Radar 2009 A - 2 Review of Electromagnetism3

Radar Systems Engineering
Lecture 2
Review of Electromagnetism
Dr. Robert M. O’Donnell

IEEE New Hampshire Section
Guest Lecturer

Radar Systems Course 1
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Reasons for Review Lecture
• A number of potential students may not have taken a 3rd

year undergraduate course in electromagnetism
– Electrical/Computer Engineering Majors in the Computer
Engineering Track
– Computer Science Majors
– Mathematics Majors
– Mechanical Engineering Majors
• If this relatively brief review is not sufficient, a formal course

in advanced undergraduate course may be required.

Radar Systems Course
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Outline
• Introduction
– Coulomb’s Law
– Gauss’s Law
– Biot - Savart Law
– Ampere’s Law
– Faraday’s Law
• Maxwell’s Equations
• Electromagnetic Waves

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Coulomb’s Law
Charles Augustin de Coulomb
• If two electric charges, q1 and q 2 , are (1736-1806)
separated by a distance,
r r , they
experience a force, F , given by:
r q1q 2r̂ ( )
F= ε o = permittivity of = 8.85 x 10 −12 C2 / N m 2
4 π εo r 2
free space
q1 r q2
• Two charges of opposite sign attract; and two charges of the
same sign repel each other.
• The magnitude of the electric force is proportional to the

magnitude of each of the two chares and inversely proportional to
the distance between the two charges
• This electric force is along the line between the two charges
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Electric Field
• The electric field of a charge q1 , at P a distance r from

the electric charge is defined as:
r q1r̂ P
E(r ) = q1 r
4 π εo r 2

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Electric Field
• The electric field of a charge q1 , at a distance r from the

electric charge is defined as:
r q1r̂
E(r ) = q1 r q2
4 π εo r 2
• Remember, that the force on a charge q 2 located a distance r
due to q1 is give by r q q r̂ r r
F= 1 2
F=qE
4 π εo r 2
• Linear Superposition
– The total electric field at a point in space is due to a number of
point charges is the vector sum of the electric fields of each
charge
−q +q
• Electric field of a point charge

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Gauss’s Law
• Define: the “Electric Flux Density :

r r
D = εo E Volume
Charge
Density
• Then, Gauss’s Law states that :
r r
∫∫ D ⋅ dS = Q Enclosed Q Enclosed = ∫∫∫ ρ dV
Carl Freidrich Gauss
(1777-1855)
• Integrating the Electric Flux Density over a

closed surface gives you the charge
enclosed by the surface
• Using vector calculus, Gauss’s law may be

cast in differential form:
r
∇⋅D = ρ
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Biot Savart Law
r r
• Define: H = Magnetic Field and B = the Magnetic Flux Density
• The Biot-Savart law: r

– The differential magnetic field
r dH generated by a steady current
flowing through the length d l is:
r
r ⎡ I ⎤ ⎡ d l x R̂ ⎤
dH = ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ (A / m )
4 π
⎣ ⎦⎣ R 2
⎦
– where R̂ is a unit vector along the line from
r the current element
location to the measurement position of dH and R is the distance
between the current
r element location and the measurement
position of dH
• For an ensemble of current elements, the magnetic field is given
by: r
r ⎡ I ⎤ d l x R̂ Jean-Baptiste Biot
H=⎢ ⎥
⎣ 4π ⎦
∫l R 2 (1774-1862)
Felix Savart
(1791-1841)
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Magnetic Flux and the Absence of
Magnetic Charges
Magnetic Fiend of the Earth
• Law stating that there are no
magnetic charges:
r r r r
∫∫ B ⋅ dS = 0 ∇⋅B = 0
• Integrating the Magnetic Flux
Density over a closed surface
gives you the magnetic charge
enclosed by the surface (zero
magnetic charge)
• This is “Gauss’s Law” for magnetism

– Law of non-existence of magnetic monopoles
– A number of physicists have searched extensively for magnetic
monopoles
Find one and you will get a Nobel Prize
• Magnetic field lines always form closed continuous paths,
otherwise magnetic sources (charges) would exist
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Amperes Law
• Ampere’s law (for constant currents):
• If c is a closed contour bounded by the surface S , then

r r r r r r r
∫ H ⋅ d s = ∫∫ J ⋅ dS = I
c S
∇xH=J
r r
• The sign convention of the closed contour is that I and H
obey the “right hand rule”
Andre-Marie Ampere
r (1775-1836)
• The line integral of H around a closed path c
equals the current moving through that
surface bounded by the closed path

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Faraday’s Law
• A changing magnetic field induces an electric field.

r r
r r ∂B r r r ∂B
∫c E ⋅ d s = − ∫∫S ∂ t ⋅ dS ∇xE=−
∂t
• Induced electric fields are determined by:
r Michael Faraday
∂B (1791-1867)
−
∂t
• Magnetostatic fields are determined by :
r
μoJ

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Outline
• Introduction
– Displacement Current
– Continuity Equation
– Boundary Equations

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Electromagnetism (Pre Maxwell)
→ → →
Gauss’s Law ∫∫ D ⋅ d S = ∫∫∫ ρ dV ∇ ⋅ D =ρ
→ → →
Magnetic Charges
Do Not Exist ∫∫ B ⋅ d S = 0 ∇⋅B = 0
→ →
→ → ∂B → → → ∂B
Faradays’s Law ∫ E⋅ d s = − ∫∫ ∂ t ⋅ d S ∇×E = −
∂t
→ → r → →
Ampere’s Law
∫ H⋅ d s = J ⋅ d S →
∇×H =
→∂D r
+J
→ → → → ∂t
D = εE B = μH
• Surprise! These formulae are inconsistent!

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The “Pre-Maxwell Equations”
Inconsistency
• Inconsistency comes about because a well known property

of vectors: r r r
∇ ⋅ (∇ x A ) = 0
• Apply this to Faraday’s law
r
r ⎛ − ∂B ⎞
r r r
∇ ⋅ (∇ x E) = ∇ ⋅ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = − (
∂ r r
∇⋅B )
⎝ ∂t ⎠ ∂t
• The left side is equal to 0, because of the above noted

property of vectors r r
• The right side is 0, because ∇ ⋅ B = 0
• If you do the same operation to Ampere’s law …..Trouble..

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“How Displacement Current Came to Be”
r r
r r r ∇⋅J
∇ ⋅ (∇ x H ) =
μo
• The left side is 0; but the right side is not, generally 0
• If one applies Gauss’s law and the continuity equation:
r r ∂ρ
∇⋅J+ =0
∂t
• The above equation become:
r
⎛ ∂E ⎞
r r ∂ρ
∇⋅J = − = −
∂
(
r r
)
ε o ∇ ⋅ E = −∇ ⋅ ⎜⎜ ε o ⎟⎟
∂t ∂t ⎝ ∂t ⎠
• So Maxwell’s Equations become consistent, if we rewrite
Ampere’s law as: r
r r r ∂D Displacement current
∇ xH =J +
∂t
• A changing electric field induces an magnetic field
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Review - Electromagnetism
Maxwell’s Equations
Integral Form Differential Form
→ → →
∫∫ D ⋅ d S = ∫∫∫ ρ dV ∇ ⋅ D = 4πρ
→ → →
∫∫ B ⋅ d S = 0 ∇⋅B = 0
→ →
→ → ∂B → → → ∂B
∫ E⋅ d s = − ∫∫ ∂ t ⋅ d S ∇ ×E = −
∂t
→
⎛ → →⎞ →
→ →
⎜∂D ⎟ → → ∂D →
∫ H ⋅ d s = ∫∫ ⎜⎜ ∂ t ⎟⎟ ⋅ d S
+ J ∇×H =
∂t
+J
⎝ ⎠
James Clerk Maxwell → → → → Electric Field
D = εE B = μH y Magnetic Field
r → → → λ
Plane Wave Solution
No Sources
E(r , t ) = Eoe j( k ⋅ r − jwt )
Vacuum → r → →
Non-Conducting Medium B (r , t ) = B e k ⋅ r − jwt )
j (
o x z

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Boundary Equations
Dn1 is the
r normal component • In the limit, when the side surfaces
of D at the top of the
pillbox
approach 0, Gauss’s law reduces
to:
r r
Medium 1
n̂ ⋅ ( D1 − D 2 ) = σ s
n̂ Dn1
→ →
• And from
∫∫ B ⋅ d S = 0
Medium 2 r r
Dn 2 n̂ ⋅ (B1 − B 2 ) = 0
• The scalar form of these equations

is
→ → Dn1 − Dn 2 = σ s
∫∫ D ⋅ d S = ∫∫∫ ρ dV B n1 − B n 2 = 0

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Boundary Equations (continued)
H t 1 is the tangentialr
• In the limit, when the sides of the
component of H at the
top of the pillbox
rectangle approach 0, Ampere’s law
reduces to:
r r r
Medium 1
n̂ H t1 n̂ x ( H 1 − H 2 ) = J s
• And from Faraday’s law
Medium 2
Ht2 r r
n̂ x (E1 − E 2 ) = 0
• The scalar form of these equations

is r
At the Surface of a Perfect Conductor H t1 − H t 2 = J S
r r
n̂ x E = 0 n̂ ⋅ D = σ s E t1 − Et 2 = 0
r r r
n̂ x H = J s n̂ ⋅ B = 0
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Outline
• Introduction
– How they are generated
– Free Space Propagation
– Near Field / Far Field
– Polarization
– Propagation
Waveguides
Coaxial Transmission Lines
– Miscellaneous Stuff

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Radiation of Electromagnetic Waves
• Radiation is created by a time-varying current, or an

acceleration (or deceleration) of charge
• Two examples:
– An oscillating electric dipole
Two electric charges, of opposite sign, whose separation
oscillates accordingly:
x = d 0 sin ωt
– An oscillating magnetic dipole
A loop of wire, which is driven by an oscillating current of the
form:
I(t ) = I 0 sin ωt
• Either of these two methods are examples of ways to
generate electromagnetic waves

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Radiation from
an Oscillating Electric Dipole
t=0 3
+ t= T
Wave front 8
0 current
initiates - Wave front expands
- and forms closed loop
+
1
t= T
8 +
Wave front
-
expands
1
t= T
1 2
t= T -
4 - Field lines Wave front continues
Maximum +
current break from dipole 0 current to expand
+
T = Period of dipole oscillation
Illustration of propagation and detachment of electric field

lines from the dipole
Two charges in simple harmonic motion
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MATLAB Movies for Visualization
of Antenna Radiation with Time
• Generated via Finite Difference Time Domain (FDTD) solution

– We will study this method in a later lecture
• Two Cases:
– Single dipole / harmonic source
– Two dipoles / harmonic sources
Electric charges are needed to create an electromagnetic wave,

but are not required to sustain it

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Dipole Radiation in Free Space
Vertical Distance (m)

0.5
Dipole* 0
-0.5
*driven by -1
oscillating 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
source Horizontal Distance (m)
Courtesy of MIT Lincoln Laboratory
Used with Permission

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Two Antennas Radiating
Vertical Distance (m)

0.5
Dipole
1*
0
Dipole
2*
-0.5
*driven by
oscillating -1
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
sources Courtesy of MIT Lincoln Laboratory
(in phase) Horizontal Distance (m) Used with Permission

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Electromagnetic Waves
Courtesy Berkeley National Laboratory
Radar Frequencies

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Why Microwaves for Radar
Visible Transmission
Through Atmosphere Transmission vs. Wavelength
Three Infrared Windows
Transmission (%)
100
Window No Transmission
Heavy Through
Atmospheric For
Radio and Ionosphere
50 Attenuation
Microwaves
0
Wavelength 1 µm 1 mm 1m 1 km
Frequency 1 THz 1 GHz 1 MHz
The microwave region of the electromagnetic spectrum (~3 MHZ to

~ 10 GHZ) is bounded by:
– One region ( > 10 GHz) with very heavy attenuation by the gaseous
components of the atmosphere (except for windows at 35 & 95 GHz)
– The other region (< 3 MHz), whose frequency implies antennas too
large for most practical applications

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Electromagnetic Wave Properties and
Generation / Calculation
• A radiated electromagnetic wave consists of electric and magnetic fields
which jointly satisfy Maxwell’s Equations
• EM wave is derived by integrating source currents on antenna / target
– Electric currents on metal
– Magnetic currents on apertures (transverse electric fields)
• Source currents can be modeled and calculated

– Distributions are often assumed for simple geometries
– Numerical techniques are used for more rigorous solutions
(e.g. Method of Moments, Finite Difference-Time Domain Methods)
b
a/2
Electric Current a
Electric Field Distribution
on Wire Dipole y (~ Magnetic Current) in Slot
a/2
x
λ/4
λ/2
λ
3λ/2
2λ

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Antenna and Radar Cross Section
Analyses Use “Phasor Representation”
Harmonic Time Variation is assumed : ej ω t

r ~
[
E ( x, y , z; t ) = Re al E ( x, y , z ) e j ω t ]
Instantaneous Phasor
Electric Field
~ ~
Calculate Phasor : E ( x, y , z ) = ê E ( x, y , z ) e j α
Instantaneous r ~
Harmonic Field is : E ( x, y , z; t ) = ê E ( x, y , z ) cos (ωt + α )
Any Time Variation can be Expressed as a

Superposition of Harmonic Solutions by Fourier Analysis

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Field Regions
Reactive Near-Field Region Far-field (Fraunhofer) Region
R < 0.62 D λ 3
R > 2D 2 λ
• Energy is stored in vicinity of antenna • All power is radiated out
• Near-field antenna Issues • Radiated wave is a plane wave
– Input impedance • Far-field EM wave properties
– Mutual coupling – Polarization
– Antenna Gain (Directivity)
– Antenna Pattern
– Target Radar Cross Section
(RCS)
R r
E
Plane Wave
D r r̂ Propagates
H Radially Out
Reactive Near-Field Equiphase Wave Fronts

Region
Radiating Near-Field Far-Field (Fraunhofer) Courtesy of MIT Lincoln Laboratory

(Fresnel) Region Region Used with Permission

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Far-Field EM Wave Properties
• In the far-field, a spherical wave can be approximated by a plane

wave
z
• There are no radial field components in the far field r̂
φˆ
• The electric and magnetic fields are given by: θ
r
e − jkr
θˆ
r ff ro
E (r , θ, φ ) ≅ E ( θ, φ ) φ
y
r
r ff ro e − jkr 1 r ff x Standard
H (r , θ, φ ) ≅ H ( θ, φ ) = r̂ × E Spherical
r η Coordinate
System
μo
where η≡ = 377 Ω is the intrinsic impedance of free space Electric Field
εo z Magnetic Field
k = 2π λ is the wave propagation constant λ
x y

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Polarization of Electromagnetic Wave
• Defined by behavior of the electric field vector as it propagates in

time as observed along the direction of radiation
• Circular used for weather mitigation
• Horizontal used in long range air search to obtain reinforcement of
direct radiation by ground reflection E θ
r̂
Eθ Eφ
Major Axis
Minor Axis
– Linear
Eφ –Vertical or Horizontal
–Circular
Two components are equal in amplitude,
and separated in phase by 90 deg
Right-hand (RHCP) is CW above
Courtesy of MIT Lincoln Laboratory
Left-hand (LHCP) is CCW above
Eφ Used with Permission
– Elliptical
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Polarization
• Defined by behavior of the electric field vector as it propagates

in time θ Courtesy of MIT Lincoln Laboratory
Used with Permission
Electromagnetic
Wave Electric Field
φ
Magnetic Field
Vertical Horizontal
Linear Linear
(with respect (with respect
to Earth) E to Earth)
r
E
r
(For over-water surveillance) (For air surveillance looking upward)
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Circular Polarization (CP)
• Electric field components are equal in amplitude, separated in phase by 90 deg
• “Handed-ness” is defined by observation of electric field along propagation direction
• Used for discrimination, polarization diversity, rain mitigation
θ
A Propagation Direction
Into Paper
θ
Right-Hand
0 φ φ
(RHCP)
-A Left-Hand
-A 0 A (LHCP)
Phasors Instantaneous
Eθ = A Eθ ( t ) = A cos( wt ) Courtesy of
MIT Lincoln Laboratory Electric Field
Eφ = Ae − jπ 2
Eφ ( t ) = A sin( wt ) Used with Permission
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Propagation – Free Space
• Plane wave, free space solution to Maxwell’s Equations:

– No Sources → r → →
– Vacuum E(r , t ) = Eoe j( k ⋅ r − ωt )

– Non-conducting medium
→ r → →
B(r , t ) = B oe j( k ⋅ r − ω t )
• Most electromagnetic waves are generated from localized

sources and expand into free space as spherical wave.
• In the far field, when the distance from the source great,
they are well approximated by plane waves when they
impinge upon a target and scatter energy back to the radar

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Pointing Vector – Physical Significance
r
• The Poynting Vector, S , is defined as:
r r r
S≡ExH
• It is the power density (power per unit area) carried by an
electromagnetic wave
r r
• Since both E and H are functions of time, the average
power density is of greater interest, and is given by:
( )
r 1 r r*
S = Re E x H ≡ WAV
2
• For a plane wave in a lossless medium
r 1 r2 μo
S = E where η =
2η εo

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Modes of Transmission For
• Transverse electromagnetic (TEM) mode
– Magnetic and electric field vectors are transverse
(perpendicular) to the direction of propagation, k̂ , and
perpendicular to each other
– Examples (coaxial transmission line and free space TEM Mode
transmission, r
– TEM transmission lines have two parallel surfaces E
k̂
• Transverse electricr (TE) mode r
H
– Electric field, E , perpendicular to k̂
– No electric field in k̂ direction
Used for
Rectangular
• Transverse electric
r (TM) mode Waveguides
– Magnetic field,H, perpendicular to k̂
– No magnetic field in k̂ direction
• Hybrid transmission modes

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Guided Transmission of Microwave
Coaxial Cable
• Coaxial Cable (TEM mode)
– Used mostly for lower power and in low
frequency portion of microwave portion of
spectrum
Smaller cross section of coaxial cable more
prone to breakdown in the dielectric
Dielectric losses increase with increased
frequency Courtesy of Tkgd 2007
Rectangular Waveguide
• Waveguide (TE or TM mode)

– Metal waveguide used for High power radar
transmission
From high power amplifier in transmitter to
the antenna feed
– Rectangular waveguide is most prevalent
geometry
Courtesy of
Cobham Sensor Systems.
Used with permission.

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How Is the Size of Radar Targets
Characterized ?
r 2
Radar ES
Cross = σ = lim r
R→∞ 2
Section
EI
By MIT OCW
• If the incident electric field that impinges upon a target is

known and the scattered electric field is measured, then the
“radar cross section” (effective area) of the target may by
calculated.

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Units- dB vs. Scientific Notation
The relative value of two quantities (in power units), measured

on a logarithmic scale, is often expressed in deciBel’s (dB)
Example:
Signal Power
Signal-to-noise ratio (dB) = 10 log 10
Noise Power
Scientific
Factor of: Notation dB
10 101 10 0 dB = factor of 1
100 102 20 -10 dB = factor of 1/10
1000 103 30 -20 dB = factor of 1/100
.
. 3 dB = factor of 2
.
1,000,000 106 60 -3 dB = factor of 1/2

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Summary
• This lecture has presented a very brief review of those

electromagnetism topics that will be used in this radar
course
• It is not meant to replace a one term course on advanced

undergraduate electromagnetism that physics and
electrical engineering students normally take in their 3rd
year of undergraduate studies
• Viewers of the course may verify (or brush up on) their

skills in the area by doing the suggested review problems
in Griffith’s (see reference 1) and / or Ulaby’s (see reference
2) textbooks

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Acknowledgements
• Prof. Kent Chamberlin, ECE Department, University of New

Hampshire

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References
1. Griffiths, D. J., Introduction to Electrodynamics, Prentice

Hall, New Jersey, 1999
2. Ulaby. F. T., Fundamentals of Applied Electromagnetics,
Prentice Hall, New Jersey,5th Ed., 2007
3. Skolnik, M., Introduction to Radar Systems,McGraw-Hill,
New York, 3rd Ed., 2001
4. Jackson, J. D., Classical Electrodynamics, Wiley, New
Jersey, 1999
5. Balanis, C. A., Advanced Engineering Electromagnetics,
Wiley, New Jersey, 1989
6. Pozar, D. M., Microwave Engineering, Wiley, New York, 3rd
Ed., 2005

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Homework Problems
• Griffiths (Reference 1)
– Problems 7-34, 7-35, 7-38, 7-39, 9-9, 9-10, 9-11, 9-33
• Ulaby (Reference 2)
– Problems 7-1, 7-2, 7-10, 7-11, 7-25, 7-26
• It is important that persons, who view these lectures, be

knowledgeable in vector calculus and phasor notation. This
next problem will verify that knowledge
– Problem- Take Maxwell’s Equations and the continuity
equation, in integral form, and, using vector calculus
theorems, transform these two sets of equations to the
differential form and then transform Maxwell’s equations from
the differential form to their phasor form.

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Radar 2009 A - 2 Review of Electromagnetism3

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Radar Systems Engineering

Dr. Robert M. O’Donnell

IEEE New Hampshire Section

• A number of potential students may not have taken a 3rd

• If this relatively brief review is not sufficient, a formal course

IEEE New Hampshire Section

IEEE New Hampshire Section

• The magnitude of the electric force is proportional to the

• The electric field of a charge q1 , at P a distance r from

IEEE New Hampshire Section

• The electric field of a charge q1 , at a distance r from the

• Electric field of a point charge

IEEE New Hampshire Section

• Define: the “Electric Flux Density :

• Integrating the Electric Flux Density over a

• Using vector calculus, Gauss’s law may be

• The Biot-Savart law: r

• This is “Gauss’s Law” for magnetism

• Ampere’s law (for constant currents):

• If c is a closed contour bounded by the surface S , then

IEEE New Hampshire Section

• A changing magnetic field induces an electric field.

IEEE New Hampshire Section

IEEE New Hampshire Section

• Surprise! These formulae are inconsistent!

IEEE New Hampshire Section

• Inconsistency comes about because a well known property

• The left side is equal to 0, because of the above noted

• If you do the same operation to Ampere’s law …..Trouble..

IEEE New Hampshire Section

IEEE New Hampshire Section

• The scalar form of these equations

IEEE New Hampshire Section

• The scalar form of these equations

IEEE New Hampshire Section

• Radiation is created by a time-varying current, or an

IEEE New Hampshire Section

T = Period of dipole oscillation

Illustration of propagation and detachment of electric field

• Generated via Finite Difference Time Domain (FDTD) solution

Electric charges are needed to create an electromagnetic wave,

IEEE New Hampshire Section

Vertical Distance (m)

IEEE New Hampshire Section

Vertical Distance (m)

IEEE New Hampshire Section

Courtesy Berkeley National Laboratory

IEEE New Hampshire Section

Frequency 1 THz 1 GHz 1 MHz

The microwave region of the electromagnetic spectrum (~3 MHZ to

IEEE New Hampshire Section

• Source currents can be modeled and calculated

IEEE New Hampshire Section

Harmonic Time Variation is assumed : ej ω t

Any Time Variation can be Expressed as a

IEEE New Hampshire Section

Reactive Near-Field Equiphase Wave Fronts

Radiating Near-Field Far-Field (Fraunhofer) Courtesy of MIT Lincoln Laboratory

IEEE New Hampshire Section

• In the far-field, a spherical wave can be approximated by a plane

IEEE New Hampshire Section

• Defined by behavior of the electric field vector as it propagates in

• Defined by behavior of the electric field vector as it propagates