our endocrine system includes all the glands in your body

that make hormones. These chemical messengers play a

key role in making sure your body works the way it should.
If your endocrine system isn't healthy, you might have
problems developing during puberty, getting pregnant, or
managing stress. You also might gain weight easily, have
weak bones, or lack energy because too much sugar stays
in your blood instead of moving into your cells where it's
needed for energy.

Key Parts

Many different glands

make up the endocrine system. The hypothalamus,
pituitary gland, and pineal gland are your brain. The
thyroid and parathyroid glands are in your neck. The
thymus is between your lungs, the adrenals are on top of
your kidneys, and the pancreas is behind your stomach.
Your ovaries (if you're a woman) or testes (if you're a
man) are in your pelvic region.
Hypothalamus: This organ connects your endocrine
system with your nervous system. Its main job is to tell
your pituitary gland to start or stop making hormones.
Pituitary: This is the "master" gland of your endocrine
system. It uses information it gets from your brain to "tell"
other glands in your body what to do. It makes many
different important hormones, including growth hormone;
prolactin, which helps breastfeeding moms make milk; and
luteinizing hormone, which manages estrogen in women
and testosterone in men.
Pineal: This gland makes a chemical called melatonin. It
helps your body get ready to go to sleep.
Thyroid: This gland makes thyroid hormone, which
controls your metabolism. If this gland doesn't make
enough (a condition called hypothyroidism), everything
happens more slowly. Your heart rate might slow down.
You could get constipated. And you might gain weight. If it
makes too much (hyperthyroidism), everything speeds up.
Your heart might race. You could have diarrhea. And you
might lose weight without trying.
Parathyroid: This is a set of four small glands behind
your thyroid. They are important for bone health. The
glands control your levels of calcium and phosphorus.
Thymus: This gland makes white blood cells called T-
lymphocytes that fight infection and are crucial as a child's
immune system develops. The thymus starts to shrink
after puberty.

Endocrine System: Facts, Functions and Diseases

The endocrine system is the collection of glands that produce hormones that regulate
metabolism, growth and development, tissue function, sexual function, reproduction,
sleep, and mood, among other things.

Function
The endocrine system is made up of the pituitary gland, thyroid gland, parathyroid
glands, adrenal glands, pancreas, ovaries (in females) and testicles (in males), according to the
Mayo Clinic.
The word endocrine derives from the Greek words "endo," meaning within, and "crinis,"
meaning to secrete, according to Health Mentor Online. In general, a gland selects and
removes materials from the blood, processes them and secretes the finished chemical
product for use somewhere in the body. The endocrine system affects almost every
organ and cell in the body, according to the Merck Manual.

Although the hormones circulate throughout the body, each type of hormone is targeted
toward certain organs and tissues, the Merck Manual notes. The endocrine system gets
some help from organs such as the kidney, liver, heart and gonads, which have
secondary endocrine functions. The kidney, for example, secretes hormones such as
erythropoietin and renin.

The thyroid also secretes a range of hormones that affect the whole body. "Thyroid
hormones impact a host of vital body functions, including heart rate, skin maintenance,
growth, temperature regulation, fertility and digestion," said Dr. Jerome M. Hershman, a
professor of medicine at the David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA and author of
the thyroid sections of the Merck Manual.

"In this way, the thyroid gland is the body's master metabolic control center," said Cindy
Samet, a chemistry professor at Dickinson College in Carlisle, Pennsylvania. "Brain,
heart and kidney function, as well as body temperature, growth and muscle strength —
and much more — are at the mercy of thyroid function."

Diseases of the endocrine system

Hormone levels that are too high or too low indicate a problem with the endocrine
system. Hormone diseases also occur if your body does not respond to hormones in the
appropriate ways. Stress, infection and changes in the blood's fluid and electrolyte
balance can also influence hormone levels, according to the National Institutes of Health.
The most common endocrine disease in the United States is diabetes, a condition in
which the body does not properly process glucose, a simple sugar. This is due to the
lack of insulin or, if the body is producing insulin, because the body is not working
effectively, according to Dr. Jennifer Loh, chief of the department of endocrinology
for Kaiser Permanente in Hawaii.
Diabetes can be linked to obesity, diet and family history, according to Dr. Alyson Myers
of North Shore-LIJ Health System. "To diagnose diabetes, we do an oral glucose tolerance
test with fasting."

It is also important to understand the patient's health history as well as the family
history, Myers noted. Infections and medications such as blood thinners can also cause
adrenal deficiencies.
Diabetes is treated with pills or insulin injections. Managing other endocrine disorders
typically involves stabilizing hormone levels with medication or, if a tumor is causing an
overproduction of a hormone, by removing the tumor. Treating endocrine disorders
takes a very careful and personalized approach, Myers said, as adjusting the levels of
one hormone can impact the balance of other hormones.

Hormone imbalances can have a significant impact on the reproductive system,

particularly in women, Loh explained.

Another disorder, hypothyroidism, a parathyroid disease, occurs when the thyroid gland
does not produce enough thyroid hormone to meet the body's needs. Loh noted that
insufficient thyroid hormone can cause many of the body's functions to slow or shut
down completely. It has an easy treatment, though. "Parathyroid disease is a curable
cause of kidney stones," said Dr. Melanie Goldfarb, an endocrine surgeon and director
of the Endocrine Tumor Program at Providence Saint John's Health Center in Santa
Monica, California, and an assistant professor of surgery at the John Wayne Cancer
Institute in Santa Monica. The damaged part of the gland is removed surgically.

Thyroid cancer begins in the thyroid gland and starts when the cells in the thyroid begin
to change, grow uncontrollably and eventually form a tumor, according to Loh. Tumors
— both benign and cancerous — can also disrupt the functions of the endocrine
system, Myers explained. Between the years of 1975 and 2013, the cases of thyroid
cancer diagnosed yearly have more than tripled, according to a 2017 study published in
the Journal of the American Medical Association (JAMA). "While overdiagnosis may be
an important component to this observed epidemic, it clearly does not explain the whole
story," said Dr. Julie Sosa, one of the authors of the new study and the chief of
endocrine surgery at Duke University in North Carolina. The American Cancer Society
predicts that there will be about 53,990 new cases of thyroid cancer in 2018 and around
2,060 deaths from thyroid cancer.

Hypoglycemia, also called low blood glucose or low blood sugar, occurs when blood
glucose drops below normal levels. This typically happens as a result of treatment for
diabetes when too much insulin is taken. While Loh noted that the condition can occur
in people not undergoing treatment for diabetes, such an occurrence is fairly rare.

What is an endocrinologist?
After completing four years of medical school, people who want to be endocrinologists
then spend three or four years in an internship and residency program. These specialty
programs cover internal medicine, pediatrics, or obstetrics and gynecology, according to
the American Board of Internal Medicine.

Endocrinologists-in-training then spend two or three more years learning how to

diagnose and treat hormone conditions. Overall, an endocrinologist's training will take
more than 10 years after the undergraduate degree. They are certified by the American
Board of Internal Medicine. Endocrinologists typically specialize in one or two areas of
endocrinology, such as diabetes or infertility. These specialists treat patients with fertility
issues and also assess and treat patients with health concerns surrounding
menstruation and menopause, Loh noted.

Milestones in the study of the endocrine system

200 B.C.: The Chinese begin isolating sex and pituitary hormones from human urine and
using them for medicinal purposes
1025: In medieval Persia, the writer Avicenna (980-1037) provides a detailed account on
diabetes mellitus in "The Canon of Medicine" (c. 1025), describing the abnormal
appetite, the collapse of sexual functions and the sweet taste of diabetic urine.
1835: Irish doctor Robert James Graves describes a case of goiter with bulging eyes
(exophthalmos). The thyroid condition Graves' disease was later named after the
doctor.
1902: William Bayliss and Ernest Starling perform an experiment in which they observe
that acid instilled into the duodenum (part of the small intestine) causes the pancreas to
begin secretion, even after they had removed all nervous connections between the two
organs.
1889: Joseph von Mering and Oskar Minkowski observe that surgically removing the
pancreas results in an increase of blood sugar, followed by a coma and eventual death.
1921: Otto Loewi in 1921 discovers neurohormones by incubating a frog's heart in a
saline bath.
1922: Leonard Thompson, at age 14, is the first person with diabetes to receive insulin.
Drugmaker Eli Lilly soon starts mass production of insulin.

The endocrine system is the interacting group of glands that secrete hormones ,
helping to control cells and organs throughout the body. How do cells and organs at
different locations in the body communicate with each
 The endocrine organs in the human body.

other to maintain the physiology of healthy living organisms? What happens if organs do
not communicate properly? These questions can be answered by understanding how
organs of the nervous system and endocrine system function.
There are similarities and differences between how the human nervous system and
endocrine system communicate with and control other organs. For example, the
nervous system relies on electrical impulses and chemical neurotransmitters . Most
endocrine organs do not transmit electrical information but instead secrete hormones
(from the Greek, meaning "to arouse or excite"), which are molecules that act as
chemical messengers. Hormones are released into the bloodstream whereby they travel
to organs they affect, known as target organs.

Endocrine organs are located throughout the body, and they have diverse functions controlling
events such as cell metabolism , blood sugar concentration, digestion, the menstrual cycle in
females, and the production of male and female gametes . Primary endocrine organs include
the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, pineal gland, thyroid and parathyroid glands, thymus, adrenal
glands, pancreas, and male and female gonads, the testes and ovaries respectively. Other
tissues serve endocrine functions through the hormones they produce. For example, the
kidneys produce erythropoietin that stimulates formation of red blood cells, and the skin
produces vitamin D, a steroid derivative required for calcium absorption by the small intestine.
Read more: http://www.biologyreference.com/Dn-Ep/Endocrine-System.html#ixzz5SgXD4gxZ

Hormones
Hormones are "signaling" molecules because they influence the activity of other cells
that may be far from where the hormone was produced. For a hormone to affect a target
cell, it must attach to a receptor protein on the target cell membrane or inside the cell.
Hormone binding to a receptor triggers an intricate set of biochemical interactions that
can affect the target cell in myriad ways. For example, hormones can influence cell
metabolism, cell division, electrical activity, ribonucleic acid (RNA) and protein
synthesis, or cell secretion .
There are several different types of hormones that vary in their chemical organization
and functions. The majority of hormones are peptides. These consist of short
sequences of amino acids ; examples include insulin and growth hormone. The class
of hormones called steroids are synthesized from cholesterol—examples include male
sex steroids such as testosterone and female sex steroids such as estrogen and
progesterone.
Hormone production by an endocrine organ is regulated by complex interactions,
called feedback loops, between the endocrine organ and its target organs. Feedback
loops are two-way modes of communication in which a target organ also releases
molecules that regulate the endocrine organ. Feedback loops are designed to maintain
hormone concentration within a normal range. Endocrine disorders in which hormone
concentration becomes abnormal can be difficult to diagnose and treat because of the
complexity of feedback loops. One simple way to classify endocrine disorders is based
on whether a condition is due to excess production (hypersecretion) or underproduction
(hyposecretion) of hormone.

Read more: http://www.biologyreference.com/Dn-Ep/Endocrine-

System.html#ixzz5SgXJ2UN6

he Major Endocrine Glands

Located at the base of the brain, the pituitary gland produces many hormones that
regulate other organs. Because of this, the pituitary is often referred to as the "master"
endocrine gland, although the term "central" endocrine gland is more correct because
hormone release by the pituitary is primarily regulated by a brain structure called the
hypothalamus, which acts to connect the nervous system to the endocrine system. The
hypothalamus produces hormones that stimulate or inhibit the release of pituitary
hormones. The hypothalamus also produces antidiuretic hormone, which regulates
water balance in the body by inhibiting urine formation by the
 A frontal-view scintigram of a normal human thyroid. Part of the endocrine system, the thyroid controls basal
metabolic rate.

kidneys, and a hormone called oxytocin, which stimulates uterine contractions during
childbirth and releases milk during breast-feeding.
Hormones released by the pituitary include growth hormone, which increases during
childhood and stimulates the growth of muscle, bone, and other tissues. Sporadic bursts
in growth hormone release often result in rapid growth "spurts" associated with
adolescence. Hyposecretion of growth hormone can result in dwarfism, whereas
hypersecretion of growth hormone can cause gigantism and other disorders. The
pituitary also produces follicle-stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone, which
stimulate gamete production and sex steroid production in male and female
reproductive organs, and prolactin, which stimulates milk formation in the mammary
glands.
Located adjacent to the larynx , the thyroid gland primarily produces thyroxine and
triiodothyronine, collectively referred to as thyroid hormone. Thyroid hormone stimulates
growth of muscles and bones, carbohydrate metabolism, and basal metabolic rate. Its
production requires iodine; the lack of dietary iodine causes goiter, a thyroid gland that
is overly enlarged in an effort to compensate for the thyroid hormone deficiency.
Effects of thyroid disorders in children and adults can differ widely. For example,
hyposecretion of thyroid hormone in infants causes congenital hypothyroidism, a
disease characterized by mental retardation and poor body growth; hyposecretion in
adults produces myxedema, with symptoms such as lethargy , weight gain, and dry
skin. Conversely, hypersecretion of thyroid hormone in adults causes Graves' disease,
a condition characterized by weight loss, nervousness, and dramatic increases in body
metabolism. The thyroid also produces calcitonin, a hormone that regulates blood
calcium concentration.
The adrenal glands are small organs on the apex of each kidney. The outer layers of
cells in the adrenal gland, called the adrenal cortex, produce several hormones that
affect reproductive development; mineral balance; fat, protein, and carbohydrate
balance; and adaptation to stress. The inner part, called the adrenal medulla, secretes
epinephrine and norepinephrine, which activate the sympathetic nervous system and
stimulate the "fight-or-flight" response that helps the body cope with stressful situations,
such as fear.
The pancreas produces insulin and glucagon, which function in opposing fashion to
regulate blood sugar (glucose) concentration. When blood glucose level rises—for
example, after eating a sugar-rich meal—insulin lowers it by stimulating glucose storage
in liver and muscle cells as long chains of glucose called glycogen . Conversely,
between meals, blood glucose level decreases. In response, the pancreas releases
glucagon, which stimulates glycogen breakdown and subsequent release of glucose
into the bloodstream. One of the most well characterized endocrine disorders is
diabetes mellitus, resulting from hyposecretion of insulin or, more commonly, target cell
insensitivity to it.
Endocrine functions of the gonads are addressed in articles on the male and female
reproductive systems. The sex hormone testosterone regulates sperm production in
males. Estrogen and progesterone influence egg maturation and release (ovulation) and
control the uterine (menstrual) cycle in females.
Although the many hormones produced by human endocrine organs have a wide
variety of actions, the common purpose of all hormones is to facilitate organ-to-organ
communication necessary for body physiology.

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System.html#ixzz5SgXSHmMX
The endocrine system refers to the collection of glands of an organism that secrete hormones
directly into the circulatory system to be carried towards a distant target organ. The major
endocrine glands include the Pineal Gland, Pituitary Gland, Thymus Gland, pancreas, ovaries,
testes, thyroid gland, parathyroid gland, hypothalamus, gastrointestinal tract and adrenal
glands. The endocrine system is in contrast to the exocrine system, which secretes its
hormones using ducts. The endocrine system is an information signal system like the nervous
system, yet its effects and mechanism are classifiably different. The endocrine system's effects
are slow to initiate, and prolonged in their response, lasting from a few hours up to weeks. The
nervous system sends information very quickly, and responses are generally short lived. In
vertebrates, the hypothalamus is the neural control center for all endocrine systems. The field of
study dealing with the endocrine system and its disorders is endocrinology, a branch of internal
medicine. Special features of endocrine glands are, in general, their ductless nature, their
vascularity, and commonly the presence of intracellular vacuoles or granules that store their
hormones. In contrast, exocrine glands, such as salivary glands, sweat glands, and glands
within the gastrointestinal tract, tend to be much less vascular and have ducts or a hollow lumen

Endocrine System:
Hormones are involved in the control of: secretion, rates of chemical reactions in
cells, transport of substances across cell membranes, growth of cells.
Direct action: pass through the cell membrane into the cell.
Indirect action: interact with a hormone receptor on the outside of the cell.

Hormones are specific: a particular stimulus will only release a specific hormone
from specific hormone releasing cells (eg: release of adrenaline after a shock). The
hormones that course through our bodies only affect specific cells that are
capable of responding to that hormone (eg: one cells that have adrenaline
receptors in their cell membrane, such as muscles of the heart and blood vessels,
can respond).
 Response is generally slower than nervous system responses, though they last
longer. They are slow as the hormone has to pass to the receptive cells through
the blood. Require less energy than nervous response.

Endocrine glands (clusters of cells which secrete hormones) secrete hormones in

humans. They release hormones directly into the blood which transports them.

Exocrine glands (salivary, digestive and sweat) release excretions to the site which
requires the action.

The Pituitary Gland

Located at the base of the brain, just above the roof of the mouth.
It has a central role in endocrine regulation. More than half of the hormones
released by mammals are released from here or used to regulate the release of
pituitary hormones.
The hormones regulate: growth, lactation, reproduction, skin pigmentation, fat
tissue, kidney function and the activity of the thyroid and adrenal glands.
It is connected to the hypothalamus (the collection centre for much information).
The hypothalamus produces releasing hormones which control the secretion of
the pituitary hormones

Endocrine system
ANATOMY

WRITTEN BY:

 David O. Norris
 Theodore B. Schwartz
See Article History

Endocrine system, any of the systems found in animals for the production of
hormones, substances that regulate the functioning of the organism. Such a
system may range, at its simplest, from the neurosecretory, involving one or
more centres in the nervous system, to the complex array of glands found in
the human endocrine system.
Comparative endocrinologists investigate the evolution of endocrine systems
and the role of these systems in animals’ adaptation to their environments and
their production of offspring. Studies of nonmammalian animalshave provided
information that has furthered research in mammalian endocrinology,
including that of humans. For example, the actions of a pituitary hormone,
prolactin, on the control of body water and salt content were first discovered in
fishes and later led to the demonstration of similar mechanisms in mammals.
The mediating role of local ovarian secretions (paracrine function) in the
maturation of oocytes (eggs) was discovered in starfishes and only later
extended to vertebrates. The important role of thyroid hormones during
embryonic development was first studied thoroughly in tadpoles during the
early 1900s. In addition, the isolation and purification of many mammalian
hormones was made possible in large part by using other vertebrates as
bioassay systems; that is, primitive animals have served as relatively simple,
sensitive indicators of the amount of hormone activity in extracts prepared
from mammalian endocrine glands. Finally, some vertebrate and invertebrate
animals have provided “model systems” for research that have yielded
valuable information on the nature of hormone receptors and the mechanisms
of hormone action. For example, one of the most intensively studied systems
for understanding hormone actions on target tissues has been the receptors
for progesterone and estrogens (hormones secreted by the gonads) from the
oviducts of chickens.
An understanding of how the endocrine system is regulated in nonmammals
also provides essential information for regulating natural populations or
captive animals. Artificial control of salmon reproduction has had
important implications for the salmon industry as a whole. Some successful
attempts at reducing pest insect species have been based on the knowledge
of pheromones. Understanding the endocrinology of a rare species may
permit it to be bred successfully in captivity and thus prevent it from becoming
extinct. Future research may even lead to the reintroduction of
some endangered species into natural habitats.

Evolution Of Endocrine Systems

The most primitive endocrine systems seem to be those of the neurosecretory type, in
which the nervous system either secretes neurohormones (hormones that act on, or are
secreted by, nervous tissue) directly into the circulation or stores them in neurohemal
organs (neurons whose endings directly contact blood vessels, allowing
neurohormones to be secreted into the circulation), from which they are released in
large amounts as needed. True endocrine glands probably evolved later in the
evolutionary history of the animal kingdom as separate, hormone-secreting structures.
Some of the cells of these endocrine glands are derived from nerve cells that migrated
during the process of evolution from the nervous system to various locations in the
body. These independent endocrine glands have been described only in arthropods
(where neurohormones are still the dominant type of endocrine messenger) and in
vertebrates (where they are best developed).
It has become obvious that many of the hormones previously ascribed only to
vertebrates are secreted by invertebrates as well (for example, the pancreatic hormone
insulin). Likewise, many invertebrate hormones have been discovered in the tissues of
vertebrates, including those of humans. Some of these molecules are even synthesized
and employed as chemical regulators, similar to hormones in higher animals, by
unicellular animals and plants. Thus, the history of endocrinologic regulators has
ancient beginnings, and the major changes that took place during evolution would
seem to centre around the uses to which these molecules were put.
Vertebrate Endocrine Systems
Vertebrates (phylum Vertebrata) are separable into at least seven discrete classes that
represent evolutionary groupings of related animals with common features. The class
Agnatha, or the jawless fishes, is the most primitive group. Class Chondrichthyes and
class Osteichthyes are jawed fishes that had their origins, millions of years ago, with
the Agnatha. The Chondrichthyes are the cartilaginous fishes, such as sharks and rays,
while the Osteichthyes are the bony fishes. Familiar bony fishes such as goldfish,
trout, and bass are members of the most advanced subgroup of bony fishes, the
teleosts, which developed lungs and first invaded land. From the teleosts evolved the
class Amphibia, which includes frogs and toads. The amphibians gave rise to the class
Reptilia, which became more adapted to land and diverged along several evolutionary
lines. Among the groups descending from the primitive reptiles were turtles,
dinosaurs, crocodilians (alligators, crocodiles), snakes, and lizards. Birds (class Aves)
and mammals (class Mammalia) later evolved from separate groups of reptiles.
Amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals, collectively, are referred to as the tetrapod
(four-footed) vertebrates.
The human endocrine system is the product of millions of years of evolution. and it
should not be surprising that the endocrine glands and associated hormones of the
human endocrine system have their counterparts in the endocrine systems of more
primitive vertebrates. By examining these animals it is possible to document the
emergence of the hypothalamic-pituitary-target organ axis, as well as many other
endocrine glands, during the evolution of fishes that preceded the origin of terrestrial
vertebrates.
The hypothalamic-pituitary-target organ axis
The hypothalamic-pituitary-target organ axes of all vertebrates are similar. The
hypothalamic neurosecretory system is poorly developed in the most primitive of the
living Agnatha vertebrates, the hagfishes, but all of the basic rudiments are present in
the closely related lampreys. In most of the more advanced jawed fishes there are
several well-developed neurosecretory centres (nuclei) in the hypothalamus that
produce neurohormones. These centres become more clearly defined and increase in
the number of distinct nuclei as amphibians and reptiles are examined, and they are as
extensive in birds as they are in mammals. Some of the same neurohormones that are
found in humans have been identified in nonmammals, and these neurohormones
produce similar effects on cells of the pituitary as described above for mammals.
Two or more neurohormonal peptides with chemical and biologic properties similar to
those of mammalian oxytocin and vasopressin are secreted by the vertebrate
hypothalamus (except in Agnatha fishes, which produce only one). The oxytocin-like
peptide is usually isotocin (most fishes) or mesotocin (amphibians, reptiles, and
birds). The second peptide is arginine vasotocin, which is found in all nonmammalian
vertebrates as well as in fetal mammals. Chemically, vasotocin is a hybrid of oxytocin
and vasopressin, and it appears to have the biologic properties of both oxytocin
(which stimulates contraction of muscles of the reproductive tract, thus playing a role
in egg-laying or birth) and vasopressin (with either diuretic or antidiuretic properties).
The functions of the oxytocin-like substances in nonmammals are unknown.
The pituitary glands of all vertebrates produce essentially the same tropic
hormones: thyrotropin (TSH), corticotropin (ACTH), melanotropin (MSH), prolactin
(PRL), growth hormone (GH), and one or two gonadotropins (usually FSH-like and
LH-like hormones). The production and release of these tropic hormones are
controlled by neurohormones from the hypothalamus. The cells of teleost fishes,
however, are innervated directly. Thus, these fishes may rely on neurohormones as
well as neurotransmitters for stimulating or inhibiting the release of tropic hormones.
Among the target organs that constitute the hypothalamic-pituitary-target organ axis
are the thyroid, the adrenal glands, and the gonads. Their individual roles are
discussed below.
The thyroid axis
Thyrotropin secreted by the pituitary stimulates the thyroid gland to release thyroid
hormones, which help to regulate development, growth, metabolism, and
reproduction. In humans, these thyroid hormones are known as triiodothyronine (T3)
and thyroxine (T4). The evolution of the thyroid gland is traceable in the evolutionary
development of invertebrates to vertebrates. The thyroid gland evolved from an
iodide-trapping, glycoprotein-secreting gland of the protochordates (all nonvertebrate
members of the phylum Chordata). The ability of many invertebrates to concentrate
iodide, an important ingredient in thyroid hormones, occurs generally over the surface
of the body. In protochordates, this capacity to bind iodide to a glycoprotein and
produce thyroid hormones became specialized in the endostyle, a gland located in the
pharyngeal region of the head. When these iodinated proteins are swallowed and
broken down by enzymes, the iodinated amino acids known as thyroid hormones are
released. Larvae of primitive vertebrate lampreys also have an endostyle like that of
the protochordates. When a lamprey larva undergoes metamorphosis into an adult
lamprey, the endostyle breaks into fragments. The resulting clumps of endostyle
cells differentiate into the separate follicles of the thyroid gland. Thyroid hormones
actually direct metamorphosis in the larvae of lampreys, bony fishes, and amphibians.
Thyroids of fishes consist of scattered follicles in the pharyngeal region. In tetrapods
and a few fishes, the thyroid becomes encapsulated by a layer of connective tissue.
The adrenal axis
The adrenal axes in mammals and in nonmammals are not constructed along the same
lines. In mammals the adrenal cortex is a separate structure that surrounds the internal
adrenal medulla; the adrenal glandis located atop the kidneys. Because the cells of the
adrenal cortex and adrenal medulla do not form separate structures in nonmammals as
they do in mammals, they are often referred to in different terms; the cells that
correspond to the adrenal cortex in mammals are called interrenal cells, and the cells
that correspond to the adrenal medulla are called chromaffin cells. In primitive
nonmammals the adrenal glands are sometimes called interrenal glands.
In fishes the interrenal and chromaffin cells often are embedded in the kidneys,
whereas in amphibians they are distributed diffusely along the surface of the kidneys.
Reptiles and birds have discrete adrenal glands, but the anatomical relationship is such
that often the “cortex” and the “medulla” are not distinct units. Under the influence of
pituitary adrenocorticotropin hormone, the interrenal cells produce steroids (usually
corticosterone in tetrapods and cortisol in fishes) that influence sodium balance, water
balance, and metabolism.
The gonadal axis
Gonadotropins secreted by the pituitary are basically LH-like and/or FSH-like in their
actions on vertebrate gonads. In general, the FSH-like hormones promote
development of eggs and sperm and the LH-like hormones cause ovulation and sperm
release; both types of gonadotropins stimulate the secretion of the steroid
hormones(androgens, estrogens, and, in some cases, progesterone) from the gonads.
These steroids produce effects similar to those described for humans. For example,
progesterone is essential for normal gestation in many fishes, amphibians, and reptiles
in which the young develop in the reproductive tract of the mother and are delivered
live. Androgens (sometimes testosterone, but often other steroids are more important)
and estrogens (usually estradiol) influence male and female characteristics and
behaviour.
Control of pigmentation
Melanotropin (melanocyte-stimulating hormone, or MSH) secreted by the pituitary
regulates the star-shaped cells that contain large amounts of the dark
pigment melanin (melanophores), especially in the skin of amphibians as well as in
some fishes and reptiles. Apparently, light reflected from the surface stimulates
photoreceptors, which send information to the brain and in turn to the hypothalamus.
Pituitary melanotropin then causes the pigment in the melanophores to disperse and
the skin to darken, sometimes quite dramatically. By releasing more or less
melanotropin, an animal is able to adapt its colouring to its background.
Growth hormone and prolactin
The functions of growth hormone and prolactin secreted by the pituitary overlap
considerably, although prolactin usually regulates water and salt balance, whereas
growth hormone primarily influences proteinmetabolism and hence growth. Prolactin
allows migratory fishes such as salmon to adapt from salt water to fresh water. In
amphibians, prolactin has been described as a larval growth hormone, and it can also
prevent metamorphosis of the larva into the adult. The water-seeking behaviour (so-
called water drive) of adult amphibians often observed prior to breeding in ponds is
also controlled by prolactin. The production of a protein-rich secretion by the skin of
the discus fish (called “discus milk”) that is used to nourish young offspring is caused
by a prolactin-like hormone. Similarly, prolactin stimulates secretions from the crop
sac of pigeons (“pigeon” or “crop” milk), which are fed to newly hatched young. This
action is reminiscent of prolactin’s actions on the mammary glandof nursing
mammals. Prolactin also appears to be involved in the differentiation and function of
many sex accessory structures in nonmammals, and in the stimulation of the
mammalian prostate gland. For example, prolactin stimulates cloacal glands
responsible for special reproductive secretions. Prolactin also influences external
sexual characteristics such as nuptial pads (for clasping the female) and the height of
the tail in male salamanders.
Other vertebrate endocrine glands
The pancreas
The pancreas in nonmammals is an endocrine gland that secretes insulin, glucagon,
and somatostatin. Pancreatic polypeptide has been identified in birds and may occur in
other groups as well. Insulin lowers blood sugar (hypoglycemia) in most vertebrates,
although mammalian insulin is rather ineffective in reptiles and birds. Glucagon is a
hyperglycemic hormone (it increases the level of sugar in the blood).
In primitive fishes the cells responsible for secreting the pancreatic hormones are
scattered within the wall of the intestine. There is a trend toward progressive clumping
of cells in more evolutionarily advanced fishes, and in a few species the endocrine
tissue forms only one or a few large islets. As a rule, most fishes lack a discrete
pancreas, but all tetrapods have a fully formed exocrine and endocrine pancreas. The
endocrine cells of all tetrapods are organized into distinct islets as described for
humans, although the abundance of the different celltypes often varies. For example,
in reptiles and birds there is a predominance of glucagon-secreting cells and relatively
few insulin-secreting cells.
Calcium-regulating hormones
Fishes have no parathyroid glands: these glands first appear in amphibians. Although
the embryological origin of parathyroid glands of tetrapods is well known, their
evolutionary origin is not. Parathyroid hormone raises blood calcium levels
(hypercalcemia) in tetrapods. The absence in most fishes of cellular bone, which is the
principal target for parathyroid hormone in tetrapods, is reflected by the absence of
parathyroid glands.
Fishes, amphibians, reptiles, and birds have paired pharyngeal ultimobranchial
glands that secrete the hypocalcemic hormone calcitonin. The corpuscles of Stannius,
unique glandular islets found only in the kidneys of bony fishes, secrete a peptide
called hypocalcin. Fish calcitonins differ somewhat from the mammalian peptide
hormone of the same name, and fish calcitonins have proved to be more potent and
have a longer-lasting action in humans than human calcitonin itself.
Consequently, synthetic fish calcitonin has been used to treat humans suffering from
various disorders of bone, including Paget’s disease. The secretory cells of the
ultimobranchial glands are derived from cells that migrated from the embryonic
nervous system. During the development of a mammalian fetus, the ultimobranchial
gland becomes incorporated into the developing thyroid gland as the “C cells” or
“parafollicular cells.”
Gastrointestinal hormones
Little research has been done on gastrointestinal hormones in nonmammals, but there
is good evidence for a gastrinlike mechanism that controls the secretion
of stomach acids. Peptides similar to cholecystokinin are also present and can
stimulate contractions of the gall bladder. The gall bladders of primitive fishes
contract when treated with mammalian cholecystokinin.
Other mammalian-like endocrine systems
The renin-angiotensin system
The renin-angiotensin system in mammals is represented in nonmammals by the
juxtaglomerular cells that secrete renin associated with the kidney. The macula densa
that functions as a detector of sodium levels within the kidney tubules of tetrapods,
however, has not been found in fishes.
 renin-angiotensin systemRenin-angiotensin system.Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

The pineal complex

In fishes, amphibians, and reptiles, the pineal complex is better developed than in
mammals. The nonmammalian pineal functions as both a photoreceptor organ and an
endocrine source for melatonin. Effects of light on reproduction in fishes and
tetrapods are mediated at least in part through the pineal, and it has been implicated in
a number of daily and seasonal biorhythmic phenomena.
Prostaglandins
Many tissues of nonmammals produce prostaglandins that play important roles in
reproduction similar to those discussed for humans and other mammals.
The liver
As in mammals, the liver of several nonmammalian species has been shown to
produce somatomedin-like growth factors in response to stimulation by growth
hormone. Similarly, there is evidence that prolactin stimulates the production of a
related growth factor, which synergizes (cooperates) with prolactin on targets such as
the pigeon crop sac.
Unique endocrine glands in fishes
In addition to the corpuscles of Stannius and the ultimobranchial glands, most fishes
have a unique neurosecretory neurohemal organ, the urophysis, which is associated
with the spinal cord at the base of the tail. Although the functions of this caudal (rear)
neurosecretory system are not now understood, it is known to produce two peptides,
urotensin I and urotensin II. Urotensin I is chemically related to a family of peptides
that includes somatostatin; urotensin II is a member of the family of peptides that
includes mammalian corticotropin-releasing hormone(CRH). There are no
homologous structures to either the corpuscles of Stannius or the urophysis in
amphibians, reptiles, or birds.
Invertebrate Endocrine Systems
Advances in the study of invertebrate endocrine systems have lagged behind those in
vertebrate endocrinology, largely due to the problems associated with adapting
investigative techniques that are appropriate for large vertebrate animals to small
invertebrates. It also is difficult to maintain and study appropriately some
invertebrates under laboratory conditions. Nevertheless, knowledge about these
systems is accumulating rapidly.

All phyla in the animal kingdom that have a nervous system also possess
neurosecretory neurons. The results of studies on the distribution of neurosecretory
neurons and ordinary epithelial endocrine cells imply that the neurohormones were
the first hormonal regulators in animals. Neurohemal organs appear first in the more
advanced invertebrates (such as mollusks and annelid worms), and endocrine
epithelial glands occur only in the most advanced phyla (primarily Arthropoda and
Chordata). Similarly, the peptide and steroid hormones found in vertebrates are also
present in the nervous and endocrine systems of many invertebrate phyla. These
hormones may perform similar functions in diverse animal groups. With more
emphasis being placed on research in invertebrate systems, new neuropeptides are
being discovered initially in these animals, and subsequently in vertebrates.
The endocrine systems of some animal phyla have been studied in detail, but the
endocrine systems of only a few species are well known. The following discussion
summarizes the endocrine systems of five invertebrate phyla and the two invertebrate
subphyla of the phylum Chordata, a phylum that also includes Vertebrata, a
subphylum to which the backboned animals belong.

Phylum Nemertea
Nemertine worms are primitive marine animals that lack a coelom (body cavity) but
differ from other acoelomates (animals that lack a coelom) by having a
complete digestive tract. Three neurosecretory centres have been identified in the
simple nemertine brain; one centre controls the maturation of the gonads, and all three
appear to be involved in osmotic regulation.
Phylum Annelida
The cerebral ganglion (brain) of Nereis, a marine polychaete worm, produces a small
peptide hormone called nereidine, which apparently inhibits precocious sexual
development. There is a complex just beneath the brain that functions as a neurohemal
organ. The epithelial cells found in this complex may be secretory as well, but this has
not been proved. Neurohormones are released from the infracerebral complex into the
coelomic fluid through which they travel to their targets. In the lugworm, Arenicola,
there is evidence for a brain neuropeptide that stimulates oocyte maturation.
Phylum Mollusca
Within the phylum Mollusca, the class Gastropoda (snails, slugs) has been studied
most extensively. The cerebral ganglion (brain) of several species (e.g., Euhadra
peliomorpha, Aplysia californica, and Lymnaea stagnalis) secretes
a neurohormone that stimulates the hermaphroditic gonad (the reproductive gland that
contains both male and female characteristics); hermaphroditism is a common
condition among mollusks. This gonadotropic peptide hormone (a hormone that has
the gonads as its target organ) is stored in a typical neurohemal organ until its release
is stimulated. For example, phototropic information detected by the so-called optic
gland (located near the eye) can direct the release of the gonadotropic hormone. The
gonadotropic hormones that cause egg laying in Aplysia and Lymnaea have been
isolated, and they are very similar small peptides. The hermaphroditic gonad
of Euhadra secretes testosterone (identical to the vertebrate testosterone), which
stimulates formation of a gland that releases a pheromone for influencing mating
behaviour. The optic gland of the octopus (of the class Cephalopoda) influences
development of the reproductive organs on a seasonal basis. It is not known, however,
whether any neurohormones are involved or whether this is purely a neurally
controlled event.
Phylum Arthropoda
The arthropods are the largest and most advanced group of invertebrate animals,
rivaling and often exceeding the evolutionary success of the vertebrates. Indeed, the
arthropods are the most successful ecological competitors of humans. There are
several major subdivisions, or classes, within the phylum Arthropoda, with the largest
being Insecta (insects), Crustacea (crustaceans, including crabs, crayfishes, and
shrimps), and Arachnida (arachnids, including the spiders, ticks, and mites). Even
within these major classes, few species have been studied. Those that have been
studied are large insects (e.g., cockroaches, grasshoppers, and cecropia moths) and
crustaceans.
The organizations of arthropod endocrine systems parallel those of the vertebrate
endocrine system. That is, neurohormones are produced in the arthropod brain
(analogous to the vertebrate hypothalamus) and are stored in a neurohemal organ (like
the vertebrate neurohypophysis). The neurohemal organ of insects may have an
endocrine portion (like the vertebrate adenohypophysis), and hormones or
neurohormones released from these organs may stimulate other endocrine glands as
well as nonendocrine targets. A general description of the endocrine systems of
insects and crustaceans is given below.
Class Insecta
Neurosecretory, neurohemal, and endocrine structures are all found in the insect
endocrine system. There are several neurosecretory centres in the brain, the largest
being the pars intercerebralis. The paired corpora cardiaca (singular, corpus
cardiacum) and the paired corpora allata (singular, corpus allatum) are both
neurohemal organs that store brain neurohormones, but each has some endocrine cells
as well. The ventral nerve cord and associated ganglia also contain neurosecretory
cells and have their own neurohemal organs; i.e., the multiple perisympathetic organs
located along the ventral nerve cord. The insect endocrine system produces
neurohormones as well as hormones that control molting, diapause, reproduction,
osmoregulation, metabolism, and muscle contraction.
Molting
A peptide neurohormone that controls molting is secreted by the pars intercerebralis
and is stored in the corpora cardiaca or corpora allata (depending on the group of
insects). This brain neurohormone is known as the prothoracotropic hormone (PTTH),
and it stimulates the prothoracic glands (also called ecdysial or molting glands). In
turn, the prothoracic glands release the steroid ecdysone, which is the actual molting
hormone. Ecdysone initiates shedding of the old, hardened cuticle (exoskeleton).

In the 1940s Sir Vincent (Brian) Wigglesworth discovered that distention of the
abdomen of the blood-sucking hemipteran bug Rhodnius
prolixusfollowing consumption of a blood meal sends neural impulses to the brain and
triggers the release of PTTH. A similar mechanism has been found in a herbivorous
(plant-eating) hemipteran as well. Size seems to trigger molting in lepidopterans
(moths, butterflies), although the mechanism is not understood. Each molt is aided by
a small amount of juvenile hormone (JH) secreted by endocrine cells of the corpora
allata. Without JH during a critical time of the intermolt period of the last larval stage,
either a pupa stage (diapause, or a resting state) or an adult stage is achieved. Juvenile
hormone also keeps the epidermis in a larval state and causes it to secrete larval
cuticle. Without JH, the epidermis changes and secretes the adult cuticle type. Three
different closely related forms of JH have been isolated from seven major insect
orders.
Diapause
Some insects enter diapause during development. Diapause is characterized by
cessation of development or reproduction, decrease in water content (dehydration),
and reduction in metabolic activities. It usually is preceded by an accumulation of
nutrients resulting in hypertrophy of the fat bodies. Environmental factors (such as
temperature, photoperiod, and food availability) cause storage of neurohormones, and
the corpora allata become inactive. Termination of diapause can be brought about by
reversing the environmental conditions that induced the diapause. Although juvenile
hormone can terminate diapause, it triggers diapause in some insects. The stage of the
life history may be important in determining the role of JH. For example, in imaginal
diapause (characterized by cessation of reproduction in the imago, or adult), the
absence of JH initiates diapause. In lepidopterans, a peptide that initiates diapause has
been isolated from the subesophageal ganglion.
Reproduction
In some insects the pars intercerebralis secretes a neurohormone that stimulates
vitellogenesis by the fat body (vitellogenesis is the synthesis of vitellogenin, a protein
from which the oocyte makes the egg proteins). This neurohormone is stored in either
the corpora cardiaca or the corpora allata, depending on the species. Uptake of
vitellogenin by the ovary is enhanced by JH. In most insects, JH also stimulates
vitellogenin synthesis by the fat body. There is evidence that other neurohormones
secreted by the pars intercerebralis also influence reproduction. Some induce other
tissues to secrete pheromones that influence reproductive behaviour of other
individuals. In the live-bearing tsetse fly, Glossina, a neurohormone released from the
corpora allata stimulates milk glands that provide nourishment to the developing
larvae.
Osmoregulation
All insects produce a diuretic hormone and many produce an antidiuretic hormone as
well. Insects feeding exclusively on a liquid diet (such as plant sap or blood) have
only the diuretic hormone that allows them to eliminate excess fluid and salts through
the malpighian tubules (the insect kidney). These osmoregulatory neurohormones are
produced both in the brain and in the ventral nerve cord.
Myotropic and metabolic factors
One or more small peptide neurohormones are produced in the brain and ventral
nervous system and are stored in the corpora cardiaca and perisympathetic organs,
respectively. These myotropic factors stimulate heart rate as well as contractions of
the kidney tubules and digestive tract. The corpora cardiaca were named for the heart-
stimulating action produced by extracts of these organs. The glandular portion of the
corpora cardiaca is thought to secrete the hyperglycemic hormone that causes a rapid
increase in blood levels of trehalose, the “blood sugar” of insects. It is sometimes
called the hypertrehalosemic hormone. This hypoglycemic hormone apparently is
identical to the myotropic factors in at least one species, the American cockroach. An
adipokinetic neurohormone released from the orthopteran corpora cardiaca (locusts,
grasshoppers) causes the release of diglycerides into the blood during, and
immediately after, flight. It is a peptide similar to the myotropic factors.
Class Crustacea
Among the crustaceans, the major neuroendocrine system consists of the
neurosecretory X-organ and its associated neurohemal organ, the sinus gland. Both an
X-organ and a sinus gland are located in each eyestalk, and together they are termed
the eyestalk complex. Two endocrine glands are well known: the Y-organ and
the androgenic gland. As in insects, hormones and neurohormones of the crustacean
regulate molting, reproduction, osmoregulation, metabolism, and heart rate. In
addition, the regulation of colour changes is well developed in crustaceans, whereas
only a few insects exhibit hormonally controlled colour changes.
Molting
The steroid ecdysone secreted from the Y-organ stimulates molting. After it is
released into the blood, ecdysone is converted to a 20-hydroxyecdysone, which is the
active molting hormone. Secretion of ecdysone is blocked by a neurohormone called
molt-inhibiting hormone, produced by the eyestalk complex. The existence of several
additional molting factors has been proposed from experimental studies, and the
regulation of molting may be much more complicated than suggested here.
Reproduction
The eyestalk complex appears to produce a neurohormone that inhibits vitellogenesis
by the fat body and blocks vitellogenin uptake by oocytes in the ovary. Older follicles
in the ovary, however, may secrete a vitellogenin-stimulating hormone that overrides
the effects of the eyestalk neurohormone. In shrimps and other crustaceans that
exhibit sequential hermaphroditism, the androgenic gland produces a peptide hormone
that is necessary to masculinize the gonad. These animals function first as males, and
later with the degeneration of the androgenic gland they become females. Surgical
removal of the androgenic gland causes a precocious change of a male to a female.
Osmoregulation
There are four known sources of factors that influence water and ionic balance
(osmoregulation) in crustaceans. The brain factor is known to regulate function of the
antennal glands (paired “kidneys” located at the base of each antenna), the intestine,
and the gills. The thoracic ganglion factor affects the stomach, intestine, and gills.
Both the antennal glands and the gills are affected by a factor from the eyestalk
complex. Finally, the pericardial organs (neurohemal glands located in the pericardial
cavity) influence salt and water metabolism by heart muscle and gills.
Myotropic factor
Heart rate is accelerated in crustaceans by a factor released from the pericardial
organs. It is not known if this factor is the same one that has osmoregulatory actions
mentioned above. There is evidence to suggest that the crustacean cardioacceleratory
factor is identical to one of the insect cardioacceleratory factors.
Colour changes
Several neurohormones that regulate colour changes (chromatophorotropins) by
pigment cells (chromatophores) have been found in extracts of the eyestalk complex.
The best known are the light-adapting hormone and the red-pigment-concentrating
hormone. This latter peptide is chemically similar to the insect adipokinetic and
myotropic factors. Regulation of the chromatophores allows an animal to adapt to
different backgrounds by changing colours or by becoming lighter or darker.
Phylum Echinodermata
Female sea stars (starfishes) are the only echinoderms that have been studied
extensively. A neuropeptide called the gonad-stimulating substance (also called the
gamete-shedding substance) is released from the radial nerves into the body cavity
about one hour before spawning. Gonad-stimulating substance has been reported in
more than 30 species of sea star. This neuropeptide contacts the ovaries directly and
causes formation of 1-methyladenine, an inducer of oocyte maturation and spawning.
This same hormone has been demonstrated in the ovaries of the closely related sea
urchin, where it also promotes maturation of the oocyte.
Phylum Chordata
The phylum Chordata is separated into three subgroups (or subphyla). The
invertebrate subphylum Tunicata consists of the marine tunicates, including the
ascidians and salps. The invertebrate subphylum Cephalochordata includes the
fishlike amphioxus (or lancelet). Amphioxus is a small marine animal that closely
resembles the larva of the jawless fishes (class Agnatha). The subphylum Vertebrata
is the largest chordate subgroup.

Subphylum Tunicata
The ascidians (also called sea squirts) have a tadpolelike larva that lives free for a
short period. The larva eventually attaches itself to a solid substrate and undergoes a
marked metamorphosis into the sessile adult sea squirt. The larva and adult have a
mucus-secreting gland, the endostyle, that is believed to be the evolutionary ancestor
of the vertebrate thyroid gland. Metamorphosis in ascidians can be induced by
application of thyroid hormones.
Neurosecretory neurons in the cerebral ganglion (brain) contain the vertebrate
peptide gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH). Directly adjacent to the brain is the
neural (or subneural) gland that may be the forerunner of the vertebrate pituitary
gland. Extracts prepared from ascidian neural glands stimulate testicular growth in
toads, demonstrating the presence of a gonadotropic factor in the neural gland. A
protein similar to human prolactin has been found in the neural gland of Styela
plicata.
Subphylum Cephalochordata
The cephalochordate brain contains neurosecretory neurons that possibly are related to
a structure called Hatschek’s pit, located near the brain. Hatschek’s pit appears to be
related to the neural gland and hence to the vertebrate pituitary gland. Treatment of
amphioxus with GnRH or luteinizing hormone (LH) reportedly stimulates the onset
of spermatogenesis in male gonads. Furthermore, extracts prepared from Hatschek’s
pit can stimulate the testis of a toad. Amphioxus has a mucus-secreting endostyle like
that of the ascidians. and studies have shown that the cephalochordate endostyle can
synthesize thyroid hormones, too. Thus, the basic organization of the vertebrate
endocrine system appears to show its early beginnings in the simple organs of these
invertebrate chordates.

The skeletal system is the body system composed of bones, cartilages, ligaments and
other tissues that perform essential functions for the human body. Bone tissue,
or osseous tissue, is a hard, dense connective tissue that forms most of the adult
skeleton, the internal support structure of the body. In the areas of the skeleton where
whole bones move against each other (for example, joints like the shoulder or between
the bones of the spine), cartilages, a semi-rigid form of connective tissue, provide
flexibility and smooth surfaces for movement. Additionally, ligaments composed of
dense connective tissue surround these joints, tying skeletal elements together
(a ligament is the dense connective tissue that connect bones to other bones).
Together, they perform the following functions:
Figure 6.11: Functions of the skeletal system.
Support, Movement, and Protection
Some functions of the skeletal system are more readily observable than others. When you move
you can feel how your bones support you, facilitate your movement, and protect the soft organs
of your body. Just as the steel beams of a building provide a scaffold to support its weight, the
bones and cartilages of your skeletal system compose the scaffold that supports the rest of your
body. Without the skeletal system, you would be a limp mass of organs, muscle, and skin. Bones
facilitate movement by serving as points of attachment for your muscles. Bones also protect
internal organs from injury by covering or surrounding them. For example, your ribs protect your
lungs and heart, the bones of your vertebral column (spine) protect your spinal cord, and the
bones of your cranium (skull) protect your brain (see figure 6.11).

Mineral and Fat Storage, Blood Cell Formation

On a metabolic level, bone tissue performs several critical functions. For one, the bone tissue
acts as a reservoir for a number of minerals important to the functioning of the body, especially
calcium, and phosphorus. These minerals, incorporated into bone tissue, can be released back
into the bloodstream to maintain levels needed to support physiological processes. Calcium ions,
for example, are essential for muscle contractions and are involved in the transmission of nerve
impulses.

Bones also serve as a site for fat storage and blood cell production. The unique connective tissue
that fills the interior of most bones is referred to as bone marrow. There are two types of bone
marrow: yellow bone marrow and red bone marrow. Yellow bone marrow contains adipose
tissue, and the triglycerides stored in the adipocytes of this tissue can be released to serve as a
source of energy for other tissues of the body. Red bone marrow is where the production of
blood cells (named hematopoiesis, hemato- = “blood”, -poiesis = “to make”) takes place. Red
blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets are all produced in the red bone marrow. As we age,
the distribution of red and yellow bone marrow changes as seen in the figure (figure 6.12).
(An orthopedist is a doctor who specializes in diagnosing and treating disorders and injuries
related to the musculoskeletal system. Some orthopedic problems can be treated with
medications, exercises, braces, and other devices, but others may be best treated with surgery

While the origin of the word “orthopedics” (ortho- = “straight”; paed- = “child”), literally
means “straightening of the child,” orthopedists can have patients who range from
pediatric to geriatric. In recent years, orthopedists have even performed prenatal
surgery to correct spina bifida, a congenital defect in which the neural canal in the spine
of the fetus fails to close completely during embryologic development.
Orthopedists commonly treat bone and joint injuries but they also treat other bone
conditions including curvature of the spine. Lateral curvatures (scoliosis) can be severe
enough to slip under the shoulder blade (scapula) forcing it up as a hump. Spinal
curvatures can also be excessive dorsoventrally (kyphosis) causing a hunch back and
thoracic compression. These curvatures often appear in preteens as the result of poor
posture, abnormal growth, or indeterminate causes. Mostly, they are readily treated by
 orthopedists. As people age, accumulated spinal column injuries and diseases like
osteoporosis can also lead to curvatures of the spine, hence the stooping you sometimes
see in the elderly.
Some orthopedists sub-specialize in sports medicine, which addresses both simple
injuries, such as a sprained ankle, and complex injuries, such as a torn rotator cuff in the
shoulder. Treatment can range from exercise to surgery.)

Skeletal System: Facts, Function & Diseases

 MORE

The adult human skeletal system consists of 206 bones, as well as a network of tendons,
ligaments and cartilage that connects them. The skeletal system performs vital functions —
support, movement, protection, blood cell production, calcium storage and endocrine regulation
— that enable us to survive.

Animals with internal skeletons made of bone, called vertebrates, are actually the minority on
Earth. As much as 98 percent of all animals are invertebrates, meaning they do not have internal
skeletons or backbones.

The amount of bones a person is born with isn't the final tally later on. Human infants are born
with about 300 bones, some of which fuse together as the body develops. By the time humans
reach adulthood, they have 206 bones, according to Arizona State University’s School of Life
Sciences. Human males grow until their late teens and females grow until two years after the
beginning of their menstrual cycle, typically. This is when the growth plates on bones usually
close, halting bone expansion.
The skeletons of adult males and females have some variation, primarily to accommodate
childbirth. The female pelvis is flatter, more rounded and proportionally larger, for example. A
male's pelvis is about 90 degrees or less of angle, whereas a female's is 100 degrees or
more. [Image Gallery: The BioDigital Human]

While they become brittle when outside of the body, bones are very much alive inside
the body, being fed by a network of blood vessels from the circulatory system and nerves
from the nervous system, according to Healthline.
A typical bone has a dense and tough outer layer. Next is a layer of spongy bone, which
is lighter and slightly flexible. In the middle of some bones is jelly-like bone marrow,
where new cells are constantly being produced for blood, according to the Merck
Manuals.
Teeth are considered part of the skeletal system but they are not counted as bones.
Teeth are made of dentin and enamel, which is strongest substance in your body. Teeth
also play a key role in the digestive system.
The skeletal system has two distinctive parts: the axial skeleton and the appendicular
skeleton, according to the U.S National Library of Medicine(NLM).

The axial skeleton, with a total of 80 bones, consists of the vertebral column, the rib
cage and the skull. The axial skeleton transmits the weight from the head, the trunk and
the upper extremities down to the lower extremities at the hip joints, which help humans
maintain our upright posture, the NLM noted.

The appendicular skeleton has a total of 126 bones, and is formed by the pectoral
girdles, the upper limbs, the pelvic girdle and the lower limbs, according to the NLM.
Their functions are to make walking, running and other movement possible and to
protect the major organs responsible for digestion, excretion and reproduction.

Diseases of the skeletal system

X-rays, MRIs, bone density tests and arthroscopy are some of the primary diagnostic
tools used to detect diseases and deformities of the skeletal system. Bone scans and
bone marrow biopsies are used to diagnose cancer, according to the Merck Manuals.

The primary skeletal conditions are metabolic bone diseases such as osteoporosis,
osteomalacia, and a few other rarer conditions, said Dr. Nathan Wei of the Arthritis
Treatment Center.
Osteoporosis is a prevalent disease, particularly among the elderly, resulting in the loss
of bone tissue. In osteoporosis, bone loses calcium, becomes thinner and may
disappear completely, according to Wei. Osteomalacia is a softening of the bones,
according to the Mayo Clinic. It is often caused by a vitamin D deficiency and results
from a defect in the bone-building process. Osteoporosis, on the other hand, develops
in previously constructed bones.

Arthritis is a group of more than 100 inflammatory diseases that damage joints and their
surrounding structures. Arthritis can attack joints, joint capsules, the surrounding tissue
or parts throughout the body. It usually affects the joints of the neck, shoulders, hands,
lower back, hips or knees. "The diagnosis is suspected by a careful history and physical
exam and confirmed through laboratory and imaging studies. Treatment depends on the
type of arthritis," Wei said.

Also common is scoliosis, a side-to-side curve in the back or spine, often creating a
pronounced "C" or "S" shape when viewed on an x-ray of the spine. This condition is
typically becomes evident during adolescence, the Merck Manuals noted. Two to 3
percent of the population — an estimated 6 to 9 million people in the United States —
suffers from scoliosis, according to the American Association of Neurological Surgeons.
About 90 percent of people will experience lower back pain at some point in their lives,
according to Dr. James Nace of LifeBridge Health. "Patients can often be helped with
things such as anti-inflammatory medications, but in some cases may need treatments
such as topical medications, patches or electrical stimulation."
One of the much rarer diseases of the skeletal system is bone cancer. It may originate
in the bones or spread there from another part of the body. The American Cancer
Society estimates around 3,450 new cases will be diagnosed for bones and joint cancer
and around 1,590 people will die from it in 2018 in the United States. Bone cancer
accounts for less than 0.2 percent of all cancers, according to the American Cancer
Society. Cancers that metastasize — originate from other parts of the body and then
spread to the bones — are much more common than primary bone cancer.
Bone cancer is a malignancy arising in the bones and supporting structures such as
cartilage, according to Dr. Robert Christie, medical oncologist and hematologist
at Virginia Cancer Specialists, a practice in The U.S. Oncology Network. "Unfortunately,
these bone cancers are often seen in younger patients in their 20s and 30s versus lung
cancer and breast cancer which are typically diagnosed later in life."

While leukemia is a cancer that primarily affects the blood, the skeletal system is
involved as the cancer starts in the marrow of the bone. With this type of cancer,
abnormal white blood cells multiply uncontrollably, affecting the production of normal
white blood cells and red blood cells, according to the American Cancer Society.

Bursitis is a disorder that most commonly affects the shoulder and hip joints, Nace said.
It is caused by an inflammation of the bursa, small fluid-filled bags that act as lubricating
surfaces for muscles to move over bones.

The skeletal system is also susceptible to breaks, strains and fractures. While bones
are meant to protect the body's vital organs, it takes about 10 to 16 pounds of pressure
to break an average bone. Bones such as the skull and femur are much tougher to
break.

Study of the skeletal system

Orthopedics is the medical specialty responsible for treating entire skeletal system. In
the United States, orthopedic surgeons have typically completed four years of
undergraduate education and four years of medical school. They then undergo
residency training in orthopedic surgery. The American Board of Orthopaedic Surgery
oversees the certification process for this specialty. Many go on to further specialize in
specific areas, such as the spine, hand or sports injuries.

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Milestones
Humans have been dealing with injuries and disease from the beginning of time. Some
important milestones in the history of orthopedics include:
 In the Paleolithic period, early man engraved human bones after eating their owners.
"Engraving is usually considered part of a modern behavior kit, a new way of expression
typical of our species," said study lead author Silvia Bello, a paleoanthropologist at the
Natural History Museum in London.
 Hippocrates, the ancient Greek father of medicine, develops splints for fractures of the tibia.
 During the Roman era, Galen (199-129 B.C.) describes the skeletal system and the
surrounding muscles. Medical experts of the time also develop the first artificial prostheses.
 Ambroise Pare (1510-1590), the father of French surgery, develops techniques for
amputations and artificial limbs.
 Antonius Mathysen (1805-1878), a Dutch military surgeon, in 1851 invents the plaster of
Paris (POP) bandage. A POP cast remains the primary method of fracture immobilization
today.
 In 1895, Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen accidentally discovers an image cast from his cathode
ray generator, projected far beyond the possible range of the cathode rays. He wins the Nobel
Prize for Physics in 1901 for his discovery of X-rays.
 Sir Reginald Watson-Jones (1902-1972) publishes "Fractures and Joint Injuries" in 1940,
which remains a standard reference for several decades.
 In 1949, H. Lowry Rush (1879-1965) uses stainless steel pins to treat long bone fractures.
 Marijuana is found to possibly heal bone fractures, according to research by the Tel Aviv
University's Sackler Faculty of Medicine in 2015.
 2016 sees the creation of living bone grown from the cells of patients for the first time.
The skeletal system is the body system composed of bones, cartilages, ligaments and other
tissues that perform essential functions for the human body. Bone tissue, or osseous tissue, is
a hard, dense connective tissue that forms most of the adult skeleton, the internal support
structure of the body. In the areas of the skeleton where whole bones move against each other
(for example, joints like the shoulder or between the bones of the spine), cartilages, a semi-rigid
form of connective tissue, provide flexibility and smooth surfaces for movement. Additionally,
ligaments composed of dense connective tissue surround these joints, tying skeletal elements
together (a ligament is the dense connective tissue that connect bones to other bones).
Together, they perform the following functions:

Support, Movement, and Protection

Some functions of the skeletal system are more readily observable than others. When
you move you can feel how your bones support you, facilitate your movement, and
protect the soft organs of your body. Just as the steel beams of a building provide a
scaffold to support its weight, the bones and cartilages of your skeletal system compose
the scaffold that supports the rest of your body. Without the skeletal system, you would
be a limp mass of organs, muscle, and skin. Bones facilitate movement by serving as
points of attachment for your muscles. Bones also protect internal organs from injury by
covering or surrounding them. For example, your ribs protect your lungs and heart, the
bones of your vertebral column (spine) protect your spinal cord, and the bones of your
cranium (skull) protect your brain (see figure 6.11).

Mineral and Fat Storage, Blood Cell Formation

On a metabolic level, bone tissue performs several critical functions. For one, the bone
tissue acts as a reservoir for a number of minerals important to the functioning of the
body, especially calcium, and phosphorus. These minerals, incorporated into bone
tissue, can be released back into the bloodstream to maintain levels needed to support
physiological processes. Calcium ions, for example, are essential for muscle contractions
and are involved in the transmission of nerve impulses.

Bones also serve as a site for fat storage and blood cell production. The unique
connective tissue that fills the interior of most bones is referred to as bone marrow.
There are two types of bone marrow: yellow bone marrow and red bone marrow. Yellow
bone marrow contains adipose tissue, and the triglycerides stored in the adipocytes of
this tissue can be released to serve as a source of energy for other tissues of the body.
Red bone marrow is where the production of blood cells (named hematopoiesis,
hemato- = “blood”, -poiesis = “to make”) takes place. Red blood cells, white blood cells,
and platelets are all produced in the red bone marrow. As we age, the distribution of red
and yellow bone marrow changes as seen in the figure (figure 6.12).
1. ((((Suppose your red bone marrow could not be formed. What functions would your
body not be able to perform?
2. Suppose your osseous tissue could not store calcium. What functions would your
body not be able to perform?

Answers for Critical Thinking Questions

1. Without red bone marrow, you would not be able to produce blood cells. The red
bone marrow is responsible for forming red and white blood cells as well as
platelets. Red blood cells transport oxygen to tissues, and remove carbon dioxide.
Without red blood cells, your tissues would not be able to produce ATP using
oxygen. White blood cells play a role in the immune system fighting off foreign
invaders in our body – without white blood cells you would not be able to recover
from infection. Platelets are responsible for clotting your blood when a vessel
ruptures. Without platelets you would bleed to death and die.
 2. The calcium in osseous tissue provides mineral support to bones. Without this
calcium, the bones are not rigid and cannot be supportive. The calcium in osseous
tissue is also an important storage site, that can release calcium when needed. Other
organ systems rely on this calcium for action (specifically, muscle contraction and
neural signaling). Without calcium storage, blood calcium levels change
dramatically and affect muscle contraction and neural signaling.
)))))

Glossary
bone (osseous) tissue

hard, dense connective tissue that forms the structural elements of the skeleton

cartilage

semi-rigid connective tissue found on the skeleton in areas where flexibility and smooth
surfaces support movement

hematopoiesis

production of blood cells, which occurs in the red marrow of the bones

ligament

a dense connective tissue that connect one whole bone to another whole bone

orthopedist

doctor who specializes in diagnosing and treating musculoskeletal disorders and

injuries

red bone marrow

connective tissue in the interior cavity of a bone where blood cell formation
(hematopoiesis) takes place

skeletal system

organ system composed of bones, cartilage and ligaments that provides for movement,
support, protection, mineral and fat storage, blood cells formation

yellow bone marrow

connective tissue in the interior cavity of a bone where fat is stored

Hypothalamus

The hypothalamus is located in the lower central part of the brain. This part of
the brain is important in regulation of satiety, metabolism, and body
temperature. In addition, it secretes hormones that stimulate or suppress the
release of hormones in the pituitary gland. Many of these hormones are
releasing hormones, which are secreted into an artery (the hypophyseal portal
system) that carries them directly to the pituitary gland. In the pituitary gland,
these releasing hormones signal secretion of stimulating hormones. The
hypothalamus also secretes a hormone called somatostatin, which causes the
pituitary gland to stop the release of growth hormone.

Pituitary Gland

The pituitary gland is located at the base of the brain beneath the
hypothalamus and is no larger than a pea. It is often considered the most
important part of the endocrine system because it produces hormones that
control many functions of other endocrine glands. When the pituitary gland
does not produce one or more of its hormones or not enough of them, it is
called hypopituitarism.

The pituitary gland is divided into two parts: the anterior lobe and the posterior
lobe. The anterior lobe produces the following hormones, which are regulated
by the hypothalamus:

 Growth hormone: Stimulates growth of bone and tissue (Growth

hormone deficiency results in growth failure. Growth hormone deficiency
in adults results in problems in maintaining proper amounts of body fat
and muscle and bone mass. It is also involved in emotional well-being.)
 Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH): Stimulates the thyroid gland to
produce thyroid hormones (A lack of thyroid hormones either because
of a defect in the pituitary or the thyroid itself is called hypothyroidism.)
  Adrenocorticotropin hormone (ACTH): Stimulates the adrenal gland
to produce several related steroid hormones
 Luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone
(FSH):Hormones that control sexual function and production of the
sex steroids, estrogen and progesterone in females or testosterone in
males
 Prolactin: Hormone that stimulates milk production in females

The posterior lobe produces the following hormones, which are not regulated
by the hypothalamus:

 Antidiuretic hormone (vasopressin): Controls water loss by the

kidneys
 Oxytocin: Contracts the uterus during childbirth and stimulates milk
production

The hormones secreted by the posterior pituitary are actually produced in the
brain and carried to the pituitary gland through nerves. They are stored in the
pituitary gland.

What is Pancreatitis?
 Pancreatitis simply means inflammation of the pancreas. There are two types of pancreatitis,
acute and chronic.
 Causes of acute pancreatitis and chronic pancreatitis are similar; about 80%-90% are
caused by alcohol abuse and gallstones (about 35%-45% for each); while the remaining
10%-20% are caused by medications, chemical exposures, trauma, hereditary diseases,
infections, surgical procedures, and high fat levels in the blood and genetic abnormalities
with pancreas or intestine
 Severe acute pancreatitis symptoms and signs may show skin discoloration around the belly
button or the side of the body between the ribs and hip (flank), or small erythematous skin
nodules.
  Symptoms of acute pancreatitis most commonly begins with abdominal pain in the middle or
upper left part of the abdomen and abdominal pain may increase after eating or lying flat the
back.
 Necrotizing pancreatitis is a severe form of acute pancreatitis characterized by necrosis in
and around the pancreas.
Read more about pancreatitis systems and treatment »

Thyroid Gland

The thyroid gland is located in the lower front part of the neck. It produces
thyroid hormones that regulate the body's metabolism. It also plays a role in
bone growth and development of the brain and nervous system in children.
The pituitary gland controls the release of thyroid hormones. Thyroid
hormones also help maintainnormal blood pressure, heart rate, digestion,
muscle tone, and reproductive functions.

Parathyroid Glands

The parathyroid glands are two pairs of small glands embedded in the surface
of the thyroid gland, one pair on each side. They release parathyroid
hormone, which plays a role in regulating calcium levels in the blood and bone
metabolism.

Adrenal Glands

The two adrenal glands are triangular-shaped glands located on top of each
kidney. The adrenal glands are made up of two parts. The outer part is called
the adrenal cortex, and the inner part is called the adrenal medulla. The outer
part produces hormones called corticosteroids, which regulate the body's
metabolism, the balance of salt and water in the body, the immune system,
and sexual function. The inner part, or adrenal medulla, produces hormones
called catecholamines (for example, adrenaline). These hormones help the
body cope with physical and emotional stressby increasing the heart rate and
blood pressure.
Pineal Body

The pineal body, or pineal gland, is located in the middle of the brain. It
secretes a hormone called melatonin, which may help regulate the wake-
sleep cycle of the body.

Reproductive Glands

The reproductive glands are the main source of sex hormones. In males, the
testes, located in the scrotum, secrete hormones called androgens; the most
important of which is testosterone. These hormones affect many male
characteristics (for example, sexual development, growth of facial hair and
pubic hair) as well as sperm production. In females, the ovaries, located on
both sides of the uterus, produce estrogen and progesterone as well as eggs.
These hormones control the development of female characteristics (for
example, breast growth), and they are also involved in reproductive functions
(for example, menstruation, pregnancy).

Pancreas

The pancreas is an elongated organ located toward the back of the abdomen
behind the stomach. The pancreas has digestive and hormonal functions. One
part of the pancreas, the exocrine pancreas, secretes digestive enzymes. The
other part of the pancreas, the endocrine pancreas, secretes hormones called
insulin and glucagon. These hormones regulate the level of glucose (sugar) in
the blood.

Pictures of the Endocrine System

Picture of the Thyroid Gland

Picture of the Pituitary Gland
Picture of the Parathyroid Glands
Picture of the Pancreas
What is growth hormone deficiency?

Growth hormone deficiency is a disorder that involves the pituitary gland (a

small gland located at the base of the brain). This gland produces growth
hormone and other hormones (chemical messengers of the body). When it
does not produce enough growth hormone, growth will be slower than normal.
If other pituitary hormones are absent or present in inadequate amounts, the
condition is called hypopituitarism.

Growth hormone deficiency can occur at any age. Growth hormone is

necessary for normal growth and development in children. In adults, growth
hormone is needed to maintain the proper amounts of body fat, muscle, and
bone. In adults, low or absent growth hormone can also cause emotional
symptoms, such as tiredness and lack of motivation.

What causes growth hormone deficiency?

Growth hormone deficiency is caused by low or absent secretion of growth

hormone from the pituitary gland. This condition may be present at birth, or it
may develop after birth due to trauma, infections, radiation to the head, or
other conditions (for example, tumors).
Adults with growth hormone deficiency usually have a history of pituitary
tumors that may have been treated with surgery or radiation.

In some cases, no cause can be identified.

What are the symptoms of growth hormone

deficiency?

he most common sign of growth hormone deficiency in children is the slowing

of growth to less than two inches per year. A child with growth hormone
deficiency may also have the following symptoms:

 Short height for child's age

 Increased fat around the waist and in the face
 Feeling upset about his or her height
 The child may look younger than other children his or her age
 Delayed onset of puberty
 Delayed tooth development

Adults with growth hormone deficiency may have the following symptoms:
  Low energy
 Decreased strength and exercise tolerance
 Decreased muscle mass
 Weight gain
 Anxiety or depression
 Thin and dry skin

How is growth hormone deficiency

diagnosed?

For children, the doctor will ask about the child's medical history. If the child's
height and weight have been plotted on a growth chart, the doctor will
evaluate if the child's growth appears to be leveling off or departing from the
child's established growth curve. Past growth patterns are important in
determining if the child has a growth problem; the earlier a problem is
detected, the earlier it can be treated (if possible) and the better the chance
the child has at reaching his or her full growth potential.

The doctor may perform blood tests to determine if a hormone deficiency or

other disease is present. X-rays may also be taken to check how the child's
bone size compares to the child's height and chronological age.

In adults, blood tests may be performed to determine if a hormone deficiency

is present. Adults with growth hormone deficiency may also have increased
levels of total cholesterol, low-density-lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol,
apolipoprotein B, and triglycerides. Other tests that may be performed
include CT scan and/or MRI of the brain and/or bones. Images from these
tests may reveal tumors or reduced bone density.

How is growth hormone deficiency treated?

Growth hormone deficiency can be treated with growth hormone replacement

therapy. A drug called somatropin or growth hormone
(Nutropin, Genotropin, Norditropin, Saizen, Humatrope, Tev-
tropin, Omnitrope) is injected into the fat underneath the skin.

What is a growth disorder?

A growth disorder is any type of problem in infants, children, or teenagers that

prevents normal growth. Normal growth depends upon several factors, such
as nutrition, genetics, and hormones (chemical messengers of the body)
(see Anatomy of the Endocrine System). Hormones are necessary for normal
growth and development; they regulate the body's growth, metabolism (the
physical and chemical processes of the body), and sexual development and
function.

Endocrine (hormonal) causes of growth disorders include thyroid

hormone deficiency (hypothyroidism), growth hormone deficiency,
hypopituitarism, or other hormone disorders. However, some growth problems
are not necessarily growth disorders; normal variants of growth patterns
include genetic short height (familial short stature) and slow growth/delayed
puberty (constitutional growth delay).

Although growth hormone was originally used to treat growth hormone

deficiency (this group of patients respond the best to growth hormone
therapy), there have been other conditions for which growth hormone therapy
has been approved for use. These include Turner syndrome, chronic renal
insufficiency, Prader-Willi syndrome, and children who were small for
gestational age and have not caught up in their growth by the age of two
years. In 2003 the FDA approved the use of growth hormone for children who
have "Idiopathic Short Stature," that is, children who are quite short (more
than 2.25 SD below the mean in height), and who are unlikely to have an adult
stature in the normal range.

How do I know if my child has a growth

disorder?

A child's growth pattern is an important part of determining normal growth. No

child has a perfectly steady growth rate; children go through growth spurts
and periods of slower growth. The best way to evaluate a child's growth
pattern is to plot the child's height and weight on a growth chart. This can be
completed by a doctor or a health care practitioner, at school, or even at
home. The growth chart will show the child's growth over a period of time.

Any departure from a prior growth pattern appropriate for the child's genetic
background may signal the appearance of a disease. Contact a doctor or
healthcare practitioner if the child's growth or height is a concern. The doctor
may suggest seeing a specialist who can perform tests to determine if the
child has a hormone deficiency.

rowth Hormone Deficiency Facts

 Growth hormone (GH) deficiency is a disorder that involves the pituitary

gland (a small gland located at the base of the brain), which produces
growth hormone and other hormones. When the pituitary gland does not
produce enough growth hormone, growth will be slower than normal.
 Growth hormone is needed for normal growth in children. In adults,
growth hormone is needed to maintain the proper amounts of body fat,
muscle, and bone.
 In adults, low or absent growth hormone can also cause emotional
symptoms, such as tiredness and lack of motivation.
 Cholesterol may also be affected. Adults with growth hormone
deficiency usually have a history of pituitary tumors that may have been
treated with surgery or radiation.
 GH deficiency can occur at any age.

Growth Hormone Deficiency Causes

Growth hormone deficiency is caused by low or absent secretion of growth

hormone from the pituitary gland. This can be caused by congenital (a
condition that is present at birth) or acquired (a condition that occurs after
birth) conditions. Congenital growth hormone deficiency may be associated
with an abnormal pituitary gland, or it may be part of another syndrome. In
normal aging, there is a decrease in the amount of growth hormone secreted
each day and in the pattern of secretion. It is not clear if this is clinically
important or requires any additional administration. Acquired causes of growth
hormone deficiency include infections; brain tumors; and injury, surgery, or
radiation to the head. In some cases, no causes can be identified.

Growth Hormone Deficiency Symptoms

Symptoms of GH deficiency in children include the following:

 Short stature


 Low growth velocity (speed) for age and pubertal stage



 Increased amount of fat around the waist



 The child may look younger than other children his or her age


 Delayed tooth development



 Delayed onset of puberty

Symptoms of GH deficiency in adults include the following:

 Low energy


 Decreased strength and exercise tolerance

 

 Decreased muscle mass



 Weight gain, especially around the waist



 Feelings of anxiety, depression, or sadness causing a change in social

behavior


 Thin and dry skin

When to Seek Medical Care for Growth

Hormone Deficiency

If there is a question of growth hormone deficiency in either a child or an adult,

consultation with a pediatric or adult endocrinologist, as appropriate, is
recommended. The endocrinologist may order an insulin hypoglycemia test
wihich is the gold standard for determining HGH deficiency.

 insulin (hormone that regulates blood sugar levels) is given through an

IV to produce a low plasma glucose (a sugar) level. The peak growth
hormone level is measured 20-30 minutes later.
 If the peak growth hormone level is less than 10 mcg/mL in children or
less than 3 mcg/mL in adults, growth hormone deficiency is diagnosed.

Persons with growth hormone deficiency may have increased total

cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol, apolipoprotein B,
and triglyceride levels.
Other tests that may be performed include a CT scan and/or MRI of the brain
and/or bones. Images from these tests may reveal tumors. Reduced bone
density can be evaluated by a DEXA or bone density scan.

Self-Care at Home for Growth Hormone

Deficiency

Because growth hormone deficiency can cause a lack of energy and strength,
patients should eat a balanced diet, get regular exercise, and get plenty
of sleep.

Growth Hormone Deficiency Medications and

Treatment

Children and some adults with growth hormone deficiency will benefit from
growth hormone therapy. The goals of treatment are to increase growth in
children and restore energy, metabolism, and body composition. The doctor
may prescribe growth hormone, also
called somatropin (Humatrope, Genotropin). The drug is given as shots a few
times a week that is injected underneath the fat of the patient’s skin.

Surgery for Growth Hormone Deficiency

Pituitary tumors may require surgery.

Other Therapy for Growth Hormone Deficiency

Radiation therapy to the pituitary gland may be required if surgery

for tumor removal cannot be safely accomplished.

Follow-up for Growth Hormone Deficiency

Follow-up care with an endocrinologist (a doctor who specializes in studying

hormones) is recommended.
Outlook for Growth Hormone Deficiency

The prognosis is determined by the patient’s response to growth hormone

replacement therapy and the underlying cause of the deficiency.

 Muscle mass may increase.



 The patient may lose weight.



 Exercise tolerance and performance may be increased.



 Energy may increase.



 Mood may improve.

Complications of growth hormone deficiency may include the following:

 Premature cardiovascular disease



 Osteoporosis (a condition involving decreased bone mass and density)



 Mental and emotional problems



 Insulin resistance


 Obesity and its complications

 

Support Groups and Counseling for Growth

Hormone Deficiency

Some patients may benefit from counseling or joining a support group with
other people who have growth hormone deficiency.

What Causes Growth Hormone Deficiency?

Growth hormone deficiency is caused by low or absent secretion of growth

hormone from the pituitary gland. This can be caused by congenital (a
condition that is present at birth) or acquired (a condition that occurs after
birth) conditions. Congenital growth hormone deficiency may be associated
with an abnormal pituitary gland, or it may be part of another syndrome. In
normal aging, there is a decrease in the amount of growth hormone secreted
each day and in the pattern of secretion. It is not clear if this is clinically
important or requires any additional administration. Acquired causes of growth
hormone deficiency include infections; brain tumors; and injury, surgery, or
radiation to the head. In some cases, no causes can be identified.

What Causes Growth Hormone Deficiency?

 Readers Comments 1

 Share Your Story

Growth hormone deficiency is caused by low or absent secretion of growth

hormone from the pituitary gland. This can be caused by congenital (a
condition that is present at birth) or acquired (a condition that occurs after
birth) conditions. Congenital growth hormone deficiency may be associated
with an abnormal pituitary gland, or it may be part of another syndrome. In
normal aging, there is a decrease in the amount of growth hormone secreted
each day and in the pattern of secretion. It is not clear if this is clinically
important or requires any additional administration. Acquired causes of growth
hormone deficiency include infections; brain tumors; and injury, surgery, or
radiation to the head. In some cases, no causes can be identified.

What Are the Symptoms of Growth Hormone

Deficiency?

Symptoms of GH deficiency in children include the following:

 Short stature
 Low growth velocity (speed) for age and pubertal stage
 Increased amount of fat around the waist
 The child may look younger than other children his or her age
 Delayed tooth development

Symptoms of GH deficiency in adults include the following:

 Low energy
 Decreased strength and exercise tolerance
 Decreased muscle mass
 Weight gain, especially around the waist
 Feelings of anxiety, depression, or sadness causing a change in social
behavior
 Thin and dry skin
 When Should I Seek Medical Care for Growth
Hormone Deficiency?

If there is a question of growth hormone deficiency in either a child or an adult,

consultation with a pediatric or adult endocrinologist, as appropriate, is
recommended.

 insulin (hormone that regulates blood sugar levels) through an IV to

produce a low plasma glucose (a sugar) level. The peak growth
hormone level is measured 20-30 minutes later.
 If the peak growth hormone level is less than 10 mcg/mL in children or
less than 3 mcg/mL in adults, growth hormone deficiency is diagnosed.

Persons with growth hormone deficiency may have increased total

cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol, apolipoprotein B,
and triglyceride levels.

Other tests that may be performed include a CT scan and/or MRI of the brain
and/or bones. Images from these tests may reveal tumors. Reduced bone
density can be evaluated by a DEXA or bone density scan.

Are there Home Remedies for Growth

Hormone Deficiency?

 Share Your Story

Because growth hormone deficiency can cause a lack of energy and strength,
patients should eat a balanced diet, get regular exercise, and get plenty
of sleep.
What Are the Medications for Growth Hormone
Deficiencies?

Children and some adults with growth hormone deficiency will benefit from
growth hormone therapy. The goals of treatment are to increase growth in
children and restore energy, metabolism, and body composition. The doctor
may prescribe growth hormone, also
called somatropin (Humatrope, Genotropin). The drug is given as shots a few
times a week that is injected underneath the fat of the patient’s skin.

What Is the Surgery for Growth Hormone

Deficiency?

Pituitary tumors may require surgery.

What Is Other Therapy to Treat Hormone

Deficiency?

Radiation therapy to the pituitary gland may be required if surgery

for tumor removal cannot be safely accomplished.

What is the Follow-up for Growth Hormone

Deficiency?

Follow-up care with an endocrinologist (a doctor who specializes in studying

hormones) is recommended.
What Is the Outlook for Growth Hormone
Deficiency?

The prognosis is determined by the patient’s response to growth hormone

replacement therapy and the underlying cause of the deficiency.

 Muscle mass may increase.

 The patient may lose weight.
 Exercise tolerance and performance may be increased.
 Energy may increase.
 Mood may improve.

Complications of growth hormone deficiency may include the following:

 Premature cardiovascular disease

 Osteoporosis (a condition involving decreased bone mass and density)
 Mental and emotional problems