Chapter 1

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 Electric Field Intensity
A charge Q sets up an electric field in the region
surrounding it. The intensity of the electric field is
described by

For n point charges, use vector addition.

Note: For free space, x10-9 Farad/meter.

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Consider a continuous volume charge density, ρ, in
coulomb/meter3,

The total charge is

Solving for the Electric Field Intensity, we get

or

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 Electric Flux Lines

Flux lines are used to

visualize the presence
of the electric field.
The flux lines are
directed radially
outward for a positive
charge, and radially
inward for a negative
charge.

Electric flux lines of a

positive point charge.

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 Electric Flux Density
The number of electric flux lines passing through a
unit area which is perpendicular to the direction of
the flux lines at any given point is defined as the
Electric Flux Density.

The flux density is proportional to the electric field

intensity.

Coulomb/meter2

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 Gauss’ Law
Gauss’ Law relates the electric flux to the charges
producing it.

The electric flux passing through any closed surface

is equal to the amount of charge enclosed.

Note: The use of the above equation requires a

knowledge of the direction of the electric flux
density in the chosen surface.

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 Energy and Potential
The work done by an external force in moving a
unit charge from point 1 to point 2 in an electric
field is given by

This work is also called the potential difference

between the two points.

Note: (1)The potential difference between two

points is the same regardless of the path chosen.
(2) For a constant electric field, .

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 Capacitance
The slope of the curve that describes the variation
of charge with potential is called capacitance.

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Conductor Properties – Static Field
!   No charges (and hence no electric field) may
reside within a conductor. A surface charge
density resides on the exterior surface.
!   The charges distribute themselves so as to
create an equipotential surface.
!   The electric flux lines leave the conductor in a
direction normal to the surface. The electric flux
density is numerically equal to the surface
charge density.
!   For a multi-conductor system, the potential of
each body depends only and linearly on the
excess charge on each conductor.

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Conductor Properties – Static Field
Consider a system of three conducting bodies.

Note: The coefficients depend only on the geo-

metries of the bodies and their relative positions.

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Conductor Properties – Static Field
Re-writing the equations, we get

The first equation may be expressed as

where C11= self capacitance of body 1

C1X= mutual capacitance between 1 and x

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 Parallel Plate Capacitor
The usual capacitor Area A
consists of two plates
that are separated by a d
small distance.

dielectric
Functions of Dielectric Material
1. Maintains the separation between the plates;
2. Increases the voltage that the capacitor can
withstand;
3. Increases the capacitance.

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 Magnetic Field Intensity
Charges in motion produce a magnetic field.

Right-hand Rule
!

Magnetic flux of a current-carrying conductor

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 Biot – Savart’s Law
Biot-Savart’s law defines the magnetic field inten-
sity at any point due to a current-carrying
conductor.

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 Ampere’s Circuital Law
In many instances, Ampere’s Law can be used to
simplify the calculation of the magnetic field
intensity.

The line integral of H around any closed path is

equal to the current enclosed by the path.

Note: The use of the above equation requires a

knowledge of the direction of the magnetic field
intensity in the chosen path.

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 Magnetic Flux Lines

Flux lines are used to

visualize the presence
of the magnetic field.
The flux lines form
concentric rings whose
density is proportional
to the strength of the
magnetic field.
Magnetic flux lines
of a current-
carrying conductor

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 Magnetic Flux Density

Note: For free space, x10-7 Henry/meter.

The magnetic flux is defined as the flux passing
through any designated area.

Since magnetic flux lines are closed,

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 Magnetic Potential
The scalar magnetic potential difference between
two points in a magnetic field is

Amp-turns

Vm,ab is path-dependent.

Note: If the path of integration is a closed path

and no current is enclosed, then

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 Magnetic Forces
The force on a current-carrying conductor in a
magnetic field is
b
I
a c
N B S

d
(motor principle) a,b
!
F
N S
F

d,c

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 Faraday’s Law
A varying magnetic field induces an electromotive
force (emf) in a closed circuit.

Note: A changing magnetic field is caused by:

1. a conductor moving in a constant magnetic
field; or
2. a changing magnetic field due to a changing
current.

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 Right-Handed System
The induced voltage and current are positive when
they are flowing in the counter-clockwise direction.
A positive current produces a positive flux which is
pointing towards the reader.
Conductor
loop
- +
e i e i
+ -

Positive e, i and ! Negative e, i and !

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Example: Find the polarity of the induced voltage
in the conductor loop shown. The magnitude of the
magnetic flux density is increasing.
Using the right-handed system,
the magnetic flux is negative.
Since it is increasing in
e
magnitude,

From Faraday’s law, and (CCW)

Note: If is negative but decreasing in magnitude,

it can be shown that .

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Example: Find the polarity of the induced voltage
in the conductor loop shown. The magnitude of the
magnetic flux density is increasing.
Using the right-handed system,
the magnetic flux is positive.
Since it is increasing in
e
magnitude,

From Faraday’s law, and (CW)

Note: If is positive but decreasing in magnitude,

it can be shown that .
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Example: The conductor of length L is moving
towards the right with a velocity . Find the polarity
of the induced voltage. The magnitude of the
magnetic flux density is constant.
The flux in the loop is stationary moving
copper conductor

The change in the L e

flux is
x
Hence
(CW)

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 Lenz’s Law
The induced voltage results in a current that
opposes whatever cause is producing the current.

What causes the current?

1. The motion of a conductor in a magnetic field.

The induced emf is called speed voltage.
2. The change of flux in a stationary circuit. The
induced emf is called transformer voltage.

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Example: Find the polarity of the induced voltage
in the conductor loop shown. The magnitude of the
magnetic flux density is increasing.
The induced voltage is caused by
the increasing magnetic flux
which is directed into the page.
e
The resulting current will oppose
the increase in the flux. Thus the
i
current must flow in the CCW
direction.

Note: If is directed into the page but is decrea-

sing in magnitude, the current will flow in the CW
direction to prevent the decrease in .
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Example: Find the polarity of the induced voltage
in the conductor loop shown. The magnitude of the
magnetic flux density is increasing.
The induced voltage is caused by
the increasing magnetic flux
which is directed out of the
e
page. The resulting current will
oppose the increase in the flux.
i
Thus the current must flow in
the CW direction.

Note: If is directed out of the page but is

decreasing in magnitude, the current will flow in
the CCW direction to prevent the decrease in .
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Example: The conductor of length L is moving
towards the right with a velocity . Find the polarity
of the induced voltage. The magnitude of the
magnetic flux density is constant.
stationary moving
The induced voltage is copper conductor
caused by the motion
of the conductor
L i e
towards the right. The
resulting current will
produce a force that
x
will oppose the motion.
Thus the current must flow in the CW direction.

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 Generator Principle
Consider a conductor loop that is rotating about an
axis in a magnetic field.
b
The induced
current will a c
produce a N B S
force that will
oppose the the d
motion of the a,b
conductor
loop. N S

d,c

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 Inductance
The slope of the curve that describes the variation
of flux linkage with current is called inductance.

Note: The inductance is linear when ! vs. i is a

straight line passing through the origin.

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 Linear Magnetic Circuits
A linear magnetic circuit has a DC electric circuit
analog.
1. Electric potential difference between two points

volts

Magnetic potential difference between two points

ampere-turns

2. Current Density amp/m2

Magnetic Flux Density weber/m2

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3. Electric current
amp

Magnetic Flux
weber

4. Electrical Resistance

volt/amp

Magnetic Reluctance

amp-turn/weber

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Example: In the magnetic circuit shown, the iron
core has a mean length of 30 cm, an area of 9 cm2
and a relative permeability of 5,000. The air
gap has a length of 0.05 cm and an area of 9 cm2.

Find the current in the

coil if the flux density .
is B=1 weber/m2.
.
Reluctance of the iron core

amp-turn/weber

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Reluctance of the air gap

amp-turn/weber

From Rc
and
+
we get NI ! Rg
-

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 Ferromagnetism
Magnetic domains exist in ferromagnetic materials
such as iron, nickel and cobalt. When the material
is immersed in a magnetic field, the resultant
magnetism increases due to: domain growth or
domain rotation.

unmagnetized domain growth domain rotation

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 Magnetization Curve

ferromagnetic
material
air

Assuming no residual magnetism,

In air, the magnetization curve is a straight line;
that is, ! is a constant.
With a ferromagnetic material, ! is not a
constant.
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 Hysteresis
Magnetic Flux
Density (B)

Magnetic
Field
Intensity
(H)

Energy is spent on the cyclic growth of the domain

magnetic moments. This energy is called hysteresis
loss and is proportional to the area of the loop.

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