Abstract

There has been a great interest in integration of distributed generation (DG) units at distribution
level in the recent years. DGs can provide cost-effective, environmentally friendly, higher power
quality and more reliable energy solutions than conventional generation. Understanding the wide
variety of DG options available along with their technical benefits in today's changing electric
market environment can be daunting. Technical benefits of DGs can range from loss reduction to
reduction in feeder loading. Loadability enhancement is another benefit that DG can add to
distribution system, if properly placed and appropriately sized. This paper presents a simple
methodology for placing a distributed generation with the view of increasing loadability and
voltage stability of distribution system. Effectiveness of the proposed placement technique is
demonstrated in a practical distribution system of Pujon in Malang, Indonesia.

Introductuon
 Distributed generation, also distributed energy, on-site generation (OSG)[1]
or district/decentralized energy is electrical generation and storage performed by a variety of
small, grid-connected devices referred to as distributed energy resources (DER).[2]Conventional
power stations, such as coal-fired, gas, and nuclear powered plants, as well as hydroelectric
dams and large-scale solar power stations, are centralized and often require electric energy to be
transmitted over long distances. By contrast, DER systems are decentralized, modular, and more
flexible technologies, that are located close to the load they serve, albeit having capacities of
only 10 megawatts (MW) or less. These systems can comprise multiple generation and storage
components; in this instance they are referred to as hybrid power systems .DER systems
typically use renewable energy sources, including small hydro, biomass, biogas, solar power,
wind power, and geothermal power, and increasingly play an important role for the electric power
distribution system. A grid-connected device for electricity storage can also be classified as a
DER system and is often called a distributed energy storage system (DESS). By means of an
interface, DER systems can be managed and coordinated within a smart grid. Distributed
generation and storage enables collection of energy from many sources and may lower
environmental impacts and improve security of supply .

Microgrids are modern, localized, small-scale grids, contrary to the

traditional, centralized electricity grid (macrogrid). Microgrids can disconnect from the centralized
grid and operate autonomously, strengthen grid resilience, and help mitigate grid disturbances.
They are typically low-voltage AC grids, often use diesel generators, and are installed by the
community they serve. Microgrids increasingly employ a mixture of different distributed energy
resources, such as solar hybrid power systems, which reduce the amount of emitted carbon
significantly.
Contents

1 Overview

1.1 Grid parity

2 Technologies

2.1 Cogeneration

2.2 Solar power

2.3 Wind power

2.4 Hydro power

2.5 Waste-to-energy

2.6 Energy storage

3 Integration with the grid

4 Stand alone hybrid systems

5 Cost factors

6 Microgrid

7 Communication in DER systems

8 Legal requirements for distributed generation

9 See also

10 References

11 Further reading

12
 INTRODUCTION
Distributed generation, also distributed energy, on-site generation
(OSG)[1] or district/decentralized energy is electrical generation and storage performed by a variety
of small, grid-connected devices referred to as distributed energy resources (DER).[2]Conventional
power stations, such as coal-fired, gas, and nuclear powered plants, as well as hydroelectric dams
and large-scale solar power stations, are centralized and often require electric energy to be
transmitted over long distances. By contrast, DER systems are decentralized, modular, and more
flexible technologies, that are located close to the load they serve, albeit having capacities of only 10
megawatts (MW) or less. These systems can comprise multiple generation and storage components;
in this instance they are referred to as hybrid power systems .DER systems typically use renewable
energy sources, including small hydro, biomass, biogas, solar power, wind power, and geothermal
power, and increasingly play an important role for the electric power distribution system. A grid-
connected device for electricity storage can also be classified as a DER system and is often called a
distributed energy storage system (DESS). By means of an interface, DER systems can be managed
and coordinated within a smart grid. Distributed generation and storage enables collection of energy
from many sources and may lower environmental impacts and improve security of supply .

Microgrids are modern, localized, small-scale grids, contrary to the traditional,

centralized electricity grid (macrogrid). Microgrids can disconnect from the centralized grid and
operate autonomously, strengthen grid resilience, and help mitigate grid disturbances. They are
typically low-voltage AC grids, often use diesel generators, and are installed by the community they
serve. Microgrids increasingly employ a mixture of different distributed energy resources, such as
solar hybrid power systems, which reduce the amount of emitted carbon significantly. External
links
 OVERVIEW
Historically, central plants have been an integral part of the electric
grid, in which large generating facilities are specifically located either close to resources or otherwise
located far from populated load centers. These, in turn, supply the traditional transmission and
distribution (T&D) grid that distributes bulk power to load centers and from there to consumers.
These were developed when the costs of transporting fuel and integrating generating technologies
into populated areas far exceeded the cost of developing T&D facilities and tariffs. Central plants are
usually designed to take advantage of available economies of scale in a site-specific manner, and are
built as "one-off," custom projects.

These economies of scale began to fail in the late 1960s and, by the start of the
21st century, Central Plants could arguably no longer deliver competitively cheap and reliable
electricity to more remote customers through the grid, because the plants had come to cost less
than the grid and had become so reliable that nearly all power failures originated in the grid.[citation
needed] Thus, the grid had become the main driver of remote customers’ power costs and power
quality problems, which became more acute as digital equipment required extremely reliable
electricity.[5][6] Efficiency gains no longer come from increasing generating capacity, but from
smaller units located closer to sites of demand.[7][8]

For example, coal power plants are built away from cities to prevent their heavy
air pollution from affecting the populace. In addition, such plants are often built near collieries to
minimize the cost of transporting coal. Hydroelectric plants are by their nature limited to operating
at sites with sufficient water flow.

Low pollution is a crucial advantage of combined cycle plants that burn natural gas.
The low pollution permits the plants to be near enough to a city to provide district heating and
cooling.Distributed energy resources are mass-produced, small, and less site-specific. Their
development arose out of:concerns over perceived externalized costs of central plant generation,
particularly environmental concerns;the increasing age, deterioration, and capacity constraints upon
T&D for bulk power;th e increasing relative economy of mass production of smaller appliances over
heavy manufacturing of larger units and on-site construction;

Along with higher relative prices for energy, higher overall complexity and
total costs for regulatory oversight, tariff administration, and metering and billing.Capital markets
have come to realize that right-sized resources, for individual customers, distribution substations, or
microgrids, are able to offer important but little-known economic advantages over central plants.
Smaller units offered greater economies from mass-production than big ones could gain through
unit size. These increased value—due to improvements in financial risk, engineering flexibility,
security, and environmental quality—of these resources can often more than offset their apparent
cost disadvantages.[9] DG, vis-à-vis central plants, must be justified on a life-cycle basis.[10]
Unfortunately, many of the direct, and virtually all of the indirect, benefits of DG are not captured
within traditional utility cash-flow accounting.[5]While the levelized cost of distributed generation
(DG) is typically more expensive than conventional, centralized sources on a kilowatt-hour basis, this
does not consider negative aspects of conventional fuels. The additional premium for DG is rapidly
declining as demand increases and technology progresses,[citation needed] and sufficient and
reliable demand may bring economies of scale, innovation, competition, and more flexible financing,
that could make DG clean energy part of a more diversified future.[citation needed]
Distributed generation reduces the amount of energy lost in transmitting electricity because the
electricity is generated very near where it is used, perhaps even in the same building. This also
reduces the size and number of power lines that must be constructed.

Typical DER systems in a feed-in tariff (FIT) scheme have low maintenance, low pollution and high
efficiencies. In the past, these traits required dedicated operating engineers and large complex
plants to reduce pollution. However, modern embedded systems can provide these traits with
automated operation and renewables, such as sunlight, wind and geothermal. This reduces the size
of power plant that can show a profit.
Technologies

Distributed energy resource (DER) systems are small-scale power generation or storage
technologies (typically in the range of 1 kW to 10,000 kW)[12] used to provide an alternative to or an
enhancement of the traditional electric power system. DER systems typically are characterized by
high initial capital costs per kilowatt.[13] DER systems also serve as storage device and are often
called Distributed energy storage systems (DESS).

DER systems may include the following devices/technologies:

Combined heat power (CHP),[15] also known as cogeneration or trigeneration

Fuel cells

Hybrid power systems (solar hybrid and wind hybrid systems)

Micro combined heat and power (MicroCHP)

Microturbines

Photovoltaic systems (typically rooftop solar PV)

Reciprocating engines

Small wind power systems

Stirling engines

or a combination of the above. For example, hybrid photovoltaic, CHP and battery systems can
provide full electric power for single family residences without extreme storage expenses.[16]
Cogeneration
Distributed cogeneration sources use steam turbines, natural gas-fired fuel cells, microturbines or
reciprocating engines[17] to turn generators. The hot exhaust is then used for space or water
heating, or to drive an absorptive chiller [18][19] for cooling such as air-conditioning. In addition to
natural gas-based schemes, distributed energy projects can also include other renewable or low
carbon fuels including biofuels, biogas, landfill gas, sewage gas, coal bed methane, syngas and
associated petroleum gas.[20]

Delta-ee consultants stated in 2013 that with 64% of global sales, the fuel cell micro combined heat
and power passed the conventional systems in sales in 2012.[21] 20.000 units were sold in Japan in
2012 overall within the Ene Farm project. With a Lifetime of around 60,000 hours. For PEM fuel cell
units, which shut down at night, this equates to an estimated lifetime of between ten and fifteen
years.[22] For a price of $22,600 before installation.[23] For 2013 a state subsidy for 50,000 units is
in place.[22]

In addition, molten carbonate fuel cell and solid oxide fuel cells using natural gas, such as the ones
from FuelCell Energy and the Bloom energy server, or waste-to-energy processes such as the Gate 5
Energy System are used as a distributed energy resource.
Solar power
Further information: Photovoltaic system

Photovoltaics, by far the most important solar technology for distributed generation of solar power,
uses solar cells assembled into solar panels to convert sunlight into electricity. It is a fast-growing
technology doubling its worldwide installed capacity every couple of years. PV systems range from
distributed, residential, and commercial rooftop or building integrated installations, to large,
centralized utility-scale photovoltaic power stations.

The predominant PV technology is crystalline silicon, while thin-film solar cell technology accounts
for about 10 percent of global photovoltaic deployment.[24]:18,19 In recent years, PV technology
has improved its sunlight to electricity conversion efficiency, reduced the installation cost per watt
as well as its energy payback time (EPBT) and levelised cost of electricity (LCOE), and has reached
grid parity in at least 19 different markets in 2014.[25]

As most renewable energy sources and unlike coal and nuclear, solar PV is variable and non-
dispatchable, but has no fuel costs, operating pollution,as well as greatly reduced mining-safety and
operating-safety issues. It produces peak power around local noon each day and its capacity factor is
around 20 percent.[26]
Wind power

Main article: Wind power

Wind turbines can be distributed energy resources or they can be built at utility scale. These have
low maintenance and low pollution, but distributed wind unlike utility-scale wind has much higher
costs than other sources of energy.[27] As with solar, wind energy is variable and non-dispatchable.
Wind towers and generators have substantial insurable liabilities caused by high winds, but good
operating safety. Distributed generation from wind hybrid power systems combines wind power
with other DER systems. One such example is the integration of wind turbines into solar hybrid
power systems, as wind tends to complement solar because the peak operating times for each
system occur at different times of the day and year.
Hydro power

Main articles: Small hydro and Wave power

Hydroelectricity is the most widely used form of renewable energy and its potential has already
been explored to a large extent or is compromised due to issues such as environmental impacts on
fisheries, and increased demand for recreational access. However, using modern 21st century
technology, such as wave power, can make large amounts of new hydropower capacity available,
with minor environmental impact.

Modular and scalable Next generation kinetic energy turbines can be deployed in arrays to serve the
needs on a residential, commercial, industrial, municipal or even regional scale. Microhydro kinetic
generators neither require dams nor impoundments, as they utilize the kinetic energy of water
motion, either waves or flow. No construction is needed on the shoreline or sea bed, which
minimizes environmental impacts to habitats and simplifies the permitting process. Such power
generation also has minimal environmental impact and non-traditional microhydro applications can
be tethered to existing construction such as docks, piers, bridge abutments, or similar structures.[28]
Waste-to-energy
Main articles: Waste-to-energy and Waste-to-energy plant

Municipal solid waste (MSW) and natural waste, such as sewage sludge, food waste and animal
manure will decompose and discharge methane-containing gas that can be collected and used as
fuel in gas turbines or micro turbines to produce electricity as a distributed energy resource.
Additionally, a California-based company, Gate 5 Energy Partners, Inc. has developed a process that
transforms natural waste materials, such as sewage sludge, into biofuel that can be combusted to
power a steam turbine that produces power. This power can be used in lieu of grid-power at the
waste source (such as a treatment plant, farm or dairy).
Energy storage
Main article: Grid energy storage

A distributed energy resource is not limited to the generation of electricity but may also include a
device to store distributed energy (DE).[14] Distributed energy storage systems (DESS) applications
include several types of battery, pumped hydro, compressed air, and thermal energy storage.[29]:42
Access to energy storage for commercial applications is easily accessible through programs such as
Energy Storage as a Service (ESaaS).
PV storage
Common rechargeable battery technologies used in today's PV systems include, the valve regulated
lead-acid battery (lead–acid battery), nickel–cadmium and lithium-ion batteries. Compared to the
other types, lead-acid batteries have a shorter lifetime and lower energy density. However, due to
their high reliability, low self-discharge (4–6% per year) as well as low investment and maintenance
costs, they are currently the predominant technology used in small-scale, residential PV systems, as
lithium-ion batteries are still being developed and about 3.5 times as expensive as lead-acid
batteries. Furthermore, as storage devices for PV systems are stationary, the lower energy and
power density and therefore higher weight of lead-acid batteries are not as critical as for electric
vehicles.[30]:4,9

However, lithium-ion batteries, such as the Tesla Powerwall, have the potential to replace lead-acid
batteries in the near future, as they are being intensively developed and lower prices are expected
due to economies of scale provided by large production facilities such as the Gigafactory 1. In
addition, the Li-ion batteries of plug-in electric cars may serve as future storage devices, since most
vehicles are parked an average of 95 percent of the time, their batteries could be used to let
electricity flow from the car to the power lines and back. Other rechargeable batteries that are
considered for distributed PV systems include, sodium–sulfur and vanadium redox batteries, two
prominent types of a molten salt and a flow battery, respectively.[30]:4
Vehicle-to-grid
Future generations of electric vehicles may have the ability to deliver power from the battery in a
vehicle-to-grid into the grid when needed.[31] An electric vehicle network has the potential to serve
as a DESS.[29]:44

Flywheels
An advanced flywheel energy storage (FES) stores the electricity generated from distributed
resources in the form of angular kinetic energy by accelerating a rotor (flywheel) to a very high
speed of about 20,000 to over 50,000 rpm in a vacuum enclosure. Flywheels can respond quickly as
they store and feed back electricity into the grid in a matter of seconds.[32][33]
Integration with the grid
For reasons of reliability, distributed generation resources would be interconnected to the same
transmission grid as central stations. Various technical and economic issues occur in the integration
of these resources into a grid. Technical problems arise in the areas of power quality, voltage
stability, harmonics, reliability, protection, and control.[34] Behavior of protective devices on the
grid must be examined for all combinations of distributed and central station generation.[35] A large
scale deployment of distributed generation may affect grid-wide functions such as frequency control
and allocation of reserves.[36] As a result, smart grid functions, virtual power plants [37][38][39] and
grid energy storage such as power to gas stations are added to the grid.

Each distributed generation resource has its own integration issues. Solar PV and wind power both
have intermittent and unpredictable generation, so they create many stability issues for voltage and
frequency. These voltage issues affect mechanical grid equipment, such as load tap changers, which
respond too often and wear out much more quickly than utilities anticipated.[40] Also, without any
form of energy storage during times of high solar generation, companies must rapidly increase
generation around the time of sunset to compensate for the loss of solar generation. This high ramp
rate produces what the industry terms the duck curve (example) that is a major concern for grid
operators in the future.[41] Storage can fix these issues if it can be implemented. Flywheels have
shown to provide excellent frequency regulation.[42] Short term use batteries, at a large enough
scale of use, can help to flatten the duck curve and prevent generator use fluctuation and can help
to maintain voltage profile.[43] However, cost is a major limiting factor for energy storage as each
technique is prohibitively expensive to produce at scale and comparatively not energy dense
compared to liquid fossil fuels. Finally, another necessary method of aiding in integration of
photovoltaics for proper distributed generation is in the use of intelligent hybrid inverters.

Another approach does not demand grid integration: stand alone hybrid systems.
Stand alone hybrid systems
It is now possible to combine technologies such as photovoltaics, batteries and cogen to make stand
alone distributed generation systems.[44]

Recent work has shown that such systems have a low levelized cost of electricity.[45]

Many authors now think that these technologies may enable a mass-scale grid defection because
consumers can produce electricity using off grid systems primarily made up of solar photovoltaic
technology.[46][47][48] For example, the Rocky Mountain Institute has proposed that there may
wide scale grid defection.[49] This is backed up by studies in the Midwest.[50]

Cost factors
Cogenerators are also more expensive per watt than central generators.[citation needed] They find
favor because most buildings already burn fuels, and the cogeneration can extract more value from
the fuel . Local production has no electricity transmission losses on long distance power lines or
energy losses from the Joule effect in transformers where in general 8-15% of the energy is lost[51]
(see also cost of electricity by source).

Some larger installations utilize combined cycle generation. Usually this consists of a gas turbine
whose exhaust boils water for a steam turbine in a Rankine cycle. The condenser of the steam cycle
provides the heat for space heating or an absorptive chiller. Combined cycle plants with
cogeneration have the highest known thermal efficiencies, often exceeding 85%.

In countries with high pressure gas distribution, small turbines can be used to bring the gas pressure
to domestic levels whilst extracting useful energy. If the UK were to implement this countrywide an
additional 2-4 GWe would become available. (Note that the energy is already being generated
elsewhere to provide the high initial gas pressure - this method simply distributes the energy via a
different route.)

Microgrid
A microgrid is a localized grouping of electricity generation, energy storage, and loads that normally
operates connected to a traditional centralized grid (macrogrid). This single point of common
coupling with the macrogrid can be disconnected. The microgrid can then function
autonomously.[52] Generation and loads in a microgrid are usually interconnected at low voltage
and it can operate in DC, AC, or the combination of both. From the point of view of the grid
operator, a connected microgrid can be controlled as if it were one entity.Microgrid generation
resources can include stationary batteries, fuel cells, solar, wind, or other energy sources. The
multiple dispersed generation sources and ability to isolate the microgrid from a larger network
would provide highly reliable electric power. Produced heat from generation sources such as
microturbines could be used for local process heating or space heating, allowing flexible trade off
between the needs for heat and electric power.

Micro-grids were proposed in the wake of the July 2012 India blackout:[53]

Small micro-grids covering 30–50 km radius[53]

Small power stations of 5–10 MW to serve the micro-grids

Generate power locally to reduce dependence on long distance transmission lines and cut
transmission losses.

GTM Research forecasts microgrid capacity in the United States will exceed 1.8 gigawatts by
2018.[54]

Micro-grids have seen implementation in a number of communities over the world. For
example, Tesla has implemented a solar micro-grid in the Samoan island of Ta'u, powering the entire
island with solar energy.[55] This localized production system has helped save over 100,000 gallons
of diesel fuel. It is also able to sustain the island for three whole days if the sun were not to shine at
all during that period.[56] This is a great example of how micro-grid systems can be implemented in
communities to encourage renewable resource usage and localized production.

To plan and install Microgrids correctly, engineering modelling is needed. Multiple simulation
tools and optimization tools exist to model the economic and electric effects of Microgrids. A widely
used economic optimization tool is the Distributed Energy Resources Customer Adoption Model
(DER-CAM) from Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory. Another frequently used commercial
economic modelling tool is Homer Energy, originally designed by the National Renewable
Laboratory. There are also some power flow and electrical design tools guiding the Microgrid
developers. The Pacific Northwest National Laboratory designed the public available GridLAB-D tool
and the Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) designed OpenDSS to simulate the distribution
system (for Microgrids). A professional integrated DER-CAM and OpenDSS version is available via
BankableEnergy. A European tool that can be used for electrical, cooling, heating, and process heat
demand simulation is EnergyPLAN from the Aalborg University, Denmark.
Communication in DER systems
IEC 61850-7-420 is published by IEC TC 57: Power systems management and associated information
exchange. It is one of the IEC 61850 standards, some of which are core Standards required for
implementing smart grids. It uses communication services mapped to MMS as per IEC 61850-8-1
standard.

OPC is also used for the communication between different entities of DER system.

Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers IEEE 2030.7 microgrid controller standard. That
concept relies on 4 blocks: a) Device Level control (e.g. Voltage and Frequency Control), b) Local Area
Control (e.g. data communication), c) Supervisory (software) controller (e.g. forward looking
dispatch optimization of generation and load resources), and d) Grid Layer (e.g. communication with
utility).

A wide variety of complex control algorithms exist, making it difficult for small and residential
Distributed Energy Resource (DER) users to implement energy management and control systems.
Especially, communication upgrades and data information systems can make it expensive. Thus,
some projects try to simplify the control of DER via off-the shelf products and make it usable for the
mainstream (e.g. using a Raspberry Pi).[57][58]

Legal requirements for distributed generation

In 2010 Colorado enacted a law requiring that by 2020 that 3% of the power generated in Colorado
utilize distributed generation of some sort.[59][60]

On 11 October 2017, California Governor Jerry Brown signed into law a bill, SB 338, that makes
utility companies plan "carbon-free alternatives to gas generation" in order to meet peak demand.
The law requires utilities to evaluate issues such as energy storage, efficiency, and distributed energy
resources.[61]
Advantages
1. Reliability
Storms, falling tree branches, brownouts, and acts of terror all threaten the grid, and when it fails,
it typically leaves tens of thousands of customers (or millions in extreme cases) without power for
long periods of time. After Hurricane Sandy hit the east coast, a few individuals with solar panels
were providing emergency power to their neighbors. A distributed generation system with
microgrids can localize the impact of these failures, reducing the number of people affected.
2. Flexibility
Big power plants - whether they’re based on fossil fuels, nuclear energy, or renewable energy -
are expensive to build and have very long payback periods. That means the utilities are slower to
adopt new technologies. If I just spent $40B on a natural gas electrical generating plant, I’m not
likely to abandon that and switch to another fuel or a renewable source, even if the price of
natural gas rises. On the other hand, if I build several smaller plants based on renewable
sources, I can easily decommission them a little at a time as I experiment with and adopt new
technologies.
3. Upgradability
Suppose I built a large wind farm with turbines that have an expected life of 30 years. Turbine
efficiency is likely to improve over the next few years, but it’s too costly to replace an entire farm
at once. And since the farm is designed as a whole - each turbine affects its neighbors - I can’t
simply replace a few turbines with newer models. Smaller wind farms in more locations would
allow me to adopt the newer turbines in one or two of the farms, gradually increasing my
production without making a major investment in equipment.
4. Economy of Scale
One reason large power plants are expensive to build is that so few of them are built - it’s a
highly specialized market. If I build a lot of small power plants with whatever technology is
appropriate, the mass production effect will drive down the cost.
5. Diversity
Distributed generation allows me to use a variety of power generating technologies, decreasing
my dependence on any one resource. With stock portfolios, organizations, and energy, there is
strength in diversity.
Diadvantage

Renewable-energy technologies like solar and wind power have begun to shake
up the mix of energy sources, and are now challenging the traditional
distribution system. Advocates of a decentralized approach, known as distributed
generation or distributed energy, envision a day when grids will no longer be
one-way systems. Thousands of small generators, including rooftop solar panels
and facilities that extract energy from garbage or sewage, could feed into the
system, replacing or complementing big coal, nuclear or natural gasplants, they
say.
Some energy experts say a less centralized system would be better suited to the
diverse mix of energy sources that is likely to be needed to reduce climate-
warming carbon emissions. It could also be less vulnerable to hits from stormy
weather, demand overload and other difficulties that have sometimes knocked
out traditional systems.

Without careful pricing and regulation, an overexpansion of distributed

generation could drive up electricity prices and unfairly shift costs to customers
who cannot afford to produce their own electricity. Even homes with rooftop
solar panels rely on the grid when the sun is not shining.
Concluding remarks
Distributed generation offers many benefits, including important political issues such as increasing
the security of supply and reducing the emission of greenhouse gases. Although these benefits, and
other additional benefits, are clearly identified, DG are not always economically viable. Their
viability depends heavily on energy prices and stimulation measures from European and national
governments. A stable political course with regard to stimulation measures for DG is necessary to
encourage serious investments by market parties in additional DG capacity.
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implementation of CCNY DC microgrid testbed". 2016 IEEE Industry Applications Society Annual Meeting:
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4.Saleh, M. S.; Althaibani, A.; Esa, Y.; Mhandi, Y.; Mohamed, A. A. (October 2015). "Impact of clustering
microgrids on their stability and resilience during blackouts". 2015 International Conference on Smart Grid
and Clean Energy Technologies (ICSGCE): 195–200. doi:10.1109/ICSGCE.2015.7454295.

5.DOE; The Potential Benefits of Distributed Generation and Rate-Related Issues that May Impede Their
Expansion; 2007.