Power Amplifiers

Prof.G.Aarthi,AP(SG)
 Introduction
• An amplifier receives a signal from some pickup transducer or other input source
and provides a larger version of the signal to some output device or to another
amplifier stage.

• An input transducer signal is generally small (a few millivolts from a cassette or CD

input, or a few microvolts from an antenna) and needs to be amplified sufficiently
to operate an output device (speaker or other power-handling device)

• Large-signal or power amplifiers primarily provide sufficient power to an output

load to drive a speaker or other power device, typically a few watts to tens of
watts

• The main features of a large-signal amplifier are the circuit’s power efficiency, the
maximum amount of power that the circuit is capable of handling, and the
impedance matching to the output device.
 Introduction
• Power amplifiers are usually the last amplifiers in a transmission chain and,
therefore, require the most attention for power efficiency.

• Power amplifiers are used to deliver a relatively high amount of power, usually to
a low resistance load.

• Typical load values range from 300W (for transmission antennas) to 8W (for audio
speaker).

• Typical output power rating of a power amplifier will be 1W or higher.

• A power amplifier does not amplify power. Rather it converts dc power into ac
power, under the control of the ac input signal.
 Introduction
• Ideal power amplifier will deliver 100% of the power it draws from the supply to
load. In practice, this can never occur.

• The reason for this is the fact that the components in the amplifier will all
dissipate some of the power that is being drawn form the supply.

• Power amplifiers are used in audio frequency and radio frequency applications in
a variety of industries, including the medical industry and the military.

• Depending on what the power amplifier is being used for, there are ranges of
power amplifier types, or classes, that work best for the different applications.
 Amplifier Power Dissipation
VCC
The total amount of power I CC
being dissipated by the
amplifier, Ptot , is
Ptot = P1 + P2 + PC + PT + PE I1
I CQ
P = I12R1 R1 RC PC = I2CQR C
The difference between this 1
total value and the total power
being drawn from the supply is PT = I2TQ R T
the power that actually goes to
the load – i.e. output power. I EQ
P2 = I22R2 R2 RE PE = I2EQ R E

I2
 Voltage Amplifier vs Power Amplifier

• β is high > 100 • β is low, order of 20 – 25

• RC is high ~ 10 kΩ • RC is low 5 – 20 Ω

• Vi is low - a few mV • Vi is high 2 – 4 V

• IC is low a few mA • IC is high > 100 mA

• Power o/p Po low - a few mW • Po is high - a few W – 100s of W

• Power dissipation < 0.5 W • >> 0.5 W

• Zo large > 10 kΩ • Zo is low around 200 Ω

• Coupling – usually RC • Transformer coupled or tuned

 Classification of output stages
Power amplifiers are classified according to the collector current
waveform that results when an input signal is applied.

Class A:
• The output signal varies for a full 360° of the cycle.
• This requires the Q-point to be biased at a level so that at least half the
signal swing of the output may vary up and down without going to a
high-enough voltage to be limited by the supply voltage level or too low
to approach the lower supply level, or 0 V
 Classification of output stages
Power amplifiers are classified according to the collector current
waveform that results when an input signal is applied.

Class A:
• The output signal varies for a full 360° of the cycle. This requires the Q-
point to be biased at a level so that at least half the signal swing of the
output may vary up and down without going to a high-enough voltage
to be limited by the supply voltage level or too low to approach the
lower supply level, or 0 V

They are often

used in low-power
devices, like
headphones, where
efficiency is not a
consideration
Class B:
• A class B circuit provides an output signal varying over one-half the input
signal cycle, or for 180° of signal.
• The dc bias point for class B is therefore at 0 V, with the output then varying
from this bias point for a halfcycle.
• Obviously, the output is not a faithful reproduction of the input if only one
half-cycle is present.
• Two class B operations are necessary for a full 360° of operation.
• This type of connection is referred to as push-pull operation
• Class AB: An amplifier may be biased at a dc level above the zero base
current level of class B and above one-half the supply voltage level of class
A; this bias condition is class AB.
• Class AB operation still requires a push-pull connection to achieve a full
output cycle, but the dc bias level is usually closer to the zero base current
level for better power efficiency.
• For class AB operation, the output signal swing occurs between 180° and
360° and is neither class A nor class B operation.
Class C:
• The output of a class C amplifier is biased for operation at less than180°
of the cycle and will operate only with a tuned (resonant) circuit, which
provides a full cycle of operation for the tuned or resonant frequency.

• This operating class is therefore used in special areas of tuned circuits,

such as radio or communications
Class D:
• This operating class is a form of amplifier operation using pulse (digital)
signals, which are on for a short interval and off for a longer interval.

• Using digital techniques makes it possible to obtain a signal that varies

over the full cycle (using sample-and-hold circuitry) to recreate the output
from many pieces of input signal.

• The major advantage of class D operation is that the amplifier is on (using

power) only for short intervals and the overall efficiency can practically be
very high.

• Class D power amplifiers are very power efficient, often more than 90
percent.

• Class D power amplifiers are used in instances of finite power availability,

such as a battery or other limited power source.
 Amplifier Efficiency h
• A figure of merit for the power amplifier is its efficiency, h .
• Efficiency ( h ) of an amplifier is defined as the ratio of ac
output power (power delivered to load) to dc input power .
• By formula :
ac output power Po (ac)
h  100%   100%
dc input power Pi (dc)
• As we will see, certain amplifier configurations have much
higher efficiency ratings than others.
• This is primary consideration when deciding which type of
power amplifier to use for a specific application.
Efficiency Ratings
Class A Power Amplifiers

Prof.G.Aarthi,AP(SG)
 Class A amplifier
• It is similar to the CE Amp we have studied.

• It conducts for the entire signal cycle and consequently has

the lowest efficiency.

• The Q-point is in the middle of the load line (VCEQ = VCC/2).

• As the signal swings from its positive to negative, peak to

peak, the Q-point excursions stay within the linear operating
range of the device.

• If the signal is sinusoidal, the variations in the IC and VCE also

will be sinusoidal.

2
 Series Fed Class A power amplifier
• The simple fixed-bias circuit connection shown can be used to
discuss the main features of a class A series-fed amplifier.
DC Bias Operation
DC Bias Operation
• The dc bias set by VCC and RB fixes the dc base-bias current at

with the collector current then being

with the collector–emitter voltage then

DC Bias Operation
 The intersection of the dc bias value of IB with the dc load line then
determines the operating point (Q-point) for the circuit.

 The quiescent point values are those calculated using IB ,IC and VCE .

 If the dc bias collector current is set at one-half the possible signal swing
(between 0 and VCC/RC),the largest collector current swing will be possible.

 Additionally, if the quiescent collector–emitter voltage is set at one-half the

supply voltage, the largest voltage swing will be possible.
AC Operation:
 When an input ac signal is applied to the amplifier the output will vary
from its dc bias operating voltage and current.

 A small input signal, will cause the base current to vary above and below
the dc bias point, which will then cause the collector current (output) to
vary from the dc bias point set as well as the collector–emitter voltage to
vary around its dc bias value.

Amplifier input and output signal variation.

AC Operation:
• As the input signal is made larger, the output will vary further around the
established dc bias point until either the current or the voltage reaches a
limiting condition.

• Limiting condition:
Current : 0mA (low) to VCC/RC (high)
Voltage: 0 V (low) or VCC (high).

Amplifier input and output signal variation.

 Power Considerations
• The power then drawn from the supply is
Pin(dc)= VCC ICQ
The ac power delivered to the load (RC) may be expressed using

Efficiency:
MAXIMUM EFFICIENCY
• For the class A series-fed amplifier, the maximum efficiency can be
determined using the maximum voltage and current swings.

• The maximum power input can be calculated using the dc bias

current set to one-half the maximum value:
 Problem
Calculate the input power, output power, and efficiency of the
amplifier circuit in Fig.1 for an input voltage that results in a base
current of 10 mA peak

Fig.1
 Problem
Calculate the input power, output power, and efficiency of the
amplifier circuit in Fig.1 for an input voltage that results in a base
current of 10 mA peak
We can determine the Q-point to be

This bias point is marked on the transistor collector characteristic of Fig.2

The ac variation of the output signal can be obtained graphically using the dc
load line drawn on Fig.2 by connecting VCE =VCC =20 V with IC = VCC/RC
=1000 mA = 1 A, as shown.
 Problem
Calculate the input power, output power, and efficiency of the
amplifier circuit in Fig for an input voltage that results in a base
current of 10 mA peak

Fig.2
 Problem
When the input ac base current increases from its dc bias level, the collector
current rises by
Class-B Power Amplifier

Prof.G.Aarthi,AP(SG)
 Class B Power Amplifier
• Class-B amplifier provides an output signal varying over one-half of the
input signal cycle + zero phase shift.

•Obviously, the output is not a faithful reproduction of the input if only one
half-cycle is present.

•Therefore, a two-transistor configuration, is necessary to get a

sufficiently good reproduction of the input waveform.

•This amplifier is known as push-pull amplifier

 Class B Push Pull Amplifier
In class B, the transistor is
biased just off. The AC signal
turns the transistor on.

The transistor only conducts

when it is turned on by one-
half of the AC cycle.

In order to get a full AC cycle

out of a class B amplifier, we
need two transistors:

• One transistor provides the negative

half of the AC cycle
• Other transistor that provides the
positive half.
 Class-B Power Amplifier
• In an idealized class-B, the output stage
consists of a complementary pair of
transistors – an NPN and a PNP (or an
NMOS and a PMOS) – having closely
matched characteristics.

• In the figure (a), when vi = 0, both devices

are off.

• i.e. they are biased at their cut-off points.

• The bias currents are zero and vO = 0.

figure (a)
• The quiescent power dissipation in each
transistor is zero.
Basic complementary push-pull stage
• When vi > 0, QN turns on and operates as
an emitter follower, driving a current into
the load RL. vO tracks vi.

• vO = vi – vBEN and the same vBEN will reverse

bias QP, keeping it cut-off.

• For vi < 0, QP turns on and drives a current

into the load RL.

• vO = vi + vEBP and the same vEBP will reverse

bias QN, keeping it cut-off.
Complimentary-Symmetry Circuits
• Thus QN & QP are biased at zero current and conduct only

when the signal is available.

• QN pushes (sources) the current while QP pulls (sinks) the

current.

• Hence the name push-pull amplifier.

 Transfer Characteristics and the Dead-band

 There exists a range of Vi centered around zero where both transistors are cut
off and Vo is zero.

 This dead band results in the crossover distortion.

 Crossover Distortion of a Basic Class-B

 The effect of crossover distortion will be most pronounced when the

amplitude of the input signal is small.

 Crossover distortion in audio power amplifiers gives rise to unpleasant

sounds.
Class B VO vs VI
 Power Conversion Efficiency ()
• To calculate the power-con ersion efficiency, η, of the class B stage, e
neglect the crossover distortion and consider the case of an output
sinusoid of peak amplitude.
𝑉𝑜2
• The average load power will be PL =
2𝑅𝐿

• The current drawn from each supply will consist of half-sine waves of peak
𝑉
amplitude Vo is = 𝑜
𝑅𝐿
• Thus the average current drawn from each of the two power supplies will
𝑉
be = 𝑜
𝜋𝑅𝐿
• The average power drawn from each of the two power supplies will be the
same
 Power Conversion Efficiency ()
• Thus the total supply power will be

• Thus the efficiency will be given by

• The maximum efficiency is obtained when Vo is at its maximum.

• This maximum is limited by the saturation of QN and QP to VCC − VCEsat

≅VCC.

• At this value of peak output voltage, the power-conversion efficiency is

 Power Dissipation
• In class A stage, power dissipation under quiescent conditions(vO = 0) is
maximum.
• The quiescent power dissipation of the class B stage is zero.

• When an input signal is applied, the average power dissipated in the class B
stage is given by

• Substituting for PS and PL

 Power Dissipation
• From symmetry we see that half of PD is dissipated in QN and the other half
in QP.
• Since PD depends on Vo, we find the worst-case power dissipation, PDmax by
differentiating PD with respect to Vo and equating the derivative to zero
gives the value of Vo that results in maximum average power dissipation as

• Substituting this value in PD gives

• Thus
 Power Dissipation Vs Amplitude of the output
signal

• At the point of maximum power dissipation, the efficiency is 50 % .

• Increasing V0 beyond decreases the power dissipated in the class B

stage while increasing the load power.
Class-AB Power Amplifier

Prof.G.Aarthi,AP(SG)
 Class AB Power Amplifier
• Crossover distortion can be virtually eliminated by biasing the
complementary output transistors at a small nonzero current.

• The result is the class AB output stage shown in Figure.

 Class AB Power Amplifier
• A bias voltage VBB is applied between

the bases of QN and QP.

• In the circuit VBB/2 appears across QN

and QP the base emitter junctions; for

vI = 0, vO = 0;

• At that point, iN = iP = IQ = IS eVBB/2VT; -

assuming the devices are matched.

• VBB is so chosen to supply the

required quiescent current IQ.

 Class AB Power Amplifier
• When vI goes positive the voltage at the

base of QN goes up by the same value and

vO = vI + VBB/2 - vBEN;

• This positive vo causes a current iL to flow

into RL.

• This causes iN to increase to iN = iP + iL

causing vBEN to increase.

• As iN increases iP decreases in the same

proportion as IQ is constant.
 Class AB Power Amplifier
• As vBEN raises above the VBB/2, a

reduction in the bias voltage of QP

ensues, leading to a drop in vBEP and iP;

• Taking the loop equation

• vBEN + vBEP = VBB; (1)

• Applying Shockley’s equation, we get

i i i
• VT ln N+ VT ln P= 2VT ln Q;
IS IS IS
• or iNiP = IQ2  (2)

• As iNiP = IQ2 an increase in iN results in a

decrease in iP and vice versa.

 Class AB Power Amplifier
• When vO is at its positive maximum, iP is so

small that it can be ignored.

• From the circuit, we have iP = iN- iL;

• and (2) becomes iN2 - iNiL - IQ2 = 0

• From the equations above, we can see that

for positive input voltages, the load current is

supplied by QN, which acts as the output

emitter follower.

• Meanwhile, QP will be conducting a current

that decreases as vO increases; For large vO

the current in QP can be ignored altogether.

 Class AB Power Amplifier
• For negative input voltages the

opposite occurs: The load current

will be supplied by QP, which acts

as the output emitter follower,

while QN conducts a current that

gets smaller as vI becomes more

negative.
 Class AB Power Amplifier
• The class AB operation is similar to class B, the only difference being
at Q-point both QN and QP conduct a small current.

• As the signal grows positive, QN takes over and for the negative half
QP dominates.

• i.e. for vI = 0, both QN and QP conduct equally. With vI > or < 0 the
scene changes.

• The conversion  of a class AB is slightly less than a class B.

• A small price to reduce distortion!

• The transistors of class AB will have higher capacity.

 Class AB Power Amplifier
• The power relationships in the class AB stage are almost identical to

those derived for the class B circuit

• The only difference is that under quiescent conditions the

class AB circuit dissipates a power of VCCIQ per transistor.

• Since IQ is usually much smaller than the peak load current, the

quiescent power dissipation is usually small.

Transfer characteristic of the class AB stage
Output Resistance
• If we assume that the source supplying vI is ideal,
then the output resistance of the class AB
stage can be determined from the circuit as

• where reN and reP are the small-signal emitter

resistances of QN and QP, respectively.

• At a given input voltage, the currents iN and iP can

be determined, and reN and reP are given by
Output Resistance
• Thus

• Since as iN increases, iP decreases, and vice versa,

the output resistance remains approximately
constant in the region around vI = 0.

• This, in effect, is the reason for the virtual absence

of crossover distortion.

• At larger load currents, either iN or iP will be

significant, and Rout decreases as the load current
increases.
Problem
 Biasing using Diodes

A class AB output stage utilizing diodes for biasing. If the junction area of the output
devices, QN and QP, is n times that of the biasing devices D1 and D2, and a quiescent
current IQ = nIBIAS flows in the output devices.
 Biasing using Diodes
• Figure shows class AB circuit with bias voltage VBB.
• Constant current IBIAS is passed through pair of diodes D1 and D2.
• In circuits that supply large amounts of power, the output transistors are
large-geometry devices.
• Biasing diodes, however, need not be large.
• Thus the quiescent current IQ established in QN and QP will be IQ = nIBIAS,
• where n is the ratio of the emitter–junction area of the output devices to
the junction area of the biasing diodes.
Biasing using Diodes
MOS Differential Amplifier

Prof.G.Aarthi,AP(SG)
 Differential Amplifiers
• Differential amplifier, also called a diff-amp, is the input stage
to virtually all op-amps.

• It is probably the most widely used amplifier building block in

analog integrated circuits.

• The performance of the differential pair depends critically on

the matching between the two sides of the circuit.

• Integrated-circuit fabrication is capable of providing matched

devices whose parameters track over wide ranges of changes
in environmental condit i o n s .
 Why differential amplifier?
• Differential circuits are much less sensitive to noise and
interference than single-ended circuits.

• The differential configurat i on enables to bias the amplifier

and to couple amplifier stages together without the need for
bypass and coupling capacitors.
Ideally, the output signal is proportional to only the difference
between the two input signals

The ideal output voltage can be written as

vo = Avo v − v
• In the ideal case, if v1 = v2, the output voltage is
zero. We only obtain a nonzero output voltage if v1
and v2 are not equal

• The differential-mode input voltage as

vd = v 1 − v 2
• the common-mode input voltage as
vcm = (v1 + v2)/2

• These equations show that if v1 = v2, the

differential-mode input signal is zero and the
common-mode input signal is vcm = v1 = v2
• If v1 = +10 μV, v2 = −10 μV, ---> vd = 20 μV, vcm = 0.

• If v1 = 110 μV , v2 = 90 μV, --> vd = 20 μV,

vcm = 100.

• One goal of the design of differential amplifiers is to

minimize the effect of the common-mode input
signal
The MOS Differential Pair
 The MOS Differential Pair
• The basic MOS differential-pair
configuration consists of two matched
transistors, Q1 and Q2, whose sources
are joined together and biased by a
constant-current source I.

• we assume that the current source is

ideal and that it has infinite output
resistance.

• Whatever type of load is used, it is

essential that the MOSFETs not enter
the triode region of operation.
Common-Mode Input Voltage
 Operation with a Common-Mode Input Voltage
• In common mode the two terminals are
connected to VCM the common-mode
voltage.

• vG1 = vG2 = VCM ;

• As Q1 and Q2 are matched the biasing

current I will divide equally between the
transistors.

• Thus ID1 = ID2 = I/₂

• The voltage at the sources will be

vS = vCM - VGS
• VGS is the gate – source voltage due to the
current I/₂.
• Neglecting the channel length modulation,
VGS and I/2 are related as

• I/₂ = ⅟₂ kn’(W/L)(VGS - Vt)2 = ⅟₂ kn’(W/L)V2OV;

• or VOV = [I/kn’(W/L)]

• The voltage at each drain will be vD1 = vD2 =

VDD – I/₂RD;

• Hence the difference in voltage at the drains

will be zero.

• Vary the VCM. As long as Q1 and Q2 are in

saturation, I will divide equally between
them and the voltages at the drains will not
change.

• The output is nil.

• We conclude the Differential Amplifier
does not respond to a common mode
signal.
• Every differential amplifier has a range
for VCM over which it maintains that
property.
• VCMmax = Vt+ VDD - I/₂RD;
• VCMmin = -VSS + VCS + Vt + VOV;
• VCS is the minimum voltage across the
current source to keep the current source
in operation.
With a Differential Input Voltage
• In the figure the gate of Q2 is grounded, i.e.
vG2 = 0 and a signal vid is applied at the gate
of Q1.
• vid = vGS1 - vGS2 .
• If vid is +ve, vGS1 > vGS2 and the current
iD1 > iD2 and the differential output voltage
vD2 – vD1 will be +ve.
• If vid is -ve, the vice versa will be true.
• This configuration responds to a
differential input signal by giving a
differential output signal between the
drains.
• By changing vid we could arrive at a voltage
that will steer all the bias current I into Q1.

• At that point vGS1 will be such that iD1 = I.

• I = ⅟₂ kn’(W/L)(VGS1 - Vt)2 or

• VGS1 = Vt + [2I/kn’(W/L)]

• VGS1 = Vt + 2VOV;

• VOV is the overdrive voltage for a current of I/₂.

• For the full current I to be steered into Q1,

• vidmax = VGS1+Vs

• vidmax = Vt + 2VOV – Vt = 2VOV ;

• If vid is increased to 2VOV , the current iD1 remains
equal to I and vGS1 still remains = Vt + 2VOV and vs
rises correspondingly, keeping Q2 off.

• Similarly when vid = -2VOV , Q1 turns off and Q2

conducts all of I.

• Thus the current I can be steered between Q1 and

Q2 by varying vid in the range of -2VOV  vid 
2VOV ;
Large Signal Operation

Prof.G.Aarthi,AP(SG)
Large Signal Operation
I/₂ = ⅟₂ kn’(W/L)(VGS - Vt)2 = ⅟₂ kn’(W/L)V2OV;

or VOV = [I/kn’(W/L)]
Large Signal Analysis
Small Signal Operation

Prof.G.Aarthi,AP(SG)
Small Signal Operation
The MOS differential amplifier has input voltages

Here, VCM denotes a common-mode dc voltage within the input common-mode

range of the differential amplifier.

It is needed in order to set the dc voltage of the MOSFET gates.

Typically VCM is at the middle value of the power supply.

Thus, for our case, where two complementary supplies are utilized, VCM is
typically 0 V.

The differential input signal v id is applied in a complementary (or balanced)

manner; that is,
v G1 is increased by v id /2 and v G2 is decreased by v id /2 .
Small Signal Operation
Common mode Gain
 Common mode Rejection Ratio
A measure of the effectiveness of the differential amplifier in amplifying differential-
mode signals and rejecting common-mode interference is the ratio of the magnitude
of its differential gain to the magnitude of its common-mode gain . This ratio is
termed common-mode rejection ratio (CMRR).
Effect of RD Mismatch
Effect of RD Mismatch
Frequency Response of MOS
Differential Pair
Prof.G.Aarthi,AP(SG)
 Frequency Response of MOS
Differential Pair

The frequency response of the differential amplifier

describes the variation of differential mode gain,
common mode gain and CMRR with respect to
frequency.
Differential Mode Operation
Differential Mode Operation
Differential Mode Operation
Differential Mode Operation
Differential Mode Operation
Differential Mode Frequency Response
Common Mode Operation
Common Mode Half Circuit
Common Mode Half Circuit
Common Mode Half Circuit
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