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 Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 82 (2018) 502–514

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rser

Review of FACTS technologies and applications for power quality in smart MARK
grids with renewable energy systems
⁎
Foad H. Gandomana, Abdollah Ahmadib, , Adel M. Sharafc, Pierluigi Sianod, Josep Poub,
Branislav Hredzakb, Vassilios G. Agelidise
a
Research group MOBI – Mobility, Logistics and Automotive Technology Research Centre, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Pleinlaan 2, Brussels 1050, Belgium
b
School of Electrical Engineering and Telecommunications, The University of New South Wales, Sydney 2052, NSW, Australia
c
Energy Systems, Incorporated, Fredericton, NB, Canada
d
Department of Industrial Engineering, University of Salerno, 84084 Salerno, Italy
e
Department of Electrical Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Lyngby, Denmark

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: In the last two decades, emerging use of renewable and distributed energy sources in electricity grid has created
FACTS technologies new challenges for the utility regarding the power quality, voltage stabilization and efficient energy utilization.
Green energy utilization Power electronic converters are extensively utilized to interface the emerging energy systems (without and with
Power quality energy storage) and smart buildings with the transmission and distribution systems. Flexible ac transmission
Renewable energy sources
systems (FACTSs) and voltage-source converters, with smart dynamic controllers, are emerging as a stabilization
Smart-grid
and power filtering equipment to improve the power quality. Also, distributed FACTSs play an important role in
improving the power factor, energy utilization, enhancing the power quality, and ensuring efficient energy
utilization and energy management in smart grids with renewable energy sources. This paper presents a lit-
erature survey of FACTS technology tools and applications for power quality and efficient renewable energy
system utilization.

1. Introduction
In the last years, flexible ac transmission system (FACTS) tech-
nology has been used in efficient energy utilization, demand control,
voltage stabilization, power quality enhancement, power factor cor-
rection and harmonic mitigation [1,2]. Additional applications include
power flow control, voltage regulation, reactive power compensation,
transient and steady state voltage stability enhancement, power loss
reduction, power conditioning and quality improvement [3,4]. The
emerging use of renewable and distributed generation (DG) has ac-
celerated and expanded the role of power electronic devices for efficient
electrical utilization and enhanced security and reliability of the elec-
tric utility grid [5]. Also, new applications have emerged for stand-
alone microgrids with regards to renewable energy utilization using
solar photovoltaic (PV) systems, micro-hydroelectric systems, the wind,
biomass, waste-to-energy and hybrid ac-dc sources with battery energy
storage for remote villages [6]. Renewable energy sources (RESs) are
utilized at an accelerating rate and connected to both transmission and
distribution/utilization systems using power electronic converters. This
results in increased harmonics and deterioration of power quality at the
point of common coupling. Power quality issues and mitigation have
emerged as serious challenges and issues facing electric utilities and
industrial/commercial/residential users [7].
Various FACTS devices and control strategies can help to mitigate
power quality problems. For efficient use of power system resources the
concept of FACTS was introduced in the late 1980's. The basic concept
of FACTS devices was based upon the use of high-voltage power elec-
tronics to control real and reactive power flow and voltage in the
transmission system [8].
Extensive research has focused on new topologies and architectures
of voltage-source converters (VSCs) to improve the performance of
FACTS devices in power systems and consequently enhance power
system security [9,10]. Recently, FACTS devices and smart control
strategies have been gaining a more prominent role in energy genera-
tion from renewable sources such as solar, wind, and waves [11]. Sig-
nificant research has been focused on maximizing the energy extraction
from RESs. The results of the implementation of FACTS devices in smart
grids with renewable systems are encouraging [12,13].
The aim of this paper is to review and discuss applications of FACTS
devices in smart grids with RESs. The paper focuses on the following

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: Ahmadi.abdollah.janah@gmail.com (A. Ahmadi).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2017.09.062
Received 19 August 2016; Received in revised form 3 August 2017; Accepted 17 September 2017
1364-0321/ © 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
F.H. Gandoman et al.
issues:
• Impact of distributed-FACTS (D-FACTS) systems and emerging vol-
tage source inverter (VSI) on modern electrical systems stabiliza-
tion. Power quality harmonic reduction in AC-DC- AC interfaced
renewable energy and battery storage devices.
• Role of FACTS devices and control strategies in electrical power
system power quality and voltage regulation.
• Comprehensive study of history of application of FACTS devices in
traditional and modern electrical networks.
• Different surveys, categorized by the type of published document,
top researchers, top research centers and active countries, in terms
of FACTS devices technology.
The paper is organized as follows. In Section 2, an overview of
power quality in electrical networks is presented. FACTS devices are
described in Section 3, while D-FACTS devices are presented in Section
4. FACTS/D-FACTS devices and power quality are explained in Section
5. In Section 6, the role of FACTS devices in enhancing power quality in
future networks is explained. Finally, the conclusions are drawn in
Section 7.
2. Overview of power quality and facts devices in electrical
networks
Power quality issues are manifested as distorted voltage and current
waveforms and/or frequency deviations that may cause failure or mal-
operation of customer equipment. Additionally, the power systems
should provide their customers with a secure, reliable and unin-
terrupted flow of energy with sinusoidal voltages at the contracted
magnitude level and frequency.
Generally, poor power quality may result in increased power losses,
undesirable behavior of equipment, and interference with nearby
communication lines. Widespread use of power electronics further
burdens the power systems by generating harmonics in the voltages and
currents along with increased reactive current [14].
Currently, quality problems have become more complex at all levels
of electrical power systems. Therefore, power quality issues have re-
ceived increasing attention by both the end users and utilities [15].
Maintaining the electric power quality within acceptable limits is a
significant challenge [16]. The adverse effects of poor power quality are
well discussed in [17].
Various sources use the term power quality indistinctively with
different meanings such as supply reliability, current quality, voltage
quality, service quality, quality of supply and quality of consumption
[18]. Table 1 illustrates the most common problems from the stand-
points of consequences, causes and explanation of the power quality
phenomena in power systems. Among these phenomena, voltage sags
account for the highest percentage, almost 31%, whereas the lowest
percentage is voltage transients by 8%. Because of the increased use of
sensitive loads, PV systems and power electronic equipment produce
harmonic and asymmetrical voltages accounting for 20% and 18%,
respectively.
We searched ‘Flexible ac transmission systems (FACTSs)’ keyword in
the SCOPUS database and found 3264 articles, ranging from 1987 to
July 2017. Figs. 1–5 sort the published articles by different categories.
Fig. 1 shows the number of articles published worldwide from 1987
to July 2017. The line chart illustrates that, from 1987, the need to use
FACTS devices to overcome power quality problems in power system
has been increasing. As a result, research in this field has grown dra-
matically. Fig. 2 shows the distribution number of FACT-related arti-
cles.
Over the last three decades, many countries have performed studies
on FACTS devices and their application to enhance the power quality in
traditional and modern electrical networks. Among them, India ranked
the first, and the United States, China and Iran ranked second to fourth,
503
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 82 (2018) 502–514
respectively, as shown in Fig. 3. Furthermore, the most famous re-
searchers and research centers, in all parts of the world, together with
number of publications are illustrated in Fig. 4 and Fig. 5, respectively.
3. FACTS devices
FACTS devices and integrated power electronic converters with
flexible fast acting control strategies are used in emerging smart grids
and integrated ac-dc renewable energy systems. They are based on the
concepts of:
1) Modulating apparent admittance (Y) and impedance at the point of
common coupling and key common ac bus.
2) Injecting ac components in series or parallel with the electric net-
work nodes to create current flows or superimposed voltages.
3) Supplying localized reactive or capacitive current at the bus for
reactive power flow control.
4) Modulating or switching the equivalent-driving point impedance (Z)
at the interface bus by controlled switching.
The control strategies are based on voltage, power, angle or reactive
power flow control using classical proportional-integral-derivative
(PID) controllers, optimal control, heuristic soft computing control
strategies and/or a multi-objective control performance index (J).
The converter topologies can be classified into:
a) Voltage source-converter fed
b) Dc-current source injection interface
c) Switched/modulated inductors or capacitors
d) Active power filter topologies
The resulting voltage and current waveforms are usually distorted
and contain harmonics due to switching nature of power electronics
converters, and additional interface filters are usually required.
In recent decades, due to the increasing demand of electricity in
different countries, the need to build new transmission lines, electricity
posts and increase the capacity of transmission lines has greatly in-
creased. But the construction of new electricity transmission lines re-
quires a huge capital investment. As a result, finding effective solutions
to reduce the costs for electric companies has been a great challenge.
The main objectives of FACTS devices are to increase the useable
transmission capacity of lines and to control the power flow over de-
signated transmission routes [37]. FACTS devices are also used to im-
prove the power quality. There are different types of FACTS devices
such as static VAR compensator (SVC); dynamic flow controller (DFC);
thyristor controlled series compensator (TCSC); HVDC back to back
(HVDC B2B); unified power flow controller (UPFC); static synchronous
series compensator (SSSC); static synchronous compensator (STAT-
COM); and dynamic power flow controller (DPFC) [38,39]. According
to their connection, they are classified as shunt-connected controllers,
series-connected and combined series- and shunt-connected controllers.
The main benefits and applications of basic FACTS devices in the
electrical network are introduced in Table 2.
3.1. Static VAR compensator (SVC)
In the 1970s, the first generation of FACTS devices, known as Static
VAR Compensator (SVC), was introduced. A SVC is a shunt-connected
absorber capable of exchanging capacitive/inductive power to control
specific parameters of the electrical power system [40]. In 1974, the
first SVC was installed in Nebraska by General Electric. More than 800
SVCs with power ratings ranging from 60 to 600 MVAR have been in-
stalled by electrical utilities until now. ABB has provided about 55% of
the SVC market, with 3% in Asian countries.
SVC may improve transient stability by dynamically supporting the
voltage at key points and steady state stability by helping to increase

Table 1
Power quality problems overview.
Power quality Explanation
problem
Voltage sag Normal voltage level declines between 10% and
90% of the nominal rms voltage at the power
frequency, during 0.5 cycle to 1 min [19].
Short interruptions Total interruption of electrical supply for
duration from few milliseconds to one or two
seconds 19].
Long interruptions Total interruption of electrical supply for period
greater than one to two seconds [23].
Voltage spike Very fast changing of the voltage rate for
durations from several microseconds to few
milliseconds. Even in low voltage, these
variations may reach thousands of volts [24].
Voltage swell Momentary rise of the voltage, at the power
504
frequency, outside the common tolerances, with
period of more than one cycle and usually less
than a few seconds [26].
Harmonic Voltage or current waveforms assume non-
distortion sinusoidal shape. The waveform corresponds to
the sum of various sine-waves with different
magnitudes and phases, having frequencies that
are multiples of the electrical power system
frequency [28].
Voltage fluctuation Oscillation of voltage value, amplitude
modulated by a signal with frequency of 0–30 Hz
[31].
Noise Superimposed of high-frequency signals on the
waveform of the power-system frequency [33].
Voltage Unbalance A voltage variation in a three-phase system in
which the three voltage magnitudes or the phase
angle differences between them are not equal
[35].
Causes
Faults on the electrical networks. Faults in
consumers installation. Start-up of large motors
and connection of heavy loads and [20].
Opening and automatic reclosers of security
equipment to decommission a faulty part of the
electrical network. The important fault sources are
lightning, insulator flashover as well as insulation
failure [22].
Material failure in the electrical power networks,
storms and objects such as trees and cars, human
error, striking lines or poles, fire, bad coordination
or failure of security equipment [22].
Lightning, switching of lines or power factor
correction capacitors, disconnection of heavy loads
[25].
On/Off of heavy loads, badly dimensioned power
sources, badly regulated transformers during off-
peak hours [27].
Modern sources
All nonlinear loads, such as power electronics
equipment, switched mode power supplies, data
processing equipment, high-efficiency lighting
[29].
Arc furnaces, repeated start/stop of electric motors
such as elevators, oscillating loads [32]
Electromagnetic interferences provoked by
Hertzian waves such as microwaves, television
diffusion, and radiation due to welding machines,
arc furnaces, and electronic equipment. Improper
grounding may also be a cause [34].
Large single-phase loads, incorrect distribution of
all single-phase loads by the three phases of the
system [36].
Classic sources
Electric machines working above the
knee of the magnetization curve, arc
furnaces, welding machines, rectifiers,
and dc brush motors [29].
F.H. Gandoman et al.
Consequences
Tripping of contractors (PCs, PLCs, ASDs, etc) and
electromechanical relays. Disconnection and loss of
efficiency in electric rotating machines [21].
Tripping protection devices, loss of information and
malfunction of data processing equipment.
Stoppage of sensitive equipment, such as ASDs, PCs,
PLCs [22].
Stoppage of all equipment [19].
Destruction of components (electronic components)
and of insulation materials, data processing errors
or data loss, electromagnetic interference [25].
Data loss, stoppage or damage of sensitive
equipment, or flickering of lighting and screens, if
the voltage values are too high [27].
I Increased possibility of incidence of resonance,
neutral overload in three phase systems, cables and
devices overheating, efficiency loss in electric
machines, electromagnetic interposition with
communication systems, error in measures when
using average reading meters and nuisance tripping
of thermal protections [30].
The most perceptible consequence is the flickering
of lighting and screens, giving the impression of
unsteadiness of visual perception [32].
Disturbances on nonlinear loads which usually not
destructive. May cause data loss and data
processing errors [34].
Unbalanced systems convey the existence of a
negative sequence that is adverse to all three phase
loads. The major affected loads are three-phase
induction machines [36].
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 82 (2018) 502–514
F.H. Gandoman et al.
Fig. 2. Distribution of different types of articles on FACTS devices from 1987 to July
2017.
swing oscillation damping [41]. The accuracy, availability and fast
response of SVCs enable these devices to provide high performance
regarding steady state and transient voltage control. Furthermore, SVCs
are used to improve the transient stability, damp power swings and
reduce system losses by using reactive power control [42,43]. Fig. 6
illustrates the SVC family. The SVC can be operated in voltage regula-
tion mode and VAR control mode. The V-I characteristic of SVC in
voltage regulation mode is shown in Fig. 7.
The SVC susceptance (B) remains within the maximum and
minimum values imposed by the total reactive power of the capacitor
banks (Bmax) and reactor banks (Blmax), while the voltage is regulated at
the reference voltage Vref. A voltage droop control is normally used. The
V-I characteristic equations are:
V = Vref + X c . I If SCV is in regulation range(−Bmax < B < Blmax )
505
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 82 (2018) 502–514
Fig. 1. Number of articles on FACTS devices from 1987 to
July 2017.
I
V=− If SVC is fully capacitive(B = Bmax )
Bmax
I
V= If SVC is fully inductive(B = Blmax )
Blmax
where V is the positive sequence voltage (p.u.), I is the reactive current
(p.u./Pbase) (I > 0 demonstrates an inductive current), Xs is the slope
or droop reactance (p.u./Pbase), Pbase is the three-phase base power,
Bmax is the maximum capacitive susceptance (p.u./Pbase) with all
thyristor controlled series compensators (TSCs) in service, no TSR or
TCR, Blmax indicates the maximum inductive susceptance (p.u./Pbase)
with all TSRs in service or TCRs at full conduction, and no TSC.
SVC control systems are planned to have a voltage control loop with
continuous auxiliary damping control signal superimposed [45]. Fig. 8
shows the controller of a SVC that consists of:
• A measurement system of the positive-sequence voltage to be gov-
erned.
• A voltage regulator that applies the voltage error to determine the
SVC susceptance B needed to keep the system voltage controlled.
• A distribution unit that determines the TSCs that have to compute
the firing angle α of TCRs, and be switched in and out.
• A synchronizing system applying a phase-locked loop (PLL) syn-
chronized on the secondary voltages and a pulse generator that
sends proper pulses to the thyristors.
3.2. Thyristor controlled series compensator (TCSC)
A TCSC, which consists of a series capacitor bank shunted by a
thyristor-controlled reactor to provide a smoothly variable series ca-
pacitive reactance [46]. TCSCs play vital roles in the operation and
control of power systems such as enhancing power flow, limiting fault
current, enhancing transient and dynamic stability. As shown in Fig. 9,
connecting an inductor in parallel with a series capacitor enables a
Fig. 3. Number of articles on FACTS devices from
1987 to July 2017, sorted by countries.
F.H. Gandoman et al.
continuous and rapid variable series compensation system. The main
advantages of TCSC devices are increased real power transferred, power
oscillation damping, sub-synchronous resonance damping and power
flow line control [47,48].
The first TCSC installed in 1992 operates at 230 kV and is used to
increase power transfer capability of Kayenta, Arizona Substation. It
increased the capacity of the transmission network by nearly 30%. At
the end of the year 2004, seven TCSCs were installed around the world
such as Stöde/ Sweden, Pinguo substation in 1999, State power south
company, Guangzhou/China in 2002 and Raipur substation/ India in
2004.
A TCSC has three operation modes: (i) thyristors blocked (no gating
and zero thyristor conduction), where the TCSC net impedance is just
the capacitive reactance, (ii) thyristors activated (continuous gating
and full thyristor conduction), where most of the line current flows
through the inductive reactance, and (c) Vernier operation with phase
control of gating signals. In the last mode, the thyristors are controlled
in such a manner that a certain amount of inductive current can cir-
culate through the capacitor, thereby increasing the effective capaci-
tive/inductive reactance of the module. In Fig. 10, the impedance
(XTCSC) of the TCSC for different values of delay angle (α ) of the
thyristor valves is shown. The TCSC has two operating ranges around its
internal circuit resonance (αr ); one is αClim ≤ α ≤ 180° , where XTCSC
(α ) is capacitive, and the other one is 90° ≤ α ≤ αLlim , where XTCSC(α )
is inductive. The internal circuit resonance depends on the ratio be-
tween the inductor and capacitor reactance of the TCSC. Different ratios
of reactance yield different resonance points (αr ) [26].
3.3. Static synchronous compensator (STATCOM)
A STATCOM is integrated by a SVC usually based on the gate turn-
off (GTO) type thyristors. The STATCOM is capable of generating or
absorbing reactive power at its output terminals. It can also deal with
real power when it is fed from an energy source or an energy storage
device of appropriate rating. The first STACTOM was installed in Japan
506
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 82 (2018) 502–514
Fig. 4. Top researchers in the area of FACTS devices
from 1987 to July 2017.
in 1991. It is rated at ± 80 MVAR and provides voltage stabilization in
Inumaya substation. The largest STACOMSs with a capacity of + 225
MVAR and ± 100 MVAR were installed in East Claydon 400 kV sub-
station/UK in 2001 and SDG & E Talega substation/USA in 2003, re-
spectively. The purposes of those STATCOMs installations were to
provide dynamic reactive compensation of East Claydon 400 kV sub-
station, and dynamic VAR control during peak load conditions of
SDG & E Talega substation. Also, in 2013 a STATCOM with capacity
of ± 150 MVAR at 275 kV was installed in Turnkey too.
STATCOMs do not require large inductive and capacitive compo-
nents to provide inductive or capacitive reactive power to high voltage
transmission systems as required in SVCs [50]. The main benefits of
STATCOMs are less required area and higher reactive power output at
low grid voltages, since the STATCOM performs as a current source
independent of the grid voltage. Furthermore, from the system dynamic
stability standpoint, the STATCOM provides better damping char-
acteristics than the SVC as it can transiently exchange active power
with the system. A circuit diagram of the STATCOM is shown in Fig. 11.
Generally, a STATCOM can be operated in voltage regulation mode
and VAR control mode. When the STATCOM is operated in the voltage
regulation mode, it has the V-I characteristic shown in Fig. 12. The
reactive current remains within the minimum and the maximum cur-
rent values (-Imax, Imax) imposed by the converter rating, and the output
voltage is regulated at the reference value Vref. The V-I characteristic is:
V = Vref + Xs I,
where, V is the positive sequence voltage (pu), I is the reactive current
(pu/Pnom), Xs is slope or droop reactance (pu/Pnom) and finally, Pnom is
the nominal power of the converter.
Control diagram of a STATCOM is shown in Fig. 13 and consists of:
• A phase-locked loop (PLL) that detects the positive-sequence com-
ponent of the three-phase primary voltage V . 1
• Measurement of ac voltages and currents to control the d and q
current components and the dc voltage Vdc.
Fig. 5. Most important research centers in the area
of FACTS devices from 1987 to July 2017.
F.H. Gandoman et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 82 (2018) 502–514

• An outer regulation loop including a dc voltage regulator and an ac

devices are used in distribution systems, while

FACT devices are used in transmission systems.
voltage regulator. The reference current Iqref for the current reg-

DFACTS devices. They are smaller and less

expensive than traditional FACTS. DFACT

D-FACTS such as D-STATCOM and DSSC

ulator is the output of the ac voltage regulator (Iq: reactive current).
The reference current Idref for the current regulator is the output of
the dc voltage regulator (Id: active current).
• An inner current regulation loop including a current regulator. The
current regulator defines the voltage generated by the PWM con-
verter (V2d and V2q) from the reference currents (Idref and Iqref). The
current regulator is aided by a feed forward type regulator which
Last generation

predicts the V2 voltage output (V2d and V2q) from the V1 measure-
ment (V1d and V1q) and the transformer leakage reactance.

Table 3 summarizes the main benefits and applications of basic

FACTS devices.
ignition (GTO, MCTS, IGBT's,
IGCTS, etc.) to be controlled.

STATCOM, SSSC and UPFC

3.4. Static synchronous series compensator (SSSC)

Semiconductor using gate
Based on the Technological Characteristics

Second generation

A SSSC [51] is an FACTS controller based on a series-connected

VSC. It injects a voltage with controllable magnitude and phase angle at
the line frequency and is found to be very capable of handling power
flow control, besides improving transient stability margin and transient
damping [52,53]. The main advantage of SSSC over a TCSC is that it
does not remarkably affect the impedance of the transmission system
and hence there is no danger of having resonance problems. A circuit
First generation

SVC, TCSC and

Thyristor using

diagram and control system of SSSC is shown in Fig. 14. The control
gate control

system of SSSC is consists of:

Example
ignition

TCPS

• A PLL that synchronizes on the positive-sequence component of the

current I. Also, the output of the PLL (ωt) is used to compute the
Serial-derivation controllers

Unified Power Flow Controller

separated to inject current to

direct- and quadrature-axis components of the ac three-phase vol-

A combination of serial and

tages and currents (labelled as Vd, Vq or Id, Iq in the diagram).

•
derivations controllers

The measuring system of the ac voltages to calculate the q compo-

nents of the ac positive-sequence of voltages V1 and V2 (V1q and
V2q), as well as the dc voltage Vdc.
•
the system.

ac and dc voltage regulators that compute the two components of

the converter voltage (Vd_conv and Vq_conv) required to obtain the
desired dc voltage (Vdcref) and the injected voltage (Vqref).
Serial to serial controllers

4. Distributed FACTS (D-FACTS)

A blend of coordinated

multiline transmission
serial controllers in a

Interline Power Flow

Due to the increasing use of RESs as DG in the electrical distribution

network, the policy of investment in the energy area and control of
Compensator

power system has changed [54,55]. In [56], a new concept of D-FACTS

network.

was suggested as an alternative solution to solve the main problem of

the last generation of FACTS devices, which is the cost effective power
flow control.
impedance, or a combination of both
to inject current into the network at

Currently, D-FACTS are designed to address power control types of

Synchronous Static Compensator

problems. D-FACTS can be used to dynamically control the effective

line impedance. Also, from a power system perspective, D-FACTS de-
A variable source, variable

vices offer many potential benefits since they are less expensive and
the point of connection.
Derivation controllers

smaller than usual FACTS devices, which may make them better can-
Based on the Type of Connection to the Network

didates for wide scale deployment [57,58].

FACTS devices classification in electrical networks.

The most important D-FACTS that have been used in the smart/
micro grids are shown in Table 4.
Nowadays, increasing performance and decreasing price of power
electronics and communication technologies is transforming the entire
Classification of FACTS Devices

electrical industry sectors into modern electrical networks. Deployment

capacitor aiming to inject a
A variable impedance such as a

of low power FACTS devices, i.e. D-FACTS devices, can provide a higher
serial voltage to the line.

performance and lower cost method for enhancing smart/micro grids

Serial Synchronous Static

controllability and reliability, enhancing asset utilization and end-user

Serial controllers

power quality, while environmental impact and minimizing system cost

Compensator

[59,60].
Moreover, to solve different problems in smart/micro grids such as
Example

voltage sags, voltage swells, voltage fluctuations, interruptions and

Table 2

harmonics, various power conversion and control devices have been

introduced to regulate and control the generation, transmission and

507
F.H. Gandoman et al.
Fig. 6. Static VAr compensator (SVC) [44].
Fig. 7. SVC V-I characteristic.
Fig. 8. Single-line diagram of an SVC and its control block diagram.
Fig. 9. Thyristor controlled series compensators (TCSC) [49].
distribution of electrical energy. The main solution to most of the power
quality problems is represented by D-FACTS devices. Fig. 15 shows a
micro grid with different types of D-FACTS devices.
5. FACTS/D-FACTS devices and power quality
Use of RESs in traditional electrical networks has changed the policy
of electrical utilizes regarding control, reliability, management, power
quality and protection of electrical system. Good power quality is an
important factor for a reliable supply of electricity to loads in a power
system. However, the current electronic devices and nonlinear loads
produce nonsinusoidal waveforms, which can result in poor power
508
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 82 (2018) 502–514
Fig. 10. XTCSC vs. α characteristic of TCSC.
Fig. 11. Block diagram of STATCOM.
Fig. 12. STATCOM V-I characteristic.
quality [67,68].
FACTS and D-FACTS devices play an important role to enhance
power quality in traditional (without RES) and modern (with RES)
electrical networks. A summary of power quality improvements by
FACTS devices is shown in Table 5.
6. Cost effective analysis of FACTS devices
Using FACTS devices in the electrical grid has many advantages
from a technical point of view. However, a cost effective analysis should
be performed too [88]. As a general rule, financial and business view-
points come first for the utility's leadership and hence a careful ex-
amination of correlation between cost and advantages of various system
improvements is necessary. Adoption of the FACTS devices is often
hindered by the time constraints introduced by installation of the de-
vices and restrictions in the existing substations. On the other hand,
there could be other short or mid-term financially viable alternatives to
the FACTS devices that have to be assessed. Hence, a thorough mone-
tary assessment and business evaluation of every option is critical.
The cost of FACTS devices consists of two main components: initial
F.H. Gandoman et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 82 (2018) 502–514

Fig. 13. Single-line diagram of STATCOM and its

control block diagram.

Table 3
The main benefits and applications of basic FACTS devices.

SVC STATCOM/ D-STATCOM TCSC UPFC

Impact on System Performance Impact on System Performance Impact on System Performance Impact on System Performance

I II III IV I II III IV I II III IV I II III IV

Good Best Good Better Good Best Better Better Better Good Best Better Best Best Best Best

Problem Mitigation Problem Mitigation Problem Mitigation Problem Mitigation

Voltage Limits Voltage Limits Voltage Limits Voltage Limits
Low voltage at heavy load, the high voltage at Low voltage at heavy load, the high voltage at The high voltage at the light load.
light load, high voltage following an light load, high voltage following an outage.
outage.
Thermal Limits Thermal Limits Thermal Limits Thermal Limits
Line or transformer over load. Line or transformer over load, Tripping
of Parallel circuits
Loop Flow Loop Flow Loop Flow Loop Flow
Post fault sharing. Parallel line load sharing Flow direction reversal.
Short Circuits Levels Short Circuits Levels Short Circuits Levels Short Circuits Levels
Excessive breaker fault current Excessive breaker Fault current.
Sub-Synchronous Resonance Sub-Synchronous Resonance Sub-Synchronous Resonance Sub-Synchronous Resonance
Potential turbine /generator shaft
damage

I: Load flow control, II: Voltage control, III: Transient stability, IV: Dynamic stability.

establishment cost, and operation and maintenance costs. The under-
lying establishment cost incorporates the cost of the device in addition
to the conveyance and establishment charges, proficient expenses, and
sales tax. The aggregate establishment cost is typically communicated
as an element of the evaluated electrical limit of FACTS device.
Additional cost component, operation and maintenance cost, is re-
quired over the lifetime. Working expenses incorporate upkeep and
administration, protection, and any material reposition. A dependable
guideline gauge for yearly working costs is 5–10% of the underlying
framework cost. Generally, establishment cost structure for FACTS
devices can be laid out by the following [89]: equipment, 55%; de-
signing and venture administration, 15%; common works, 12%; es-
tablishment, 10%; freightage and protection, 4%; and start-ups, 4%.
Table 6 illustrates the cost of some FACTS devices [90].
Because of many available criteria that have to be considered, when
selecting the FACT devices, such as power rating, kind of device, the
voltage of the system, system necessity, ecological conditions and ad-
ministrative prerequisite, it is difficult to give a fixed cost figure for the
FACTS establishment. Approximated buy and establishment costs for
given sizes of FACTs devices are given in Table 7 [91].

Fig. 14. Single-line diagram of SSSC and its control block diagram.

509
F.H. Gandoman et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 82 (2018) 502–514

Table 4 commitment to guarantee a safe and practical power framework op-

D-FACTS devices in modern electrical networks. eration was illustrated. In this study, considering the high cost of using
UFPC in high-power networks, a combination of SVC and TCSC was
D-FACTS Features
used, and from the economic point of view, their behavior was in-
Distributed Switched Filter • Voltage stabilization vestigated. In [99], a systematic approach to determine a cost-effective
Compensator (D-SFC) • Power factor improvement FACTS solution for a utility faced with transmission vulnerabilities was
[60,61] • Mitigating THD at buses
• Stabilization
developed. A framework for collective as well as objective evaluation of
Distributed Green Plug SFC (D- of the dc bus voltage
GPSFC) [62] • Low power losses FACTS along with other options in the short and long-term time frame
Distributed Static Compensator • Voltage regulation was presented
(D-STATCOM) [63,64] • Compensation of current harmonics
• Control of reactive power
• Uninterrupted supply in the case of using
an energy storage device
7. Role of FACTS devices in improving power quality in future
networks
Distributed Static Series
Compensator (DSSC) [65]
• the
Allowing control of active power flow of
line Emerging smart grids with DG, including RESs, and integration of
• Smaller and less expensive than traditional
FACTS devices
ac-dc systems require the use of FACTS devices and stabilization power
• Minimizing real power losses electronic converters, together with fast acting control strategies
Distributed TCSC (D-TCSC) [66] • System stability and development of
corresponding cyber-secure control
[100,101]. New FACTS topologies are emerging to ensure decoupled
ac-dc interface, improved voltage security, reactive compensation,
method
• Controlling system voltages
voltage and power factor improvement, and loss reduction [102,103].
They also enhance the security of micro grids, stand-alone ac-dc DG
schemes using photovoltaic, wind, fuel cell, battery storage, micro gas
In general, the main purposes of economic evaluation of the use of turbines (MGT), wave/tidal generation CNG/diesel GEN-sets as back-up
FACTS devices in electrical networks are: systems [104–107].
FACTS technology includes VSCs, STATCOMs, SSSCs, UPFs, active
• Determination of ideal case for establishment of FACTS devices. power filters and Gate-Controlled Series Capacitor (GCSC) [108–110].
• Definition of the most cost effective FACTS design alongside ap- Modern power systems with new demand smart metering (DSM) and
integrated DG including solar PV and wind farms will require new
praisal of individual devices.
modified smart-soft computing, control strategies and enhanced power
Some research has been done on investigating FACTS effect on the electronic converter topologies to ensure reliability, security, power
cost relating to transmission rights by estimating various market quality and efficient utilization without transient over-voltages and
structures. However, only the included exchange capacity and the inrush currents [111,112]. Improved energy utilization with effective
subsequent costs saved by the FACTS and D-FACTS were considered. voltage regulation at key interface bus regulations will restrict sizing/
Generally, no venture and operational costs of FACTS were in- siting of distributed renewable/alternate generation [113–115].
corporated [92–94]. In [95], a different type of FACTS devices were Green and renewable energy generation are expected to supply
studied using cost effective analysis of voltage sag mitigation. The re- 20–25% of the electrical energy by 2050 from sources that include the
sults shown that D-STATCOM devices were more valuable when com- wind, solar, geothermal, wave/tidal, bio/natural gas, fuel cell, hybrid,
pared with SVC. In [96], a cost benefit analysis of voltage sag mitiga- and waste to energy [116,117]. Also, new designs of flexible VSC FA-
tion strategies in chemical industry was illustrated. Two types of CTS schemes will target distribution/utilization network devices
mitigation devices (D-STATCOM and SVC) were analyzed. In [97], [118,119] such as the distributed static series compensators (DSSCs),
economic and technical advantages of TSCS were discussed. In [98], a distribution STATCOMs (DSTATCOMs) and switched power filters
compensation schemes [120,121].

Fig. 15. Modern electrical system with D-FACTS

devices.

510
F.H. Gandoman et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 82 (2018) 502–514

Table 6

Benefits that FACTS technologies bring to facilitate the connection of wind

Cost of FACTS devices.

D-STATCOM to improve the voltage profile of a distribution network with

Improving, providing voltage ride-through and regulation of power flow.
Enhance the voltage stability at the system key buses, and improved the

AC voltage stabilization, power factor improvement and power quality

Improve power system reliability and the penetration of green energy.

system's power quality, increased power transmission capacity of the
Type Cost ($/KVAR)

distribution feeder, which will prevent from problems due to power

Mitigating the SSR and alleviate the low frequency oscillations.

STATCOM 40
SVC 35

Improvement of power system stability with wind energy.

distributed wind generation is investigated in this paper.

UPFC 40
TCSC 50

Improve power system quality and transient stability

Improvement of power system stability PV system.

Table 7
Price of FACTS devices.

Cost ($/KVAR) Installation

cost included
Type 100 MVAR 200 MVAR 300 MVAR 400 MVAR
power to power systems.

SVC 60 50 45 40 NO
100 80 70 60 YES
STATCOM 90 75 68 60 NO
130 115 110 100 YES
enhancement.
congestion.
Result

D-FACTS devices are attractive voltage and power control devices

with fast acting strategies to dynamically control voltage, reactive
Power filter compensator (SFC)

power and power quality [122,123].

Dynamic Distribution System

D-FACTS devices based on new VSC topologies, switching strategies

With Renewable Energy

and fast controllability regulation are extending the effectiveness of

STATCOM and SSSC
Compensator (DDSC

FACTS devices and accelerating the new role of the smart grid, demand
control and loss reduction using low-cost FACTS devices for a multi-use
FACTS Devices

D-STATCOM

wide scale deployment. Dynamic voltage stabilization (DVS)/ dynamic

STATCOM

STATCOM

voltage restoration (DVR) and DSTATCOM are new emerging classes of

D-SSC

low-cost schemes for distribution/utilization schemes [124–126].

VSC

SVC

SVC

Emerging VSC-based DSTATCOMs with switched filters/modulated

LC power filter compensators are able to improve voltage stabilization,
Refs.

[70]

[72]

[73]
[76]

[80]
[83]

[85]

[80]

[86]

[87]

loss reduction, power factor and power quality at ac-dc interface buses
[127,128] for new schemes, including micro-grid, vehicle to house
Both devices, exhibits the fact that insertion of these devices in power system
can eventually increase the power limit, line power and loading capability of
Improvement of transient stability and dynamic stability of extra high voltage

The low-cost FACTS device is effective in voltage stabilization, power factor

Compensation of both voltage- and current-related power quality problems.

(V2H), vehicle to grid (V2G) battery charging [129,130] and green

Both devices significantly improve the transient voltage behavior of power

These full descriptive digital models are validated for voltage stabilization

Voltage control for voltage regulation and damping oscillation in a weak

correction at key ac buses, improving power quality, and limiting inrush

With D-STATCOM and SVC connected at particular bus the D-STATCOM

plug–loss reduction systems using smart computing random search-

The DSTATCOM can compensate the voltage sag and swell conditions.

optimization including genetic algorithms (GA), particle swarm opti-

mization (PSO) and ant colony (AC) [131–133].
provides better support to reduce the financial loss than SVC.
reactive compensation and dynamically power flow control.

Decrease the short circuit current and power flow control.

the network as well as enhancing the system stability.

8. Conclusion

This paper has presented a comprehensive overview of use of

FACTS/D-FACTS technology and its application in emerging electric
utilities using RESs with power electronic converters. The existing
FACTS devices are undergoing tremendous changes in configurations
based on soft computing control strategies using smart grid-based fast
control strategies and the multi-functional use of voltage control, sta-
(EHV) transmission lines.

bilization, reactive power compensation and unified power flow con-

trol.
Summary of power quality improvements by FACTS devices.

current conditions.

The paper has presented FACTS based solutions and a list of control
power system.

strategies to deal with the extensive use of nonlinear/sensitive loads,

renewable energy sources, battery storage and EV-charging. Suitability
systems.
Result

and adequacy of the FACTS devices such as SVC, D-STATCOM, SSSC

and APFs as well as LC switched compensators have been presented.
Without Renewable Energy

The emphasis of the presented analysis is on energy efficient utilization,

VSC, STATCOM and SSSC

loss reduction, voltage stabilization, power factor, power quality and

harmonic reduction at the point of common coupling with nonlinear
SVC and STATCOM

Compensator (SCC)
Switched Capacitor

loads. Also, other issues, including interfacing wind/PV farms with

SVC and TCSC
FACTS Devices

weak ac electric utility systems were considered.

D-STATCOM

D-STATCOM

Future applications of FACTS devices include renewable energy

D-SSSC

resources, residential and commercial smart building, residential use of

UPQC
SSSC

SSSC

hybrid DC-AC grid, increased use of vehicles-to-grid and vehicles-to-

house, battery charging system, and street, buildings and airports light
Table 5

Refs.

[69]

[71]

[74]
[75]

[77]
[78]

[79]

[81]

[82]

[84]

emitting diode (LED) lighting technology.

Scope for future research includes:

511
F.H. Gandoman et al.
• Efficient integration of FACTS in microgrids with PV, fuel cell, wind
and super capacitor systems.
• Using multi-stage voltage source inverters with switching strategies
based on double carrier, inverse sine carrier and optimized
switching techniques, to reduce ripple and total harmonic distortion
at the AC side.
• Novel use of multi terminal medium voltage DC with active power
filters and STATCOM interface in large wind farms and AC grid.
• Development of FACTS devices, dynamic voltage stabilization
schemes, dynamic voltage restoration and green plug dynamic ca-
pacitive compensation schemes for voltage stabilization and losses
reduction in addition to capacity release and voltage regulation.
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