THE HIGHWAYS AND ITS DEVELOPMENT

1-1 Brief History of Roads

Early roads with hard surfaces were found to have been constructed in Mesopotamia as early as 3,500 BC. Stone
surface roads found in the island of Crete in the Mediterranean were also found to have been similarly constructed in the
Western Hemisphere by the Mayans, Aztecs and the Incas of central and south America.

The early road system were constructed primarily for the following purposes:

1. For the movement of armies in their conquest or for defense against invasion.
2. For transport of food and trade of goods between towns and cities.

The Romans, who discovered and introduced the use of cement, expanded their vast empire through an extensive
road network radiating in many directions from the capital city Rome. Many of the roads that were built by the Romans
are still existing even after 2,000 years.

The Roman roads were characteristically laid on three courses:

1. A layer of small broken stones.

2. A layer of small stones mixed with mortar and firmly compacted.
3. A wearing course of massive stone blocks properly set and bedded with cement mortar.

In the 17th century under the reign of Napoleon the Great, France made a great stride in road building, Jerome
Tresaguet, (1716-1796) the famous French Engineer, introduced new methods of construction and maintenance of stone
roads. He improved the crown, the drainage and the grade of the road including the stone foundation by reducing the
depth of broken stones to 25 centimeters. Tresaguet made it possible for Napoleon to build the massive highway in France.
He was accredited as the father of modern road building.

Thirty years later, a Scottish engineer born in Westminster Abbey, Thomas Telford (1757-1834), the president and
founder of the Institute of Civil Engineer, introduced some improvements in the construction methods of Jerome
Tresaguet. The road foundation course of Telford was made of stone having 3-inches minimum thickness, 5-inch breadth
and 7-inch height. Smaller stones were driven by mauls on top voids and the surface was trued by breaking the projecting
points. Telford employed a flat subgrade providing a slight crown using stones of varying sizes.

England followed the ongoing highway development in France. The Macadam road concept which was named after
John Louden Mac Adam (1755-1836), another famous Scottish Engineer road builder and contemporary of Telford, was
developed and widely accepted. The invention of road building equipment enhances the development of roads. In 1858,
Eli Blake invented the first stone crusher at the same period, a steam road roller was invented in France. The road roller
weighing 30 tons was invented by Aveling and Porter.

1-2 Early Laws that Governed the Roads

The early Saxon Laws imposes three mandatory duties for their people to perform, namely:

1. To repair the roads and bridges.

2. To repair the castles and the garrisons.
3. To aid repel invasions.
After the Normans conquest of England, it was declared that:

1. The king’s highway is sacred. Anybody who occupy any portion thereof by exceeding the boundaries of his land is
considered to have encroached on the king himself.
2. The roads are for public use. All persons who wishes to use them may do so.
3. Property owners adjoining the roads were required to drain the road, clip any bordering hedges and refrain from
plowing and planting trees, shrubs or bushes closer than the specified distance from the center of the road.

It was made clear that the government concept towards the use of roads includes upholding the right of the public to
use them without interference. However, since the road is intended for the benefit of the people, goes with it their duty
to protect and maintain the roadway.

1-3 Highway in the Philippines

In the early part of 1900, transportation in this country depended largely on trail, water, railroad, earthy road and
partially graveled roads. Highway in the Philippines was practically non-existence and is nothing more than a dream to
most Filipinos.

The American government in the Philippines initiated most of the development of the roadway system which during
the Spanish era were mostly trails and earth roads. It was the Americans who initiated the construction of the then very
popular Macadam roads to connect towns and provinces in the country.

After world war II, the newly independent Philippine government gave special attention to the development of the
roads through finances coming from the war damage reparations paid by the Japanese government and other financial
aid extended by the U.S. government. The newly installed government embarked on a massive road building program
were previously constructed macadam roads were treated with hot bituminous asphalt.

Twenty years later, major highways and expressways were constructed with financial assistance and loans from the
World Bank and the IMF. The Philippine government’s industrialization program plus the boom in vehicles import which
was flooding the roadways needs an impact projects to boost the economy necessitated the loan from foreign banks.

The year 1950 to the early 1980 was considered as the automobile age. Cars which were considered as a rich man’s
toy was a vital means in transporting persons and goods. Under the new government concept, development is to get the
farmers out of the mud. It was during this period that road construction and improvement becomes a matter of priority
to the government with a slogan saying that “This nation is on Wheels”.

Modern highways development continued alongside with the technical advances. Development in equipment and
management techniques have revolutionized construction and maintenance methods. Advanced knowledge in the field
of soils and various highway materials including designs were adopted for reliability and economic considerations.

1-4 Planning Difficulties

In the planning and design of roads and highways, Engineers are conscious of the need for roads and highways to be
safe, useful and attractive. They are also aware of the need to provide roadside improvements, erosion control and noise
abatement. Moreso, Engineers are much aware that roads and highways are vital to the development of the country,
However, certain difficulties are confronting the highways and transportation planners and administrators as well in the
planning of roads and highways which may be categorized into three aspects.
 1. Financial
2. Political
3. Technical

The present economic condition plus the sky high foreign debt of the government is a big problem in generating funds
needed for road projects. Highway development plans are sometimes shelved temporarily for lack of funds.

Comprehensive roads and highways development plans which are the results of long and careful studies by our
technical experts are twisted or flexed down by political muscles to suit their own political interests. Road and highway
project plans are either deferred, amended or realigned for political reasons. Different laws with conflicting purposes and
procedures impede or obstruct implementation causing delay or no action at all.

Most Politicians poach their dirty fingers in road projects which is their main source of political funds. Listing of
projects given to the District Engineers Office has the corresponding name of favored contractors for the district engineer
to implement if he wants to stay a day longer in his district office. Rational planning is no longer an objective process based
on training and expertise concerning the actual needs of the people but rather a political decision. This is so because
politics is the power that controls financing, appointments and decisions.

The average annual daily traffic as measured on motor vehicles travel have tremendously increased to more than
double or triple than that of the previous year. Thus, planning are faced with the problem of defining the role of the
automobile and other motor vehicles such as the highways based transport and other means of transporting people and
goods in the urban areas.

As a consequence, public confidence has tremendously eroded not only in the government’s ability to solve these
problems but also in the proficiency of the technical men to offer solutions. Planners of today are operating in a world of
rapid change and uncertainly in the political arena where decisions by magic or oracles carry more weight than those
based on professional training, expertise and experience. Thus, our professionals more particularly the technical men
seems to have lost confidence in themselves or in the solutions that they offer.

1-5 Highway Programming

There are three separable sets of inputs involved in highway programming, namely:

1. Economic – which deals with the questions of resources.

2. Financial – the question of who pays and who spends, how much and where.
3. Political and Administration – This involves decision making.

In highway programming, projects are prioritized. That is, those that are most economically viable are selected if they
fit into the financial capability and political criteria. Projects that failed on either the financial or political criteria shall be
abandoned or modified for substitute or alternative but shall pass rigorous tests.

Highway Programming Approaches

1. Financial resources. This is either short or long range by the agencies function such as construction, operation and
maintenance.
2. Recognition of the legislative and administrative desire and constraint.
3. Tentative priorities based on economic analysis, critical situations, present, and future expected level of traffic
and claims based on political subdivisions.
4. Providing a continuity of route system and coordination with other transportation mode.
 5. Selection of projects, availability of labor and materials and the climatic conditions.
6. Scheduling the project implementation in coordination with other agencies, acquiring right of way and making
final plan and specifications.
7. Budgetary reserve to cover emergencies such as floods and other natural disasters.

The Direct Effects of Highway Construction and its Use

A. Quantifiable market value

1. Cost of highway which refers to the following
a. Planning cost
b. Right of way appropriation
c. Construction cost
d. Maintenance cost
e. Operating cost

2. Cost benefits to highway users

a. Vehicle operating cost (including congestions cost). Net increase or decrease in costs of vehicle
operation per year.
b. Travel time savings (commercial). Net increase or decrease in travel time multiplied by the peso value
of commercial time.
c. Motorist safety (economic cost accident). Not change in expected number of accidents times the
average cost per accident per year.
B. Non-Quantifiable Non-Market Value
1. Cost benefits to Highway user such as:
a. Motorists safety. – Accident cost of pain suffering and deprivation.
b. Comfort and conversion. – Discomfort, inconvenience and strain of driving
c. Aesthetic form driving viewpoint. – Benefit of pleasing views and scenery from road.

C. Quantifiable Non-Market Value

1. Cost benefits to Highway users. Traveling time savings. (Non-commercial). Minutes save per vehicles trip.

1-6 The Planner

Before any project comes into reality, it has to undergo rigorous and careful studies involving participation of several
line agencies that are involved. Where proposals may be opposed or questioned by other agencies or in the political arena,
the planner has to appoint a coordinator or catalyst to work out in exchanging information as to the needs, goals and
alternative solutions of those who are affected and to incorporate them into the planning and decision making. Where
the planners are to act as coordinator or catalyst or to work as community advocates, they should not be either partisan
or advocate to a particular solution. Their role is:

1. To provide technical and organizational support.

2. To receive input or information on the needs and goals of affected persons groups or agencies.
3. To incorporate the above to the planning and decision making.

The planner’s role must be of a clarifier, expediters, conciliators and impartial negotiators. The myth of rationality
must be avoided because they might believe that as professionals, they are uniquely super qualified to judge what is best
for the society in their field of expertise and competence. They must accept that their personal value and goals are
different from some of the other participants.

The functions of the planners are:

1. To prepare the preliminary design. The scoop of the study and the initial work program, know the basic needs,
plans and objectives of affected persons.
2. Exploration of alternatives. Data gathering by contacting representatives of other agencies involved.
3. Detailed analysis. Prepare detailed plan for appropriate community interaction.
4. Secure formal ratification by the local officials and document the results. If nothing goes wrong, this step is final.

Good ethics demand that planner should understand that their role is to provide knowledge and unbiased information.
To be partisan and emotionally involved will only jeopardize their credibility. This might give them the feeling of personal
defeat and disillusionment with their profession if the solution that they offer are only thrown to the waste basket.

1-7 Community Involvement

In a democratic form of government, the public has the right to hear and be heard, much more participate in public
planning and decision making such that public hearing should be conducted before major decisions are made.

It is common practice that public hearing are held after all major decisions are made and approved. Public hearings
have become information forum for public to know what the government want for them rather than what the people
want from the government. Ideally, public hearings should involve the public from the beginning of the planning stage of
a proposed project, thus:

1. Solicit the cooperation and support of the public officials, non-government organizations, and influential persons
and conservative groups of the community.
2. Create a special staff to carry out this function.
3. Community leadership opportunity to participate continuously in the planning stages.
4. Organize and develop skilled persons to conduct group meeting, workshops, hearing and other related activities.

1-8 Highway Economy

A country who will not avail of loans or grant from foreign financing institutions will not feel the great impact of
their infrastructure projects, if domestic income through taxes alone will be depended on. Financing institution such as
the World Bank insists that projects to which they make grants or loans be justified primarily on the economic basis.
According to W. Gillespe, professor of Civil Engineering at the Union College.

“A minimum of expenses is of course, highly desirable; but the road which is truly the cheapest is not the one which
has the least money, but the one which makes the most profitable returns in proportion to the amount expended upon it.”

The intent of expenditures for highways and public transportations are enumerated as follows:
1. To augment the country’s level of economy.
2. To provide easy access to working place.
3. To facilitate public services; police, fire protection etc.
4. To facilitate medical care, schooling and delivery of related basic services.
5. To give landowner benefits to transportation and increase property assessment.
6. Benefit to motor vehicle users through lower cost of operations and maintenance.
7. Benefit in time saving.
 8. Less road accident.
9. To give maximum comfort and east of travel.

Most of the country’s expenditures for highways and public transport facilities are based on the principle of “Pay
as you go” meaning, the road appropriations and expenditures depend on tax collections.
Legally, the appropriation and expenditures of taxes being the people’s contribution to the government must be
prorated proportionally to the different provinces municipalities and cities in terms of infrastructure projects and not just
be concentrated in specific place. Under that principle, progress of the country would be very slow considering the meager
amount each province will get, and the infrastructure it will accomplish. Hence, borrowing from foreign banks is the
ultimate solutions of the government to deliver impact infrastructure projects to boost the economy and move quickly
forward.

Arguments of those who Favors Borrowings are:

1. The need is immediate to have instant infrastructures.

2. No impact project will be seen because the “pay as you go” fund is scattered throughout the entire road system
where the situation is most critical.
3. Borrowings encourage investors because of fast progress.

Counter Arguments of those Against Financing Infrastructures through Borrowing:

1. Borrowing may impair the credit rating of government agencies obstructing other more important improvements.
2. If future income is committed to pay past improvements, no more funds available to maintain the existing system.
3. With much amount available temptation is there to over build and recklessly spend extravagantly.
4. Interest of the loan is a big waste of public funds.

1-9 Computation and Survey

Early engineering approach to highway and transportation problems were based on the results of their
computations with the aid of slide rule and replaced by calculator machine. This method is time consuming and was totally
discarded in the advent of computers and its appurtenances.

Today, most of the agencies have their own data processing and reporting is done through computer networks.
Engineering approach to highway and transportation problems are done through computer output from the simple to
complex matters.
Computers can do processing data for many problems like:
1. Projections and statistical studies of traffic and transit passengers.
2. Economic analysis.
3. Financial programming.
4. Geometric.
5. Bridges.
6. Pavement design and maintenance.
7. Pavement management.
8. Scheduling for design and construction.
9. Computation of earthworks and other quantities both for planning and payment of contractors.

Computers are provided with stereo plotter for map making and location identification. The computer base
interactive graphics could present problems into the screen, focused on technical matters and management decisions
making data. Various computer programs are abundantly available to solve the repetitive highway and transportation
problems.
The computer graphics display a motorist view of the highway so that the engineer could make appropriate
treatment of certain portions as transition from cut to fills, route, location, traffic, and transportation planning and
accident analysis.
The interactive graphics is used without computer, referred to as environmental simulation. A remote controlled
television camera passes through small scales physical module of the area or route. The passage is recorded in the tape
and the playback will show impression similar to that of the walker on the road or the vehicle driver.
Engineering today, with the aid of sophisticated computers and its appurtenances, engineering practice today is
not as difficult as the time of slide rule era. Computers are less prone to computational error if correctly programmed. On
the other hand, too much reliance on this machine might be a trap for the uninformed to assume that the program inputs
are absolutely correct. Deeper analysis and professional attention to computer program is the key to accurate results that
could be the basis for good decisions.

1-10 Remote Sensing

Remote sensing is otherwise called Photogrammetry. It is the science and art of obtaining measurements by
means of photography. Photogrammetry is based on aerial photographs for engineers working data on:
1. Locations.
2. Planning.
3. Geometric design.
4. Right of way.
5. Traffic studies.
6. Drainage.
7. Soil classifications and identifications.
8. Earthwork measurements.
9. Material location.
10. Pavement condition survey.

1-11 Photogrammetric Mapping

A vertical aerial photograph taken by a camera pointed almost straight downward is the most useful mapping for
highway purposes. The area to be covered is photographed in parallel runs with the individual pictures lapped in the
direction of the flight (end lap). For stereoscopic uses, the following must be considered:
1. End lap must be greater than one half the picture width specified not less than 55% nor more than 65% in
order that the center of one picture is included in both adjacent photograph.
2. Side lap should average at 25% with less than 15. More than 35% is unacceptable.
3. For making map purposes, the variable includes the focal length of the aerial camera, the desired combination
of map scale and contour interval, and the ration of map scale to photograph scale.

Instruments used in converting data from aerial photographs into maps are:
1. The Kelsh and Balplex stereoscopic plotters.
2. The wild autograph
3. The Kern PG2
4. The Zeuiss Stereoplanigraph
Features that cannot be identified on the photographs are located by ground measurements. Any important
points to be included on the ground surveys are marked for easy identification on the photograph. Accuracy of the ground
control triangulation network is when scaled with the aerial photographs. The third order triangulation is acceptable in
rural areas, and the second order triangulation for urban locations wherein the maximum errors in distance are 1 to 5000
and 1 to 10000 respectively. An accurate angular triangulation measurement is easily obtained by the use of Modern
Theodolites. The distance measurement is carried out by an electronic distant measuring device (EDM that employ infra-
red light beams, microwave or laser light.
The Photogrammetric technique coupled with digitizer, produces digital terrain models. The horizontal and
vertical positions of the ground surface, and other photographic features are directly transferred from the matched aerial
photograph to a computer data bank. The information is recalled and the computer is programmed to develop showing
the following:
1. Profiles
2. Cross sections
3. Cut and fill earthwork quantities
4. The motorist view of the road
With photographs and computer record data, a separate map could be plotted easily like:
1. The highways
2. The drainage
3. Housing
4. Land use and zoning
5. Property assessment
The ground field survey is done only as supplemental in completing the details of those that could not be produced
in the photographs.

1-12 Orthophographs
An orthophograph is an aerial photograph corrected forscale and tilt. When the center portion are skillfully
matched and copied, they appear to be a single photograph that shows far more detail than maps. The uncorrected or
partially corrected photographs are combined to form a mosaic, considered better for engineering accuracy and right of
way purposes.

1-13 Colored Photographs

Aerial colored photograph presents a more detailed and precise information on traffic and parking studies. It gives
clear information of the geological conditions, land use, source of materials, surfaces and sub-surface drainage. An oblique
photograph is used for special studies particularly, where the ground condition is almost flat or where cliffs are to steep
that a black and white photograph could not give sufficient details.

1-14 Location of the Proposed Highway

Early roads started from trails. Movements of people and the use of motor vehicles prompted road agencies to
improve road alignment minimizing sharp curves. Road width was standardized and grades were flattened.
New highway locations are blended with curvature grades and other roadway elements to offer; comfortable easy
driving free flowing traffic arteries, comply with the rules on safety standards.
To improve the highways, there should be tentative plan as to the control, and minimum design speed, roadway
cross sections, and maximum slope with the following considerations:
1. Reliable cost estimate.
2. Character and hourly distribution of traffic.
 3. Economic and community and community benefit factor.
4. Available of funds.
Location surveys in the rural areas are divided into 4 stages.
1. Reconnaissance survey of the entire area between the terminal points.
2. Reconnaissance survey of all feasible routes.
3. Preliminary survey of the best route.
4. Location survey, staking of the right of way, the highway and the structure for construction.

Activities
Under stage l Reconnaissance survey of the entire area
1. Stereoscopic examination of small scaled aerial photographs of the area supplemented by available
maps.
2. Determination control of photography and land use.
3. Location of feasible routes based on photographs and maps.
Under stage II Reconnaissance survey of feasible route:
1. Stereoscopic examination of large-scale aerial photographs of each route.
2. Determination of the detailed control of photograph and land use.
3. Preparation of route maps by Photogrammetric methods.
4. Location and comparison of feasible routes on photographs and maps.
5. Selection of the best route.
Stage III Preliminary Survey of the best route.
1. Preparation of large scale topographic maps using the route photograph and Photogrammetric methods of
preparation of large scale topographic maps by ground survey guided by best route location made on
photographs in the second stage.
2. Design of the preliminary location
Stage IV Location Survey
Staking of the right of way and the highway and structures for construction.

1-15 Location of Bridges

Highways and Bridges have but one purpose – To convey traffic. The location and position of a bridge is
subordinate to the general alignment and grade. But sometimes, favorable alignment has to be sacrificed, only to provide
a right angle crossing to small creek.
Lately however, the general policy for minor roads is to determine the proper highway location, then provide the
structures. A skewed bridge is comparatively more expensive than the right angle bridge. The horizontal and vertical
curvature shape of large bridge presents serious design and construction problem, but the finished product may result to
a better roadway. Foundation design of piers and abutments has large effect on costs, but cost is not always the
determining factor in design.
The cost of a bridge and its full approach combined before the crossing site should be determined. Bridge survey
report should be accompanied with accurate data on the waterway and the historical behavior of the water. The bridge
survey data shall include the foundation conditions, stream characteristics, and the adjacent structure on the stream more
particularly, their waterway opening.
When the location of the bridge is approximately determined, the following requirements must be considered:
1. A complete data report and special survey of the site.
2. Prepare sketches and full scale map and profiles.
3. The survey report must contain accurate data of the waterway for all behavior of water.
 4. There must be a complete report on the foundation condition and the stream characteristics.
5. A complete data of the adjacent structures particularly the waterway opening.
6. If possible, skewed bridge should be avoided.

1-16 Highway Plans and Specifications

Plans and specifications are set of documents of instructions and conditions under which highways and bridges
are built. The plan contains engineering drawings of the project, whereas, the specifications is a written instructions and
conditions considered as integral part of the contract between the contractor and highway agency classified as legal
documents.

The complete detailed scheme for the road which are incorporated in the geometric designs are:
1. Traffic
2. Drainage
3. Erosion control
4. Roadside development
5. Structure
6. Soils
7. Pavement

Presentation of a Road Plan

1. The upper sheet is allocated for the plan, top view showing the horizontal alignment, right of way takings,
drainage arrangement and other features.
2. The lower half is allotted to the profile where the original elevation of the ground surface is plotted. The
roadway centerline and the vertical alignment or grade line for the road is indicated.
3. The vertical scale of the profile is usually exaggeratedly enlarged from five to ten times for precise detail.
4. The profile and other details of the drainage, channels or connecting roads including ramps are also presented.
5. The estimated earthwork quantities for every 50 meters station or other intervals are indicated along the
bottom of each sheet along with the estimated overhead. This will serve the engineer and the contractor.
 6. The roadway cross sections for every situation in the whole project stretch is indicated on another sheet of
the plan.
7. Another sheet of drawings showing all structures and roadway appurtenances is included.
8. The standard size of the drawing sheet is 55 cm x 90 cm.

Partial list of subjects covered by standard drawing:

1. Pipe culverts.
2. Concrete box culverts.
3. Guard rail and parapet.
4. Curbs.
5. Gutters.
6. Curb structures.
7. Sidewalks.
8. Drainage inlet and outlet structures of numerous types.
9. Manholes.
10. Rip-rap and other devices used for bank protection.
11. Fences and right of way.
12. Other survey markers.

The Specifications
Specifications writing is generally different and a delicate work requiring knowledge of the law of contracts as well
as highway practices and experiences. Specifications that are carelessly written and loosely worded may result in the use
of substandard materials and poor workmanship. Mostly, it involves extra cost to the owner or the contractor and
sometimes landed in court litigations. On the other hand, specifications that are too restrictive are very costly.

Highway Specifications is Divided into Two:

1. Standard Specifications applies to project implemented by administration which treat the subject that
repeatedly occurs in the agency work.
2. Special Provisions covers peculiar item of the project in question that include additional modification to
standard specifications. This includes copies of all documents required in securing competitive bids and
contracts. Specifications are also subdivided into two:
a.) The general clause that deals with the bidding procedures and award execution and control of work and
other legal matters.
b.) Specifying detail regarding the materials, manner of work execution and how pay quantities are to be
measured.