

Figure C.9. A right circular cylinder and its flat

Note C.1. The volume of a cone of height h and base with radius r, is
R

1/3 of the volume of the cylinder with the same dimensions.

An oblique cone, cone with an apex that is not aligned above the center of
the base, with height h and area of the base B (see Figure C.8) has a volume
1
V = Bh.
3
D

Truncated cones or pyramids are cones or pyramids which has its apex cut
off by an intersecting plane. The plane may be either oblique or parallel to the
base.
If the truncating plane is parallel to the base the figure is called a frustum.

Sphere. In mathematics, the term “sphere” refers to the surface or bound-

ary of a ball, but in non-mathematical usage, the term is used to refer either
to a three-dimensional ball or to its surface.
Definition C.7. A sphere is the set of points in R3 which are at distance
r, r > 0, from a fixed point of that space. The equal distance r is called the
radius of the sphere and the fixed point is called the center. The special case
of r = 1 is called a unit sphere.
 CYLINDERS, CONES AND SPHERES 106

2r

Figure C.10. A sphere and its flat

T
The surface area and the volume of a sphere of radius r are, respectively,
see Figure C.10:
4
A = 4πr2 , V = πr3 .
3
On this theme the following books and sites were used: [2, 3], [9], [14], [18],
[41, 42], [48], [52], [70] - [74], [80, 81], [99] - [101], [121] - [124].

F
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T
[2] Ch.G. Lozanov, T.A. Vitanov & P.S. Nedevski Mathematics for 10-th
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F
[5] L.N. Bolshev, V.S. Vladimirov, L.D. Kudryavcev, A.F. Leontiev, S.M.
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A
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[9] B.D. Milkoeva & S.K. Beev, Mathematical Handbook, Vega-74, Bulgaria,
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[10] K. Petrov, Guidance for solving problems of elementary mathematics,
Narodna Prosveta, Sofia, 1984 (bulgarian).
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edu/~dallen/history/archimed/archimed.html
D

[13] D. Allen, CST, Thales of Miletus, 1997, http://www.math.tamu.edu/

~dallen/history/thales2/thales2.html
[14] J. Angelova, D. Kolev, M. Gassner and G. Melard, Introduction to uni-
versity mathematics, http://telearn.tu-sofia.bg/Math&Science/
math-ulb-eng/_lfrFR/index.html
[15] H.J. Keisler, Elementary calculus: An Infinitesimal approach,
http://www.math.wisc.edu/~keisler/calc.html
[16] D.A. Kouba, The calculus page problems list, http://www.math.
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 BIBLIOGRAPHY 108

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 Index

T
absolute value, 16 chain rule, 83
addition, 90 circles, 98
algebraic arc, 98
equations, 37 chord, 98
function, 37 sector, 98
inequalities, 37 segment, 98
altitudes, 94
angle bisectors, 94
angles, 92
dihedral, 100
measure, 53
F circular functions, 52
circumcenter, 94
circumcircle, 94
circumference, 98
circumradius, 94
degree, 53 clockwise, 53
A
radian, 53 closure law of, 8
solid, 100 multiplication, 8
antilogarithm function, 48, 49 addition, 8
apex, 104 commutative law of, 8
area of a addition, 8
triangle, 95 multiplication, 8
R

arithmetic progression, 69 operations ∪ and ∩, 6

common difference, 70 comparison symbols, 90
partial sums, 70 complement, 4
arithmetic series, 70 composition of functions, 18
associative law of, 8 concavity, 88
addition, 8 conditions for extrema
multiplication, 8
necessary, 86
D

operations ∪ and ∩, 6
sufficient, 86
axiom, 8
cones, 104
completeness, 9
oblique, 105
extend, 8
right circular, 104
field, 8
continuity, 76
order, 9
convexity, 87
biquadratic equations, 24 counterclockwise, 53
bounds, 17 cubes, 101
brackets, 91 cuboid, 103
cyclometric functions, 59
Cartesian product, 5 arccosine, 60, 62
center of mass, 95 arccotangent, 60, 64
centroid, 94 arcsine, 59, 62
113
 INDEX 114

arctangent, 60, 63 functions, 14

cylinders, 103 algebraic, 37
circular, 104 bounded, 17
oblique, 104 above, 17
right, 104 below, 17
concave, 21, 87
decimals continuous, 76, 77, 84
converting to fractions, 11 convex, 21, 87
non-repeating, 2 decreasing, 28
non-terminating, 2 differentiable, 81
repeating, 11, 12 domain, 14
representation, 9, 11 even, 17

T
terminating, 11 graph, 15
derivatives increasing, 28
first order, 81 monotone, 17, 86
geometric meaning, 82 decreasing, 17, 20, 45, 48, 86
inverse function, 84 increasing, 17, 20, 45, 48, 86
mechanical meaning, 83 null, 15
of higher order, 81 odd, 17
one-sided, 81
table, 84
difference quotient, 81
differentiation, 90
rules, 83
F periodic, 18, 55, 67
range, 14
representation, 16
analytical, 16
descriptive, 16
digits, 9 tabular, 17
A
distributive law, 6, 8 transcendental, 37
double-angle formulas, 57 fundamental theorem of arithmetic,
10
exponential
equations, 45 geometric progression, 71
function, 45 common ratio, 71
inequalities, 46
R

partial sums, 72
exponentiation, 26, 44 properties, 71
exponent laws, 44 scale factor, 71
properties, 27 geometric series, 72
extreme greatest common divisor, 10
points
maximum, 85 half-angle formulas, 58
D

minimum, 85 half-plane, 41
value, 85
values, 85 incenter, 94
maximum, 85 incircle, 94
minimum, 85 inclusion, 3
extreme points, 22 indices, 91
inflection points, 87, 88
Fibonacci numbers, 67 falling, 88
fractions, 11, 91 rising, 88
denominator, 11 inradius, 94
improper, 11 intersection, 4
numerator, 11 intervals, 3, 90
proper, 11 closed, 3
frustum, 105 endpoint, 3
 INDEX 115

open, 3 algebraic, 12
inverse function, 18 integer, 2, 10
irrational, 29 irrational, 2, 12
equations, 29, 38 natural, 2, 10
inequalities, 30 prime, 2, 10, 11
rational, 2, 11
kites, 97 real, 2, 8
least common multiple, 10 transcendental, 12
limits numeral base, 11
functions, 74, 76
orthocenter, 94
left-hand, 75, 76
one-sided, 74

T
parabola, 21
right-hand, 74, 77 parallelepipeds, 102
number sequences, 68 parallelograms, 96, 102
one-sided, 81 parenthesis, 91
linear period, 18
function, 18, 20 perpendicular bisectors, 94
graphs, 20 piecewise function, 16, 66
signs, 20
slope, 20
vertical intercept, 20
functions, 36
inequalities, 20
F plane, 5, 15, 41, 77, 92, 100
points of discontinuity, 78
essential, 79
jump, 79
removable, 79
logarithmic
polygons, 93, 96, 97
equations, 49
A
convex, 96, 97
function, 48
regular, 97
inequalities, 50
polyhedrons, 100, 103
transformation, 45
polynomial
logarithms, 47, 90
equations, 36
binary, 47
function, 36
common, 47
signs, 36
R

natural, 47
polynomials, 37
properties, 47
positional decimal system, 9
maps, 14 power
bijective, 15 function, 28
injective, 15 graphs, 28
surjective, 15, 66 powers, 26, 90
D

medians, 94 prime factorization, 10

modular inequalities, 40 prismatoids, 103
modulus, 90 prisms, 102
multiplication, 90 rectangular, 103
regular, 103
number e, 44 right, 102
number π, 54 pyramids, 103
number sequences, 66 oblique, 103
bounded, 67 right, 103
Cauchy, 68
convergent, 68 quadratic
monotone, 68 equations, 21, 30, 34
subsequences, 66 discriminant, 22
numbers formula, 21
 INDEX 116

function, 21 perimeter, 95
graphs, 23 right, 93
signs, 23 trigonometric
inequalities, 23, 31 equations, 35
Viete’s formulas, 22, 34 equations and inequalities, 61
quadrilaterals, 96 cosine, 62
quotient, 90 cotangent, 64
sine, 61
real axis, 2, 9 tangent, 63
rectangles, 96 functions, 52, 55
recurrent formula, 67 cosecant, 55
rhombs, 96 cosine, 55, 56

T
roots, 27 cotangent, 55, 57
even, 27 inverse, 59
odd, 27 period, 55
secant, 55
secant, 82 sine, 55
slope, 83 tangent, 55, 56
sets, 1 identities, 57
sign charts, 36
sloping, 20
solid geometry, 100
space, 5
spheres, 105
F union, 3

variable, 14
dependent, 14
squares, 96 independent, 14
vectors, 92
A
subsets, 2
vertices, 93
subtraction, 90
system, 36
inequalities, 65
systems, 32
equations, 32
bivariate quadratic, 35
R

linear, 32
inequalities, 37
linear, 38, 41
quadratic, 39
rational, 39
solution set, 32, 42
D

special, 34

tangent, 83, 87, 98

slope, 83
test
interval technique, 31, 36
point, 36
second derivative, 86
tetrahedron, 103
transcendental numbers, 2, 8
trapezoids, 97
triangles, 52, 93
area, 95
oblique, 94