The Z-Transform

• (Double-sided) Z-transform:
∞
X ( z ) = ∑ x ( n ) z −n
n = −∞

More general than Fourier transform

More convenient in some analysis
• Region of convergence (ROC):
ROC = {z : X ( z ) < ∞}
• Example - right-sided exponential sequence:
x(n ) = a n u(n )
∞
X ( z ) = ∑ az ( ) −1 n
=
1
1 − az −1
n =0

ROC: z > a

• Example – left-sided exponential sequence:

x ( n ) = − a n u ( − n − 1)

X ( z) = − (
−1
∑ az )
−1 n
= ... =
1
1 − az −1
n = −∞

ROC: z < a

19 Lecture Notes by Hua

• Example – double-sided exponential sequence:
x ( n ) = a n u ( n ) + b n u( n ) − c n u ( − n − 1) − d n u( − n − 1)
1 1 1 1
X ( z ) = ... = −1
+ −1
+ −1
+
1 − az 1 − bz 1 − cz 1 − dz −1
ROC: max ( a , b ) < z < min( c , d )

• Example – finite-length sequence:

a n 0 ≤ n ≤ N −1
x(n ) = 
0 otherwise

N −1
X ( z ) = ∑ a n z −n =
( )
1 − az −1 N

n =0 1 − (az −1 )
1 zN − aN
=
z N −1 z−a
ROC: z > 0

zeros: zk = ae j 2πk / N , k = 1, 2, …, N
pole: z = 0 of order N-1

20 Lecture Notes by Hua

 Properties of ROC of the Z-Transform
• ROC is a ring or disk centered at the origin
• Fourier transform converges absolutely iff ROC
includes the unit circle
• ROC contains no poles but is bounded by poles
• If the sequence is finite in length, ROC is the entire
z-plane except possibly z = 0 and z = ∞ .
• If the sequence is right-sided, ROC is an outer disk
• If the sequence is left-sided, ROC is an inner disk
• If the sequence is double-sided, ROC is a ring
• ROC is a connected region.

21 Lecture Notes by Hua

 The Inverse Z-Transform
• Formal approach:
1 n −1
x(n ) = ∫ X ( z ) z dz
j 2π C∈ROC

contour integral
• Inverse Fourier transform: If ROC contains the unit
circle, then
1 n −1
x(n ) = ∫ X ( z ) z dz
j 2π z =1

1 2π jω jωn
= ∫ X ( e )e dω
2π 0

• Inspection method (table lookup):

Z
x ( n ) ←→ X ( z ) with a ROC
see Table 3.1

22 Lecture Notes by Hua

• Partial fraction expansion: Given the rational
function
M
−k
∑ bk z
X ( z ) = kN=0
−k
∑ ak z
k =0

we can write

( M
)
b0 ∏ 1 − ck z −1
X ( z ) = kN=1
a0 ∏ (1 − d k z −1 )
k =1
M −N N Ak
−r
= ∑ Br z +∑ −1
r =0 k =1 1 − d k z

The first term exists if M ≥ N, and can be

obtained via long division;
The second term holds if all poles are simple (of
order one), and the coefficients follow from:
{( )
Ak = 1 − d k z −1 X ( k ) z =d } k

23 Lecture Notes by Hua

• Example:
1 + 2 z −1 + z −2
X ( z) =
3 1
1 − z −1 + z −2
2 2

=
(1 + z )
−1 2

1 − 1 z −1 (1 − z −1 )
 
 2 
−9 8
= 2+ +
1 −1 1 − z −1
1− z
2
If ROC is z > 1, then
n
1
x ( n ) = 2δ ( n ) − 9  u ( n ) + 8u( n )
2
1
If ROC is < z < 1, then
2
n
1
x ( n ) = 2δ ( n ) − 9  u ( n ) − 8u ( − n − 1)
2
1
If ROC is z < , then
2
x ( n ) = 2δ ( n ) + 9(1 / 2 )n u( − n − 1) − 8u ( − n − 1)

24 Lecture Notes by Hua

• Power series expansion:
∞
X ( z ) = ∑ x ( n ) z −n
n = −∞
= ... + x ( −2) z 2 + x ( −1) z + x (0) + x (1) z −1 + ...
• Example of long division:
1
X ( z) = −1
= ...
1 − az
decreasing power of z
for causal sequence

1 z
X ( z) = = = ...
1 − az −1 −a+ z
increasing power of z
for anticausal sequence

25 Lecture Notes by Hua

 Properties of the Z-Transform
• Linearity

• Time shifting: x ( n − n0 ) ←→ z −n0 X ( z )

Z

• Multiplication by exponential:

z0 n x ( n ) ←→ X ( z / z0 )
Z

ROC: z0 R x

• Differentiation of Z-transform:
Z dX ( z )
nx ( n ) ←→ − z ROC: unchanged
dz
• Conjugation of a complex sequence:

x ∗ ( n ) ←→ X ∗ ( z ∗ )
Z
ROC: unchanged
• Time reversal

x ∗ ( − n ) ←→ X ∗ (1 / z ∗ )
Z
ROC: 1 / Rx
• Convolution
Z
x ( n ) ∗ y ( n ) ←→ X ( z )Y ( z ) ROC: R x ∩ R y

• Initial-value theorem: if the sequence is causal,

x (0) = lim z →∞ X ( z )

26 Lecture Notes by Hua