Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
A simple method is proposed to calculate the maximum pavement fer theory and energy balance at the surface. A finite differ-
temperature profile on the basis of maximum air temperature and ence approach is used to deal with the resulting differential
hourly solar radiation. The method was developed to be used equation. The CMS model uses a regression equation to cal-
mainly for Strategic Highway Research Program binder and mix- culate the incident solar radiation from the extraterrestrial
ture specifications and as a quick method of determining maxi-
mum pavement temperature for various regions in the United radiation. The program is useful for providing detailed in-
States and Canada. The method is based on the energy balance formation about pavement temperature variations during the
at the pavement surface and the resulting temperature equilib- day for a sequence of days. However, the program requires
rium. Reasonable assumptions are made regarding thermal prop- a considerable amount of input. The method proposed here
erties of the asphalt concrete. The accuracy of the method was can be used when one is interested in determining just the
tested by applying it to some field cases for which measured maximum pavement temperature with a minimum amount of
pavement temperatures were available. In 83 percent of the cases,
the proposed equation predicted the pavement temperature within input. One can also directly use the charts that are developed
3°C, which is well within reasonable limits, considering the nu- for this purpose. The method is very simple and quick: a user
merous uncertainties that exist in material properties, accuracy who knows the latitude of the location and the air temperature
of measurements, variability of environmental factors (wind, sun- can use the charts to find a reasonable estimate of the max-
shine, etc.), and inclination of the pavement surface in receiving imum pavement temperature. The method is developed on
radiation. the basis of the theory of heat transfer and takes into account
the effect of latitude on solar radiation.
The binde.r and mixture specifications that are in development
under the Strategic Highway Research Program (SHRP) As-
phalt Research Program are tied to maximum and minimum THEORY
pavement temperatures for various locations in the United
States and Canada. Therefore, it became necessary to seek a The net rate of heat flow to and from a body, q eo can be
0
quick and efficient way to determine the maximum pavement calculated from the equation
temperature profile with sufficient accuracy for various re-
gions. Barber (J) was among the first researchers to propose
a method of ·calculating maximum pavement temperature from
weather reports. He applied a thermal diffusion theory to a where
semi-infinite mass (pavement) in contact with air. In his the-
ory, solar radiation was considered on the basis of its effect qs energy absorbed from direct solar radiation,
on the mean effective air temperature. The resulting equation qa energy absorbed from diffuse radiation (scattered from
is simple. However, because the method uses total daily ra- the atmosphere),
diation rather than hourly radiation, the calculated maximum qt = energy absorbed from terrestrial radiation,
pavement fomperature with this model is the same for dif- qc energy transferred to or from the body as a result of
ferent latitudes having the same air temperature conditions convection,
and the same total daily solar radiation. qk = energy transferred to or from the body as a result of
Another procedure was suggested by Rumney and Jimenez conduction, and
(2). They developed some empirical nomographs to predict qr = energy emitted from the body· through outgoing
pavement temperature at the surface and at a 2-in. depth as radiation.
a function of air temperature and hourly solar radiation. These
qs and qa are always positive for the surface of a body such
graphs were developed on the basis of data collected on pave-
as pavement exposed to radiation. The terrestrial radiation,
ment temperature in Tucson, Arizona, in June and July along
qt, is positive for a body that is above the surface of the earth
with data collected on measured hourly solar radiation.
or is tilted so that it can "see" the earth surface. For the
Dempsey (3) developed an analysis program, named climatic-
pavement surface, qt can be considered to be 0. The convec-
materials-structural (CMS) mo&l, that is based on heat trans-
tion energy is transferred from the pavement to the surround-
ing air if the former has a higher temperature than the latter.
The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Tex. 78701. In this case, qc appears with a negative sign in the above
2 TRANSPORTATION RESEARCH RECORD 1417
formula for a pavement. The conduction energy appears with reflect about 26 percent of insolation (incoming solar radia-
a positive sign if the surface temperature is lower than the tion) into space. The atmosphere and the earth's surface to-
temperature at a depth below the surface (as might be the gether absorb about 70 percent of insolation. The solar energy
case during cold winter days). Conduction energy will have received at the surface depends on the location, time of the
a negative sign when the surface temperature is higher than day, and time of the year. The value of Rn can be calculated
the pavement temperature at other depths. This is especially as
true during the hot days of summer. Finally, the energy emit-
ted from the pavement surface, qn is always negative. There- (4)
fore, during summer, when the greatest interest in predicting where
the maximum pavement temperature exists, the net rate of
heat flow to the surface of the pavement can be written as R 0 = solar constant;
m = relative air mass, defined as the ratio of the actual
(1) path length to the shortest possible path; and
Ta = transmission coefficient for unit air mass.
~
North
I v 35°
40° 80
'~~ ~ 45°
/50°
Horizontal Plane '~.. ~
~--:·
P.M.A.M 70
+ + ~~
r'
120-240
.,~
"'0 110-250
~!for
~N.lat •,,
Q
~
0
100-260 ~ ~ ~.
I'>~
"'' ~\-~
'-.....
c
::l 90-270
....en
"
I """
0 A I for 45° N. lat f'--.........._ :;;:,.,
0 80-280
'~ ~' ~
'-·, &·-.
bo
c:
<( 70-290
~·'. 0
--""
.c:
South E ,,, ·.~o
"- "· ......
E 60-300
~
30
·;;i
- - - I+- - - - - - - - - -~ ~,_:. .-~ ~ ....__
FIGURE 1 Definition of solar and surface angles for $ ~',, •• I \
50-310 ', .. ,
~
'
Equation 6 (4). '<t:
I\''" 40
40-320 .J......... ~ 20
~
~~
30-330 I
where I
20-340 10
~
Ea G - J (lO-pP), I
10-350
~
I
er Stefan-Boltzman constant = 5.68 x 10-s W (m 2 ~
OK4), 0-360 I 0
A.M . .-·6 7 8 9 10 11 12
the air temperature (°K), and P.M . .-6 4 2
5
p the vapor pressure varying between 1 and 10 mm of Mean Sun Time
mercury.
FIGURE 2 Solar angles for the period from May to August in
G, J, and P can be represented by constant values of 0.77, northern latitudes (5).
0.28, and 0.074, respectively, according to Geiger (6).
temperature, and temperature at a depth can be obtained. The range of variation in the thermal conductivity of asphalt
The air temperature should be available through measure- concrete appears to b~ significantly larger than that of ab-
ment. Reasonable assumptions could be made about the tem- sorptivity and emissivity. Highter and Wall (7) report that
perature difference between the surface and a p~rticular depth. values of thermal conductivity for asphalt concrete range from
The final equation obtained in this way will be the following 0.74 to 2.89 W/m 2 °C (0.43 to 1.67 Btu/hr/ft2 °F/ft) after re-
fourth-degree equation, which can be solved to yield the sur- viewing a considerable number of references regarding this
face temperature. property. Because aggregate is the major portion of the as-
phalt concrete, it seems reasonable to assume that significant
variations in thermal properties of the aggregates cause large
differences in the thermal conductivity of the asphalt concrete.
The surface coefficient of heat transfer seems to be more
difficult to determine than the other parameters. The coef-
ficient he is not really a thermal property of the material in
the same sense that k is. It is not a constant and depends on
Maximum Pavement Temperature and Required a lot of variables. It is mainly used to yield a simple relation-
Thermal Parameters ship for convection heat transfer.
The empirical formula developed by Vehrencamp (8) and
Maximum air temperature and maximum hourly direct solar reported by Dempsey (3) appears to be the most suitable for
radiation can be used to calculate the maximum pavement determining he for a pavement surface.
temperature. The maximum hourly solar radiation is obtained
by using the minimum z angle from the Brown and Marco he = 698.24(0.00144 T?;, 3 U 0 ·7
chart. This angle has the lowest value at noon sun time for
+ 0.00097 (Ts - Tair) 0 · 3 ] (13)
different latitudes. For the months between May and August,
at the noon sun time, z can be approximately calculated as
where
z = latitude - 20 degrees (for latitude > 22 degrees) he = surface coefficient of heal transfer,
Tm = average of the surface and air temperature in °K,
The value of Ta for calculation purposes is assumed to be U = average daily wind velocity in m/sec,
0.81, which represents a clear sunny day. Ts = surface temperature, and
An investigation of several different sets of data concerning Tair = air temperature.
maximum temperature difference between the surface and a
The expression in brackets yields the convection coefficient
2-in. depth during hot summer days indicates that this dif-
he in terms of gram calories per second square centimeter
ference varies between 10°F and 20°F with an average value
degree Celsius. The factor 698.24 is used to give the result in
of 15°F. Calculated maximum pavement temperatures re-
terms of Watts per square meter degree Celsius. For an average
ported in this paper are based on the 15°F difference
wind velocity of about 4.5 m/sec (10 mph) and for typical
assumption.
ranges of maximum air and pavement temperatures, the for-
The coefficient Ea for atmospheric radiation, as defined in
mula yields a value varying between 17 and 22. 7 W/m2 °C [3
empirical Equation 7, depends on vapor pressure. A change
in vapor pressure from 1 to 10 mm of mercury increases Ea and 4 Btu/(hr/ft2 °F)].
from 0.53 to 0.72. The calculated atmospheric radiation varies
between 246 and 331 W/m2 (78 and 105 Btu/hr/ft2) in extremes Sensitivity Analysis
for an air temperature of 27°C (80°F). The variation is be-
tween 284 and 378 W/m 2 (90 and 120 Btu/hr/ft2) for an air A sensitivity analysis was performed to investigate the effect
temperature of 38°C (100°F). Therefore, the effect of vapor of various thermal parameters on the predicted maximum
pressure on changing the atmospheric radiation is not signif- pavement temperature. Some of the results of the sensitivity
icant, considering the magnitude of other forms of radiation analysis are shown in Figures 3 and 4. Essentially a linear
that are involved in the surface energy balance. A value of relationship is observed between calculated maximum pave-
0. 70 was adopted for Ea, considering the above discussion and ment temperature and solar absorptivity. The relationship
the fact that during the summertime the vapor pressure is between thermal conductivity and maximum pavement tem-
higher than at other times of the year. perature is also approximately linear. As expected, surface
The most reas9nable values for thermal parameters O'. (solar temperature drops as thermal conductivity or absorptivity
absorptivity), E (emissivity), k (thermal conductivity), and he increases.
(surface heat transfer coefficient) need to be input to obtain The results reported in this paper are for the following
the best estimate of the maximum pavement temperature. typical thermal parameters: for asphalt concrete, O'. = 0.9;
The emissivity of a surface varies with temperature, its E = 0.9; k = 1.38 W/m °C; he = 3.5 W/m
2 2 0
C.
degree of roughness, and oxidation. Therefore, the emissivity
in a single material may vary within a wide range. Absorptivity
depends on the same parameters as emissivity as well as the Comparison of Measured and Predicted Temperatures
nature of the incoming radiation and its wavelength. For as-
phalt materials, it seems that these two parameters vary within Discrepancies between the measured and calculated pave-
a narrow range (0.85-0.93). ment temperatures are unavoidable because of the influence
Solaimanian and Kennedy 5
70
(.)
e 65
~
e
Cl>
a.
E
~
.,
~ 60
E
Q)
>
0
a..
E
:::J
E
'§ 55 k- t .38 W/m C (0.8 Btu/hr.ft.!')
~ h - 1 9.88 M11q.m,..1, C (3.$ Btu/hr.sq.ft. F)
Taira38C 100 rJ
Latitude• 2
50
0.7 0.8 0.9
Solar Absorptivity
of a large number of factors and their corresponding varia- cant, considering the typical range of values for this param-
tions. These discrepancie.s are important to consider for com- eter, the effect of wind velocity can make some slight con-
parison purposes. tribution to differences between measured and predicted values.
One question concerns the accuracy of field temperature Also a slightly cloudy day versus a perfectly sunny condition
measurements at the surface. A thermometer sitting on the can cause small changes. In many cases, the effect of cloud-
pavement surface will probably yield a different reading from iness and the percent sunshine are considered by applying a
a thermocouple implanted into the surface. The wind velocity reduction factor to solar radiation. Such a reduction factor is
can influence the surface temperature through its impact on typically obtained from a regression equation for different
convection heat transfer. Even though it may not be signifi- locations. Obviously some probability and approximation are
80
h«= 11.4W/e Solar Abeorptivity = 0.9
q.m. c (2.o Btu Emissivity .. 0.9
/hr. eq.ft, FJ Tair = 38 C (1 00 F)
Latitude = 32
E 75
~
c...Cl>
a.
E
~
.,
c:
Q) 70 h.., 17.0 (J.O)
E
Q)
>
0
a..
E
:::J
E
·xc 65
~
60 ---~~'--~--'~~__.,~~........~~-'-~~.......~~_._~~_._~~...._~~"'-~~.L.-~.......I
0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4
Conductivity K, W/(m. C)
involved in obtaining such a reduction factor. It also makes Arizona, Saskatchewan (Canada), Idaho, and Alabama. In-
a difference which part of the sky is cloudy and at what time formation about these cases (except Alabama) can be found
of the day cloudiness occurs. in previous work (1,2 ,9 ,10). The results are shown in Table
Another important factor is that the input parameters, es.,. 1 and Figure 6. This equation predicts the pavement tem-
pecially thermal properties, are not exactly known for these perature with reasonable accuracy, considering the previous
field cases, and typical values reported for these parameters discussion about the uncertainties involved. The correlation
are used here for calculation purposes. These values are used coefficient and the R 2 value are 0.91 and 0.82, respectively.
on the basis of reasonable assumptions, previous measure- Ninety'-six percent of the measurements are within 4°C dif-
ments, or empirical formulas. ference, and 83 percent are within 3°C difference.
Another factor is the inclination of the pavement surface
with respect to the direction of the sun rays. Obviously a
surface inclined toward the sun rays receives more radiation Effect of Latitude
than a horizontal surface, and a horizontal surface receives
more radiation than a surface inclined in the opposite direc- A useful feature of the present equation in predicting the
tion of the sun rays. In Figure 5 maximum hourly solar ra- maximum pavement temperature is that it takes advantage of
diation of a horizontal surface is compared with that of a the maximum hourly solar radiation rather than the total daily
surface normal to the sun rays. Even though such inclinations radiation. During the hot summer months, daily terrestrial
may not be significant for asphalt pavements, they can create radiation is almost the same for both northern and southern
discrepancies between measured and calculated values if the regions (Figure 7). However, the hourly radiations are dif-
effect is not considered. ferent. Southern regions of the United States (lower latitudes)
Considering that there is a lot of uncertainty with respect receive more radiation per hour than do northern regions
to the factors discussed earlier and their effects, one should (Figure 8). Thus, higher radiation contributes to larger dif-
not expect to match the measured values very closely. The ferences between air and pavement temperatures, as can be
calculated values should be considered as typical pavement seen in Figures 9 and 10. Figu~e 10 indicates an almost linear
temperatures for a certain location. The validity of the ap- relationship between the maximum air temperature and the
proach presented here is investigated by comparing the pre- calculated maximum pavement temperature. The figure im-
dicted and measured surface temperatures, taking into con- plies that for the same latitude, the difference between air
sideration the preceding points. and pavement temperatures is almost constant and is deter-
Using the equilibrium temperature discussed above and mined by heat transfer laws of radiation, conduction, and
appropriate values for variables 'T, a, e, k, and he, the max- convection. However, a parabolic relationship is observed
imum surface temperature was calculated for a number of between _the latitude and the maximum pavement tempera-
cases for which measured pavement surface temperature was ture for various air temperatures. Figure 11 shows the dif-
available. The cases investigated here include sites in Virginia, ference between air and pavement temperatures as a function
1120 1120
1080 1080
"'E
.........._ 1040 1040
3:
r:0
,,
:g
0
1000 Horizontal surface· 1000
0::
...0
0(/) 960 960
>.
"t:
::J
0
:r: 920 920
E
::J
E
·x0 880 880
::!!
840 840
TABLE. 1 Measured and Calculated Pavement Temperatures of latitude. The maximum difference that occurs at lower
Cale. Measured Diff. latitudes varies between 25.5°C and 26.5°C (46°F and 48°F)
Case Temp., C Temp., c Calc.-Meas. when the maximum air temperature varies between 24.5°C
College Park,MD 61.l 61.1 0.0 and 42°C (76°F and 108°F). The difference at 60-degree lat-
Hybla,VA 48.3 51. 7 -3.3 itude varies between l5°C and l6°C (27°F and 29°F). This
Tucson,AZ 60.6 63.3 -2.8 figure shows that the difference between air and pavement
Tucson,AZ 63.9 62.8 1.1
Tucson,AZ 57.8 56.7 1.1 temperatures as a function of latitude is almost independent
Tucson,AZ 60.0 60.0 0.0 of the air temperature (or at least the effect of air temperature
Saskatch,CA 41. 7 41.1 0.6 can be neglected). A parabola fits the average difference data
Saskatch,CA 46.7 49.4 -2.8
Saskatch,CA 49.4 48.9 0.6 perfectly. The equation of the parabola is 6.T = -0.0062 <1>2
Saskatch,CA 51. 7 46.7 5.0 + 0.2289 <I> + 24.38, where <I> is the latitude and 6.T is the
Saskatch,CA 52.8 50.0 2.8 difference between the maximum air temperature and the
Saskatch,CA 54.4 57.2 -2.8
Saskatch,CA 54.4 51.1 3.3 maximum pavement temperature in degrees Celsius. There-
Saskatch,CA 53.9 51. 7 2.2 fore, once latitude of a location is known, 6.T can be ap-
Saskatch,CA 56.i 53.3 2.8 proximately estimated using this simple equation.
Saskatch,CA 58.3 58.9 -0.6
Saskatch,CA 52.8 51. 7 1.1 Also, in southern parts, the difference between air and
Saskatch,CA 56.1 53.9 2.2 calculated maximum pavement temperature is 25°C to 28°C
Saskatch,CA 57.2 54.4 2.8 (45°F to 50°F), whereas in northern regions it is 19.5°C to
Saskatch,CA 57.2 56.1 1.1
Saskatch,CA 59.4 55.6 3.9 22°C (35°C to 40°F). Moreover, the difference between air
us 84, AL 59.4 56.1 3.3 and maximum pavement temperature changes more rapidly
Idaho 53.9 52.8 1.1 as one moves farther north.
Count 23 23 23
Average 55.1 54.1 1.0 Temperature Variation with Depth
Std. Dev. 5.1 5.2 2.2
Maximum 64 63 5
Minimum 42 41 -3 It is possible to approximate the temperature variation with
depth once the surface temperature is known. A number of
65
0
()
0
e
.3 60 0
0
0
I..
Q)
0
a.
E 0
~ 8
-+-'
c 55
Q)
E 80
Q)
>
c
a.... 0 00
E 50 0
:J
0
E
·xc
~
0
"O
~ a. =0.9
:J 45
f/) £ =0.9
0
Q) k = 1 .38 W/m C (0.8 Btu/hr.ft.F)
~ h = 19.88 W/m2. C (3.5 Btu/hr.ft2.F)
0 =0.8
40 ......~__...~~.......~--~~--~--~~--~---~~---~---~--
40 45 50 55 60 65
Calculated Maximum Pavement Temperature, C
44
>.
0 39
0
~
E
.........
II)
34
Cl)
"5
0
"J
0
O>
29
Cl)
::!:
c"
0 24
:p
0
;:;
0
0::: 19
c
:5II)
~ 14
2
E
+-'
x 9
w
FIGURE 7 Extraterrestrial solar radiation as a function of time of year for various latitudes.
cases from Hybla, Virginia; Tucson, Arizona; and Sas- where C 1 /C0 , C2 /C0 , and C3 /C0 are normalized coefficients.
katchewan, Canada, were investigated to find the best curve Using n 1 , n2 , and n3 for these coefficients, respectively, the
fitting the measured temperature profile. It was found that a equation can be written in the following form:
cubic function of the form T = C0 + C1 d + C 2d 2 + C3 d 3
fits the measured data best. In this equation, coefficients C0 ,
C1 , C2 , and C3 were determined for each case. These coef-
ficients were then normalized with respect to the surface tem-
perature, which is presented by C0 in the preceding equation. Once coefficients n 1 , n 2 , and n 3 were determined for each
The equation can be rewritten as case, the average values were-' calculated. The overall cubic
function was found to be in the following form:
'-
:I:
~
E 2700
.........
II)
"5
0
Cl)
lI
~
l
2200
c0
:p
0
;:;
0
0::: 1700
c
:sII)
~ 1200
2
....,e
~
Cl)
O>
0 700
'-
Cl)
200
0 40 80 120 160 200 240 280 320 360 400
Doy of the Year
FIGURE 8 Average extraterrestrial radiation as a function of time of year for various latitudes.
70 70
65 65
u
f! 60 60
.a
eGI
a.
E 55
i! 55
.oJ
c
GI
E
GI
>
0 50 50
a..
E
::J
·xE0 45 45
:::!!
40 40
35 35
24 28 32 36 40 44
Maximum Air Temperature, C
(..)
70
65
r 65
~
e 60 60
e
G>
a.
E 55 55
~
.....
c
a>
E
G>
>
0
50 50
n..
E
::J
E
·x0 45 45
:::!E
40 40
35 35
26 30 34 38 42 46 50 54 58 62 66
Latitude
28 28
(.)
ci..
E
Q) 26 26
I-
L.
<(
x
0
:::!: 24 24
-0
c:
0
ci..
E
~
...., 22 22
c:
Q)
E
Q)
>
0
0...
20 20
x
0
:::!:
c:
Q)
Q) 18 18
....,;::
Q)
.0
Q)
0
c: 16 16
fQ)
:;:
0
14.._....__._~__.~.....__.__._~__..~.__...__.___.___.~..._....__.__,..........__.14
26 30 34 38 42 46 50 54 58 62 66
Latitude
/
Solaimanian and Kennedy 11
ment Systems. In Highway Research Record 342, HRB, National 9. Kallas, B. F. Asphalt Pavement Temperatures. In Highway Re-
Research Council, Washington, D.C., 1970, pp. 39-56. search Record 150, HRB, National Research Council, Washing-
4. Kreith, F. Principles of Heat Transfer, 3rd ed. Harper and Row ton, D.C., 1966, pp. 1-11.
Publishers, New York, 1973. 10. Huber, G. A., G. H. Heiman, and R. W. Chursinoff. Prediction
5. Brown, A. I., and S. M. Marco. Introduction to Heat Transfer, of Pavement Layer Temperature during Winter Months Using a
2nd ed. McGraw Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1951. Computer Model. Canadian Technical Asphalt Association, Nov.
6. Geiger, R. The Climate Near the Ground. Harvard University 1989.
Press, Cambridge, Mass., 1959.
7. Highter, W. H., and D. J. Wall. Thermal Properties of Some
Asphaltic Concrete Mixes. In Transportation Research Record
968, TRB, National Research Council, Washington, D.C., 1984.
8. Vehrencamp, J. E. Experimental Investigation of Heat Transfer
at an Air-Earth Interface. Transactions, American Geophysical Publication of this paper sponsored by Committee on Characteristics
Union, Vol. 34, No. 1, 1953, pp. 22-29. of Bituminous Materials.