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Calculus
in Chemical Engineering Yolanda Brondial
A4.1. FUNCTION
A function is a set of ordered pairs such that no two distinct pairs have the same first
coordinates. A function is represented as y = f (x), where x is the independent variable and y,
the dependent variable.
The set of all admissible values of x is called the domain of the function and the set of
all resulting values of y are called the range of the function.
2. Step Function – a function represented by two or more functions taken as one function.
An example is :
1 x if x 1
f ( x) 2
x if x 1
3. Greatest Integer Function – defined by [x] which is equal to the largest integer that is
less than or equal to x. For example:
[5] = 5; [5.9] = 5; 3 ; 2 1 ; 13 1
4. Even Function – If x is replaced by –x in the function and the function remains the same
or does not change, then the function is an even function and it is symmetrical with
respect to the y-axis. It means f(-x) = f(x).
5. Odd Function – If x is replaced by –x in the function and the function f(-x) = -f(x), then
the function is an odd function. This function is symmetrical with the origin.
7. Decreasing Function – a function is called decreasing on I if f(-x1) > f(x2) whenever x1 <
x2 in I. This means that as the value of x increases, the value of y decreases.
8. Linear Function – when y is a linear function of x, the graph of the function is a line and
the linear function is represented as y = mx + b where m is the slope of the line and b is
the y-intercept.
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Philippine Handbook Differential
Calculus
in Chemical Engineering Yolanda Brondial
9. Polynomial Function – a function P is called a polynomial if
P( x ) a n x n a n 1 x n 1 ..... a 2 x 2 a1 x a 0
where n is a nonnegative integer and the number a0, a1, a2…… an are constants
called the coefficient of the polynomial.
P( x)
f ( x) where P and Q are polynomials
Q( x)
11. Composite Function – Given two functions f and g, the composite function f g (also
called the composite of f and g) is defined by ( f g )( x) f g ( x) . The notation f g
means that the function g is applied first and then f is applied second. In general,
f g g f .
A4.2. LIMITS
Let f(x) be a function of x and a be a constant. Suppose there is a number L such that,
to make the value of f(x) as close to L as maybe desired, it is sufficient to choose a value of x
close enough to a, so we may say that the limit of f(x) as x approaches a is L.
lim f ( x) L
x a
This limit is obtained whether we choose a value close to a but greater than a or close
to a but less than a.
1. One-Sided Limits
The xlim
a
f ( x) is the right-hand limit of f(x) as x approaches a or it is the limit of f(x)
as x approaches a from the right. This simply means that the value of x is greater than a.
The xlim
a
f ( x) is the left-hand limit of f(x) as x approaches a or it is the limit of f(x) as
x approaches a from the left. This simply means that the value of x is less than a.
2. Infinite Limits
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Philippine Handbook Differential
Calculus
in Chemical Engineering Yolanda Brondial
On the other hand, the lim f ( x ) means that the values of f(x) can be made
xa
3. Limits at Infinity
the values of f(x) can be made arbitrarily close to L by taking x sufficiently large.
Similarly, xlim f ( x) L means that the values of f(x) can be made arbitrarily close
NOTE: The line y = L is called a horizontal asymptote of the curve y = f(x) if either
lim f ( x) L or lim f ( x ) L .
x x
LIMIT LAWS
A4.3. CONTINUITY
A function is said to be continuous if the following conditions are satisfied: (1) f(a)
lim f ( x) exists and (3) f(a) = lim f ( x) .
exists, (2) x a xa
When any of the above conditions is not satisfied, the function is said to be
discontinuous.
Types of Discontinuity
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Philippine Handbook Differential
Calculus
in Chemical Engineering Yolanda Brondial
1. Missing Point Discontinuity – this is also called removable because the discontinuity can
be removed by factoring. It is obtained when
lim f ( x) exists
(b) x a
A4.4. DERIVATIVE
f x x f x
f ( x) lim
x0 x
y f x x f ( x )
lim lim
x 0 x x 0 x
y dy
but lim
x 0 x dx
dy f x x f ( x)
lim
dx x0 x
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Philippine Handbook Differential
Calculus
in Chemical Engineering Yolanda Brondial
dy cos x x cos x
lim
dx x0 x
1 cos x 0 sin x
1
but lim and lim
x0 x x0 x
dy
(cos x)(0) sin x (1) sin x
dx
d (c )
1. 0 ; c = constant (A4 – 8)
dx
d (u n ) du
2. nu n 1 (A4 – 9)
dx dx
n
d (x )
nx n 1 (A4 – 10)
dx
d (cu n ) cd (u n ) du
3. cnu n 1 (A4 – 11)
dx dx dx
d df ( x) dg ( x) dh( x)
4. f ( x ) g ( x) h( x) (A4 – 12)
dx dx dx dx
d du dv dw
u v w (A4 – 13)
dx dx dx dx
d (uv) dv du
5. u v (A4 – 14)
dx dx dx
d (uvw) dw dv du
uv uw vw (A4 – 15)
dx dx dx dx
du dv
6.
d uv v u
(A4 – 16)
dx 2 dx
dx v
3. Implicit Differentiation
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Philippine Handbook Differential
Calculus
in Chemical Engineering Yolanda Brondial
Some functions cannot be expressed explicitly as one variable in terms of another
variable as in the example below. In such case, we can use the method of implicit
differentiation. This consists of differentiating both sides of the equation with respect to x and
dy
then solving the resulting equation for y’ or .
dx
dy 2 5 x
Example: Find of 3x y 2 xy y 5
dx
dy
yx
dy dy dx 0
6x 5 y 4 2x 2y 2
dx dx y
dy dy dy
6 xy 2 5 y 6 2 xy 2 2 y3 y x
dx dx dx
dy
dx
5 y 6 2 xy 2 x y 2 y 3 6 xy 2
dy
y 1 2 y 2 6 xy
dx 5 y 6 2 xy 2 x
A. Trigonometric Functions
d sin u du
1. cos u (A4 – 17)
dx dx
d cos u du
2. sin u (A4 – 18)
dx dx
d tan u du
3. sec 2 u (A4 – 19)
dx dx
d cot u du
4. csc 2 u (A4 – 20)
dx dx
d sec u du
5. sec u tan u (A4 – 21)
dx dx
d csc u du
6. csc u cot u (A4 – 22)
dx dx
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Philippine Handbook Differential
Calculus
in Chemical Engineering Yolanda Brondial
1.
d sin 1 u
du
dx (A4 – 23)
dx 1 u2
2.
d cos 1 u
du
dx (A4 – 24)
dx 1 u2
3. d
tan 1
u
du
dx2
(A4 – 25)
dx 1 u
4. d
cot 1
u du
dx2 (A4 – 26)
dx 1 u
5.
d sec 1 u
du
dx (A4 – 27)
dx 2
u u 1
6.
d csc 1 u
du
dx (A4 – 28)
dx u u2 1
C. Logarithmic Functions
d log a u log a e du
1. ; a 0, a 1 (A4 – 29)
dx u dx
d ln u 1 du
2. (A4 – 30)
dx u dx
D. Exponential Functions
1.
d au
a u ln a
du
(A4 – 31)
dx dx
2.
de u
eu
du
(A4 – 32)
dx dx
E. Hyperbolic Functions
d sinh u du
1. cosh u (A4 – 33)
dx dx
d cosh u du
2. sinh u (A4 – 34)
dx dx
d tanh u du
3. sec h 2 u (A4 – 35)
dx dx
d coth u du
4. csc h 2 u (A4 – 36)
dx dx
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Philippine Handbook Differential
Calculus
in Chemical Engineering Yolanda Brondial
d sec hu du
5. sec hu tanh u (A4 – 37)
dx dx
d csc hu du
6. csc hu coth u (A4 – 38)
dx dx
du
1.
d sinh 1 u dx
(A4 – 39)
dx u2 1
du
2. 1
d cosh u
dx ;
u>1 (A4 – 40)
dx u2 1
du
3.
d tanh u 1
dx 2
; |u| < 1 (A4 – 41)
dx 1 u
du
4. d coth 1 u ; |u| > 1 (A4 – 42)
dx 2
dx 1 u
du
5.
d sec h 1u
dx
dx u 1 u2
(A4 – 43)
du
6.
d csc h 1u
dx (A4 – 44)
dx u u2 1
Example: Find
dy
dx
for y sin x 2 5 ln 3 1 x 2
dy
dx
sin x 2 5 3
1
2
1
3
1 x2 2 3
2 x ln 3 1 x 2 cos x 2 52 x
1 x
2 x sin x 2 5
ln 3 1 x 2 cos x 2 5
3 1 x 2 3
dy e cos 4 x
Example: Find for y
dx 34 x
dy 3 4 x e cos 4 x sin 4 x 4 e cos 4 x 3 4 x ln 3 4
dx 34 x
2
A4 - 8
Philippine Handbook Differential
Calculus
in Chemical Engineering Yolanda Brondial
dy
43 e
4x
sin 4 x ln 3
cos 4 x
dx 3
4x 2
dy 4e cos 4 x sin 4 x ln 3
dx 34 x
ln y x ln x
1 dy 1
x ln x
y dx x
dy
y 1 ln x
dx
dy
x x 1 ln x
dx
6. Higher Derivatives
dy
The first derivative of y f (x) is which is also expressed as D x y or y’ or
dx
f’(x). The derivative of the first derivative is the second derivative and is denoted by
d2y
D x2 y y f ( x ) .
dx 2
The first derivative is interpreted as the slope of the original curve while the second
derivative can be interpreted as the rate of change of the slope of the original curve. In
general, the second derivative can be interpreted as a range of change of a rate of change.
The most familiar example of this is acceleration.
If s f (t ) is the position function of an object that moves in a straight line, its first
derivative represents the velocity v f (t ) . The instantaneous rate of change of velocity
ds
with respect to time is called the acceleration a f (t ) . Thus if s f (t ) and v ,
dt
dv d ds d 2 s
a . The acceleration is the second derivative of the position function.
dt dt dt dt 2
A4 - 9
Philippine Handbook Differential
Calculus
in Chemical Engineering Yolanda Brondial
Some of the most important application of derivatives are optimization problems, in
which the optimal value or the best value is obtained. This refers to finding the maximum or
minimum values of a function.
Y
C y f (x)
G
A F
E
D
B X
a c d b
In Figure A4-1, the critical points are obtained by getting the first derivative y’ and
equating it to zero to find the x values of the CP’s. There are two tests to determine whether
the critical point is a maximum or a minimum.
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Philippine Handbook Differential
Calculus
in Chemical Engineering Yolanda Brondial
c) If y’ does not change in sign, i.e., f’ is positive on both sides of CP or negative on
both sides of CP, then there is no maximum or minimum point at CP.
It is a point on the curve y = f(x) where there is a change in the direction of the
concavity of the curve. It means that the curve changes from concave downward to concave
upward or from concave downward. It is obtained by getting y” of the curve and equating it
to zero to find the x-values of the points of inflection. It is a point where y’ does not change
in sign just before and just after it. In figure A4-1 above points E, F and G can be verified as
points of inflection by two methods.
Choose a point just before and just after the point of inflection and substitute into y’ of
the curve. If y’ doe not change, i.e., positive to positive or negative to negative, then the
point is really a point of inflection.
Choose a point just before and just after the point of inflection and substitute into y” of
the curve. If y” changes from positive to negative or from negative to positive, the point is
really a point of inflection.
If the graph of y = f(x) lies above all its tangents on an interval I, then it is called
concave upward on I. This means that the slope of the tangent line as in Figure A4-2a
increases.
If the graph of y = f(x) lies below all its tangents on an interval I, then it is called concave
downward on I. This means the slope of the tangent line as shown in Figure A4-2b
decreases.
Concavity Test
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Philippine Handbook Differential
Calculus
in Chemical Engineering Yolanda Brondial
1. If y” > 0 for all x in I, then the graph of f is concave upward on I.
2. If y” < 0 for all x in I, then the graph of f is concave downward on I.
Y B Y
B
A
A
X X
0
Forms of the types , , 0 , ,1 , 0 0 and 0 are called indeterminate
0
0
forms. L’Hospital’s Theorem is used for or form. According to this theorem, if
0
f ( x) 0 f ( x) f ( x)
lim or , then the lim lim . This means that the limit of the
x 0 g ( x ) 0 x 0 g ( x ) x0 g ( x )
quotient is equal to the limit of the derivative of the numerator over the derivative of the
denominator.
z f x x, y f x, y
f x x, y lim (A4 – 45)
x x0 x
If y varies while x is held fixed, z is a function of y and its derivative with respect to y
z f x, y y f x, y
is f y x, y lim (A4 – 46)
y y 0 y
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Philippine Handbook Differential
Calculus
in Chemical Engineering Yolanda Brondial
13. Geometric Interpretation of Partial Derivatives
Z Z
z z
x y
B
B
Y A Y
A
C
X C X
(a) (b)
Figure A4-3. Geometric Interpretation of Partial Derivatives
Suppose the function z = f(x,y) is graphed as shown in Figure A4-3. As x varies while
z
y is fixed, then is represented as the slope of the tangent line to the curve BC of the
x
z
shaded section ABC in Figure A4-3a. Similarly, as y varies while x is fixed, then y is
represented as the slope of the tangent line to the curve BC of the shaded section ABC as
shown in Figure A4-3b.
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Philippine Handbook Differential
Calculus
in Chemical Engineering Yolanda Brondial
16. Chain Rule
z z
If z f ( x, y ) and
and y are continuous and that x f ( r , s ) and y f (r , s ) .
x
x x y y
If , , and all exist, then z can be expressed as a function of r and s and
r s r s
the following formulas hold.
z z x z y
r x r y r
(A4 – 47)
z z x z y
s x s y s
(A4 – 48)
f g x, y f g x, y
If f is a differentiable function of a single variable x such that y f (x) and f is
defined implicitly by the equation F ( x, y ) 0 , then if F is differentiable and F ( x, y ) 0
dy F ( x, y )
x (A4 – 49)
dx F y x, y
concavity test, A4 - 12
continuity, A4 - 3
critical point, A4 - 10
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Philippine Handbook Differential
Calculus
in Chemical Engineering Yolanda Brondial
derivative, A4 - 4
higher derivatives, A4 - 9
differential calculus, A4 - 1
differentiation, A4 - 4
domain, A4 - 1
function, A4 - 1
absolute-value, A4 - 1
exponential, A4 - 7
hyperbolic, A4 - 7
logarithmic, A4 - 7
onometric, A4 - 6
step, A4 - 1
transcendental, A4 - 6
implicit differentiation, A4 - 6
limits, A4 - 2
laws, A4 - 7
points of inflection., A4 - 10
range, A4 - 1
A4 - 15